{{short description|Romance language}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Other uses|Portugues (disambiguation){{!}}Portugues}} {{Use American English|date=May 2020}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}} {{Infobox language | name = Portuguese | nativename = {{lang|pt|português}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|pt|puɾtuˈɡeʃ||LL-Q5146 (por)-Gaygarin-português.wav}}<br/>({{small|[[European Portuguese]] {{abbr|pron.|pronunciation}}}})<br/>{{IPA|pt|poʁtuˈɡe(j)s||LL-Q5146 (por)-MedK1-português.wav|}}<br/>({{small|[[Brazilian Portuguese]] {{abbr|pron.|pronunciation}}}}) | states = [[Portugal]], [[Brazil]], [[Portuguese-speaking African countries|Lusophone Africa]], other locations in the [[Portuguese-speaking world]] | speakers = [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|249.544530|3}} million | date = 2012–2022 | ref = <ref name="ethnologue">{{Ethnologue28|por}}</ref> | speakers2 = [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|17.085880|2}} million (2022)<ref name="ethnologue"/><br/>Total: {{sigfig|266.630410|3}} million (2012–2022)<ref name="ethnologue"/> | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]] | fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]] | fam4 = [[Latin]] | fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]] | fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] | fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]] | fam8 = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo]]-[[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian]] | fam9 = [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] | fam10 = [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] | fam11 = [[Galician–Portuguese]] | ancestor = [[Old Latin]] | ancestor2 = [[Vulgar Latin]] | ancestor3 = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]] | ancestor4 = [[Galician–Portuguese]] | script = {{plainlist| *[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Portuguese alphabet]]) *[[Portuguese Braille]]}} | nation = {{ubl|[[Angola]]|[[Brazil]]|[[Cape Verde]]|[[Timor-Leste]]|[[Equatorial Guinea]]|[[Guinea-Bissau]]|[[Macau]] ([[China]])<br>[[Mozambique]]|[[Portugal]]|[[São Tomé and Príncipe]]|[[List of international organisations which have Portuguese as an official language|Numerous international organizations]]}} | agency = {{plainlist| *'''Portugal''':<br />[[Lisbon Academy of Sciences]] <small>([[Lisbon Academy of Sciences, Class of Letters|Lisbon Academy Class of Letters]])</small> *'''Brazil''':<br />[[Brazilian Academy of Letters]] *'''Angola ''':<br />[[Angolan Academy of Letters]]}} | iso1 = pt | iso2 = por | iso3 = por | lingua = 51-AAA-a | map = Detailed SVG map of the Lusophone world.svg | mapcaption = {{legend|#045A8D|Countries or regions where Portuguese is the native language of the majority}} {{legend|#439DD4|Countries and territories where Portuguese is an official or administrative language but not a majority native language}} {{legend|#9BBAE1|Countries and territories where Portuguese is a significant minority language}} | notice = IPA | sign = [[Manually coded language|Manually coded]] Portuguese | glotto = port1283 | glottorefname = Portuguese }} '''Portuguese''' ({{langx|pt|português|label=[[endonym]]}}) is a [[Western Romance language]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], written in the [[Latin alphabet|Latin script]]. With approximately 267 million native speakers, it is the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|fifth-most spoken native language in the world]], and the most widely spoken language in the Southern Hemisphere. It is the official language of nine countries — [[Portugal]], [[Brazil]], [[Angola]], [[Mozambique]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], and [[Timor-Leste]] — and is co-official with other languages in [[Macau]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]].
Portuguese-speaking people or nations are known as [[Lusophone]] ({{lang|pt|lusófono}}). As a result of expansion during colonial times, a cultural presence of Portuguese speakers is also found around the world. Portuguese is part of the [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance group]], which evolved from several dialects of [[Vulgar Latin]] in the medieval [[Kingdom of Galicia]] and the [[County of Portugal]], and has retained some [[Gallaecian language|Celtic]] phonology.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sites.duke.edu/judeolusitanica/2013/07/21/the-origin-and-formation-of-the-portuguese-language/ |title=The Origin and Formation of The Portuguese Language |website=Judeo-Lusitanica |publisher=Duke University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510110052/https://sites.duke.edu/judeolusitanica/2013/07/21/the-origin-and-formation-of-the-portuguese-language/ |archive-date=10 May 2017 |access-date=15 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.filologia.org.br/vcnlf/anais%20v/civ8_03.htm |title=Breves considerações sobre o legado das línguas célticas |first=João |last=Bittencourt de Oliveira |website=filologia.org.br |access-date=15 October 2016 |archive-date=21 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621224925/https://www.filologia.org.br/vcnlf/anais%20v/civ8_03.htm/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Portuguese language structure reflects both its Latin roots and centuries of outside influences. These are seen in [[Portuguese phonology|phonology]], [[Portuguese orthography|orthography]], [[Portuguese grammar|grammar]], and [[Portuguese vocabulary|vocabulary]]. Phonologically, Portuguese has a rich system of [[nasal vowels]], complex consonant variations, and different types of [[guttural R]] – as well as other sounds in its European and Brazilian varieties. Its spelling, based similarly to English on the [[Latin alphabet]], is largely [[phonemic spelling|phonemic]] but is influenced by [[etymology]] and tradition. [[Portuguese spelling reform of 1990|Recent spelling reforms]] have attempted to create a unified spelling for the Portuguese language across [[List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language|all countries that use it]]. Portuguese grammar retains many [[Latin verbs|Latin verb forms]], and possesses several unique features (such as the [[Portuguese conjugation|future subjunctive]] and the [[Portuguese grammar#Infinitive form|personal infinitive]]). Its vocabulary is derived largely from Latin, but also includes {{ill|List of loanwords in Portuguese|pt|Empréstimo (linguística)#Exemplos de empréstimos|lt=numerous loanwords|v=sup}} from Celtic, Germanic, Arabic, African, Amerindian, and Asian languages, resulting from historical contact based on wars, trade, and [[Portuguese colonization|colonization]].
There is significant [[Variation (linguistics)|variation]] in the dialects of Portuguese worldwide, with two primary [[Standard language|standardized varieties]]: [[European Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]], each one having numerous [[regional accent]]s and [[subdialect]]s. African and Asian varieties generally follow the European written standard, though these will often display different [[phonological]], [[lexical item|lexical]], and sometimes even [[syntax|syntactic features]]. While there is broad [[mutual intelligibility]] among the assorted lusophone population, variation may be observed in speech patterns, vocabulary, or grammar.
== History == {{Main|History of the Portuguese language}} === Origins and Roman period === Prior to [[Roman people|Roman]] expansion, the territory corresponding to modern [[Portugal]] was inhabited by a heterogeneous set of peoples, including the [[Gallaeci]], [[Lusitanians]], [[Celts]], [[Iberians]], [[Phoenicians]], [[Greeks]], and [[Ligurians]].{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} These groups spoke a variety of languages that were gradually supplanted following Roman conquest, but not without leaving a substratum of lexical and morphological influence.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=66}} A significant number of Portuguese words — often associated with the natural environment, agriculture, and material culture — are attributed to these pre-Roman sources.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}}
The [[Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Roman presence in the Iberian Peninsula]] began in 218 BC during the [[Second Punic War]], initially as part of military operations against [[Carthage]].{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=103}} Roman control expanded progressively, with the defeat of Carthaginian forces completed by 209 BC, although full territorial consolidation was not achieved until 19 BC under the rule of [[Augustus]], following campaigns in the northern regions of [[Asturias]] and [[Cantabria]]. During this period, the territory was administratively organized into provinces such as [[Hispania Citerior]] and [[Hispania Ulterior]], later restructured into [[Tarraconensis]], [[Baetica]], and [[Lusitania]].{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}}{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=104}} By the late [[Roman Empire]], the northwestern region was designated as the province of [[Gallaecia]] (approximately modern-day [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]).{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}}
[[Latin]] served as the administrative and ecclesiastical language of the Roman Empire, and proficiency in it was associated with access to public office and social advancement.{{sfn|Neto|1986|p=80}} The degree of [[Romanization]] varied regionally: southern areas, particularly Baetica, underwent rapid cultural assimilation and early adoption of Latin, whereas the northern regions, including Gallaecia, remained comparatively isolated and retained indigenous practices for a longer period.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} Latin spread from urban centers outward through cities, educational institutions and administrative networks, where proficiency in Latin was closely tied to the acquisition of Roman citizenship;{{sfn|Neto|1986|p=80}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=11}} the variety spoken by soldiers, settlers and officials was known as [[Vulgar Latin]] ({{lang|la|sermo vulgaris}}), as distinct from [[Classical Latin]], which was used in literary texts.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=11}}
In the northwestern periphery of the empire, the Vulgar Latin spoken in Gallaecia developed distinctive features, attributed in part to reduced contact with the imperial center.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=64}} The most diagnostic phonetic change was the loss of intervocalic ''l'' and ''n'', as in {{lang|la|[[wikt:luna#Latin|luna]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:lua#Portuguese|lua]]}} ({{gloss|moon}}), {{lang|la|[[wikt:dolor#Latin|dolor]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:dor#Portuguese|dor]]}} ({{gloss|pain}}), and {{lang|la|[[wikt:moneta#Latin|moneta]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:moeda#Portuguese|moeda]]}} ({{gloss|coin}}) — a development not attested in neighbouring varieties such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=47–51}} [[Gemination|Geminate consonants]] were also simplified, as in {{lang|la|[[wikt:caballu#Latin|caballu]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:cavalo#Portuguese|cavalo]]}} ({{gloss|horse}}) and {{lang|la|[[wikt:annu#Latin|annu]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:ano#Portuguese|ano]]}} ({{gloss|year}}),{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=56–57}} and initial [[consonant cluster]]s ''cl-'', ''fl-'', and ''pl-'' evolved into [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatal sounds]], as in {{lang|la|[[wikt:flamma#Latin|flamma]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:chama#Portuguese|chama]]}} ({{gloss|flame}}), {{lang|la|[[wikt:pluvia#Latin|pluvia]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:chuva#Portuguese|chuva]]}} ({{gloss|rain}}), and {{lang|la|[[wikt:plumbum#Latin|plumbum]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:chumbo#Portuguese|chumbo]]}} ({{gloss|lead}}).{{sfn|Cunha|2016|p=39}}
In 409, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by several Germanic and Iranian peoples, including the [[Vandals]], [[Suebi]], and [[Alans]]. The [[Visigoths]] of the [[Visigothic Kingdom]], already established in [[Aquitaine]] and closely connected to Roman institutions, extended their rule over most of the peninsula during the 5th and 6th centuries. Their integration with the Hispano-Roman population was facilitated by measures such as the legalization of intermarriage under [[Leovigild]], the conversion of [[Reccared I]] to Catholic Christianity in 586, and the promulgation of a unified legal code in 654 under [[Recceswinth]]. These developments contributed to the consolidation of a Romano-Visigothic society in which the vernacular remained a form of Hispano-Romance derived from Vulgar Latin. The Visigothic linguistic contribution to Portuguese was limited, consisting of fewer than forty commonly cited lexical items of [[Gothic language|Gothic]] origin, many shared with other Romance languages. Examples include {{lang|pt|[[wikt:guerra#Portuguese|guerra]]}} ({{gloss|war}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:espora#Portuguese|espora]]}} ({{gloss|spur}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:roupa#Portuguese|roupa]]}} ({{gloss|clothing}}), and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:ganso#Portuguese|ganso]]}} ({{gloss|goose}}).{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=16}}
=== Arab conquest and old Galician–Portuguese ===
[[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif|thumb|upright=1.65|right|Map showing the linguistic evolution of the Iberian Peninsula between 1000 and 2000. The [[Galician–Portuguese|Galician–Portuguese language]] is shown in blue.]]
In 711, Muslim forces crossed the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and defeated the Visigothic king [[Roderic]], leading to the [[Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Islamic rule of the Iberian Peninsula]].{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|pp=106–107}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=16}} The Muslim authorities generally allowed the continued use of local Romance varieties, the preservation of Hispano-Roman customs. In the Muslim-controlled south, Christians living under [[Moorish]] rule, known as [[Mozarabs]], maintained their Latin-derived speech, referred to as [[Andalusi Romance]].{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=77–78}} In the northern Christian kingdoms, different Romance varieties gradually emerged, including [[Galician–Portuguese]] in the region of Gallaecia, [[Asturleonese]] in the [[Kingdom of León]], [[Old Spanish|Spanish]] in [[County of Castile|Castile]], [[Navarro-Aragonese]] in [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]] in [[County of Barcelona|Catalonia]].{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=10}}
The northwestern region, corresponding to Gallaecia, also remained outside sustained Islamic rule.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|pp=106–107}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=18}} As a result, its local Romance variety Galician–Portuguese developed with greater continuity from Latin.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=17}}{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=10}} The variety, which was spoken north and south of the [[Minho River]], constituted a unified linguistic system from the 9th to the 14th century.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=18}}{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=83}} Although Latin remained the language of administration and written literature for centuries, the emerging Romance varieties continued to develop in speech, and extensive texts in the vernacular only began to appear later.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=47}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=12}} When the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] became independent in 1143,{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=194}} its inhabitants continued to use this shared variety, which remained the common vernacular of the region.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=67}}
Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Galician–Portuguese served as [[Galician-Portuguese lyric|the literary language of lyric poetry]] across the Iberian Peninsula, drawing on the [[troubadour]] tradition of southern France.{{sfn|Bessa|Feitosa|da Cunha|Brito|2025|p=5}} The poetry of the period is preserved primarily in three major songbooks. The ''[[Cancioneiro da Ajuda]]'', dated to the late 13th century, is the oldest and contains predominantly {{lang|pt|[[cantigas de amor]]}}. The ''[[Cancioneiro da Vaticana]]'' and the ''[[Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional]]'' are 15th-century copies of earlier manuscripts containing secular and satirical compositions.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=120}} The ''[[Cantiga da Ribeirinha]]'' ({{c.}} 1189 or 1198), composed by [[Paio Soares de Taveirós]] and preserved in the ''Cancioneiro da Ajuda'', is regarded as one of the earliest known pieces of medieval Galician–Portuguese lyric poetry.{{sfn|Brakel|1981|pp=371–372}}{{sfn|Júnior|2007|p=27}}
[[File:Testamento de Afonso II de Portugal.jpg|thumb|The Will of Afonso II preserved at the [[Torre do Tombo National Archive]]s]]
The identification of the oldest document written in Old Portuguese is a matter of scholarly debate. {{ill|Notícia de Fiadores|pt|Notícia de Fiadores}} (1175) has been identified by philologist {{ill|Ana Maria Martins|pt|Ana Maria Martins}} as the earliest surviving document written in Portuguese. However, she explicitly states that this chronology is not consensual and is the one she personally finds most accurate;{{sfn|Martins|2007|pp=161–162}} other scholars argue that the presence of Romance elements in the text is limited and insufficient to classify it as a fully Galician-Portuguese document. The possibly earlier {{ill|Pacto dos irmãos Pais|pt|Pacto dos irmãos Pais}} has also been cited in this context.{{sfn|Martins|2007|pp=162–163}} By contrast, the [[Will of Afonso II of Portugal]] (1214) is widely regarded as one of the earliest dated documents written entirely in Portuguese.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=120}}{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=66}} It consists of three copies of the will of [[Afonso II]] (1211–1223), the third [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]], drawn up during a period of ill health.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=130}}
=== Divergence of Galician and Portuguese ===
The [[Galician language|Galician]] and Portuguese language began to diverge from their common Galician–Portuguese base from around the 11th century. Early signs of separation are attested in Galician prose works, of which the ''{{ill|Crónica Troiana|gl|Crónica troiana}}'' is among the most frequently cited examples.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=34}} By around 1250, Portuguese texts began to adopt [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] such as ''lh'' and ''nh'', replacing the Latin forms ''ll'' and ''nn''.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=194}}{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=22}} Between 1350 and 1450, Galicia experienced a second period of lyric production in which Portuguese poets did not participate.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=34}}
In the late 13th century, King [[Denis of Portugal]] issued a decree establishing Portuguese as the mandatory language of royal administration, replacing Latin in the chancery.{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} Documents including laws, forals, royal letters and court records were required to be written in Portuguese. Historian Cleusa Teixeira de Sousa has interpreted this measure as a strategy to strengthen the authority of the Portuguese crown.{{sfn|de Sousa|2022|p=6–9}} Following the rise of the [[House of Aviz]] after the [[Battle of Aljubarrota]] in 1385, the political center of Portugal shifted southward, to Lisbon and [[Coimbra]]. Northern Portugal subsequently came to be regarded as a peripheral region, while [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] was increasingly treated as a foreign territory.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=108–109}}
According to Rodolfo Ilari and Renato Basso, around 1420 marks the transition from Old Portuguese to Middle Portuguese, a periodization they attribute to scholars including [[Luís Lindley Cintra]] and {{ill|Serafim da Silva Neto|pt|Serafim da Silva Neto}}.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=114}} Throughout much of the Middle Ages, the Portuguese language was commonly referred to as {{lang|pt|romance}} {{lang|pt|romanço}} or {{lang|pt|linguagem}};{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} by the 15th century, the designation "Portuguese language" became more widespread. The earliest known use of the term "Portuguese" ({{lang|pt|português}}) to designate the language dates to around 1430, appearing in a dedicatory letter written by [[Peter, Duke of Coimbra]] to his brother, [[King Duarte]], accompanying his translation of [[Cicero]]'s ''[[De Officiis]]'', in which he writes explicitly: "{{lang|pt|eu lia em português}}" ({{gloss|I was reading in Portuguese}}).{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=34}} The printing press was introduced to Portugal in the late 15th century; ''{{ill|Sacramental (book)|lt=Sacramental|pt|Sacramental (obra)}}'', a translation from Spanish into Portuguese, is among the earliest known printed works in the language,{{sfn|Machado|2007|p=97}} and contributed to the standardization of Portuguese orthography.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=34}}
During the 16th and 17th centuries, Portuguese underwent a process of Latinate renewal, reincorporating Latin and [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] vocabulary. Much of this influence entered the language through Spanish.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=139}} Some words that had lost intervocalic ''l'' and ''n'' through regular sound change were reintroduced in Latinate or Castilian forms, such as {{lang|pt|maíça}} > {{lang|pt|[[wikt:malícia#Portuguese|malícia]]}} ({{gloss|malice}}), {{lang|pt|saíva}} > {{lang|pt|[[wikt:saliva#Portuguese|saliva]]}} ({{gloss|saliva}}) and {{lang|pt|paadar}} > {{lang|pt|[[wikt:paladar#Portuguese|paladar]]}} ({{gloss|taste}}).{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=141}} In orthography, this period saw the adoption of pseudo-etymological spellings imitating Latin and Greek forms,{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=193}} such as {{lang|pt|pharmacia}}, {{lang|pt|theatro}}, and {{lang|pt|rheumatismo}}.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=567}}
The period also produced the first grammars of Portuguese. [[Fernão de Oliveira]] published the first in 1536, advocating an orthography based on pronunciation. He is considered one of the first grammaticians of the Portuguese language.{{sfn|Lima|Ribeiro|Souza|Reis|2025|pp=1–6}} [[João de Barros]] followed in 1540 with a grammar informed by humanist principles, at times justifying spellings on the basis of Latin etymologies. The influence of [[Renaissance humanism]] promoted an etymological orthography that brought written Portuguese closer to Latin.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=57}} The publication of [[Luís de Camões]]'s ''[[Os Lusíadas]]'' in 1572 is generally regarded by linguists as the start of Modern Portuguese.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=154}} He is regarded as Portugal's [[national poet]].{{sfn|Jackson|2000|p=48}} [[Duarte Nunes de Leão]] extended the grammatical tradition with his ''Orthographia'' (1576) and ''Origem da Língua Portuguesa'' (1606), the latter among the earliest works to document dialectal variation in Portuguese.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=33}}
=== Overseas expansion and the development of Portuguese in Brazil ===
Portuguese expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula began in the 15th century, following the [[conquest of Ceuta]] in 1415.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=137}} Portuguese contact with sub-Saharan Africa proceeded in stages along the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts. Settlement and exploration extended to [[Madeira]] and the [[Azores]] (1425–1439), followed by [[Cape Verde]] (1444), [[Guinea]] (1446), [[Angola]] (1483), and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (1485). The Portuguese navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] reached [[Mozambique]] in 1498,{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} though the consolidation of Portuguese there was gradual and shaped by prolonged contact with [[Bantu language]]s.{{sfn|Machungo|2022|p=100}} Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Portuguese functioned as a [[lingua franca]] in major ports across India and Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=76}} Portuguese established a network of commercial and administrative bases at [[Goa]] (1510), [[Malacca]] (1511), [[Kingdom of Hormuz|Hormuz]] (1515), [[Macau]] (1557), and [[Timor]].{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}}
Following the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], the territory now known as [[Brazil]] was claimed for the [[Portuguese Empire]] on 22 April 1500 with [[Discovery of Brazil|the arrival of the Portuguese fleet]] commanded by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]].{{sfn|Boxer|1973|p=98}} At the time of Portuguese arrival, the region was [[Pre-Cabraline history of Brazil|inhabited by Indigenous peoples]] who spoke more than 1,175 languages, with the [[Tupi–Guarani languages]] predominating along the coast. Portuguese therefore did not become the majority language immediately.{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=54}} From 1549, Jesuit missionaries systematized several indigenous languages into grammars, among them [[Joseph of Anchieta]]'s [[Art of Grammar of the Most Used Language on the Coast of Brazil|grammar of Old Tupi]] (1595).{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=55}} The [[Atlantic slave trade to Brazil|transatlantic slave trade]] brought speakers of an estimated 200 to 300 African languages to Brazil, primarily from West African and Bantu-speaking regions.{{sfn|Petter|2007|p=70}} Enslaved Africans were prohibited from using their native languages, and adopted Portuguese under conditions of irregular transmission.{{sfn|Lobo|2022|pp=71–72}}
The discovery of gold in [[Minas Gerais]] in the 1690s prompted large-scale internal migration and a wave of immigration from Portugal, strengthening the presence of Portuguese in the centre-south of the colony.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=556}} In 1757, the [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Marquis of Pombal]] issued the ''{{ill|Diretório dos Índios|pt|Diretório dos Índios}}'', prohibiting use of the widely used indigenous lingua francas and imposing Portuguese as the sole official language of administration and education.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|pp=555–556}} The [[Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil|transfer of the Portuguese royal court]] to [[Rio de Janeiro]] in 1808 reinforced the status of European Portuguese in the capital and introduced the printing press to Brazil.{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=74}} Following [[Independence of Brazil|independence in 1822]], a desire for a "Brazilian language" arose among intellectuals.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=33}} [[Romanticism|Romantic]] writers such as [[José de Alencar]] advocated incorporating indigenous and popular terms into written Brazilian Portuguese, while purist grammarians insisted on adherence to European norms.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=558}} From the mid-19th century onward, mass immigration of Italians, Germans, and Japanese, among others, introduced further lexical and phonetic influences,{{sfn|Lipski|2022|pp=309–310}} concentrated primarily in the [[South Region, Brazil|South]] and [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast regions]].{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=76}}
Portuguese sovereign presence in Asia has since been largely withdrawn: the territories of [[Goa]], [[Daman district, India|Daman]], and [[Diu district|Diu]] were incorporated into the [[Government of India|Indian Union]] in 1961, [[East Timor]] was [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|annexed by Indonesia in 1975]], gaining independence in 2002, and [[Macau]] was [[Handover of Macau|transferred to Chinese administration]] in 1999.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=76}} In African countries where Portuguese is an official language, it also serves as a lingua franca among speakers of diverse native languages,{{sfn|Machungo|2022|p=100}} particularly those belonging to the Bantu language family.{{sfn|Ponso|2017|p=123}} Local varieties of Portuguese in Africa developed under sustained contact with indigenous languages, contributing to processes of lexical, phonological, and syntactic variation.{{sfn|Machungo|2022|p=100}} On 17 July 1996, the Portuguese-speaking countries established the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] (CPLP) to promote political, cultural, and linguistic cooperation among Lusophone states.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=571}}
== Geographic distribution == {{Main|List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language|Geographical distribution of Portuguese speakers}} [[File:Portuguese Language Map - Darker Blue - Mother Language of More than 50%.png|thumb|Portuguese Language Map – World Geographical Distribution {{legend|#002375|Native/Mother language of the majority of the population – > 50%}} {{legend|#080891|Official and administrative language, but minority native language – < 50%}} {{legend|#02ADFD|Cultural or secondary language - not official but spoken as a secondary native language - uruguayan portuguese - bayano, fronteiriço or riverense}} {{legend|#CCF4FA|Cultural or secondary language - not official but spoken as a minority native or second language}} {{legend|#17E1DE|Galician is an official language – seen by some organizations as the same language as Portuguese}} ]] [[File:Portuguese - Native Language Gradient 2.svg|thumb|Portuguese – Native Language Gradient {{legend|#24334b|Native speakers: 90–100%}} {{legend|#000099|Native speakers: 40–70%}} {{legend|#1ab2ff|Native speakers: 10–20%}} {{legend|#99ceff|Native speakers: 1–5%}} {{legend|#e6f3ff|Native speakers: Less Than 1%}} ]] [[File:Multilingual Emergency Assembly Area Sign in Oizumi.JPG|thumb|Sign in Japanese, Portuguese, and English in [[Oizumi]], Japan, which has a large [[Lusophone]] community due to the return immigration of [[Japanese Brazilians]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7nlxybOVae8C&q=oizumi+brazilians&pg=PT150 |title=Migrants and Identity in Japan and Brazil: The Nikkeijin |isbn=978-1-135-78765-3 |last1=Carvalho |first1=Daniela de |date=1 February 2013|publisher=Routledge }}</ref>]]
Portuguese is spoken by approximately 200 million people in South America, 30 million in Africa, 15 million in Europe, 5 million in North America and 0.33 million in Asia and Oceania. It is the native language of the vast majority of the people in Portugal,<ref name="Special Eurobarometer 243">{{cite web |year=2006 |title=Special Eurobarometer 243 "Europeans and their Languages" |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221061227/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2007 |access-date=11 May 2011 |publisher=European Commission |page=6}}</ref> Brazil<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm |title=Portuguese language in Brazil |publisher=Country Studies US |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=29 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629083546/http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and São Tomé and Príncipe (95%).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hagemeijer |first=Tjerk |year=2009 |title=As Línguas de S. Tomé e Príncipe |url=https://www.um.edu.mo/fah/ciela/old_ciela/rcblpe/doc/As%20Linguas%20de%20S%20Tome%20e%20Principe.pdf |url-status=deviated |journal=Revista de Crioulos de Base Lexical Portuguesa e Espanhola |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224144743/https://www.um.edu.mo/fah/ciela/old_ciela/rcblpe/doc/As%20Linguas%20de%20S%20Tome%20e%20Principe.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2020 |access-date=17 November 2019}}</ref> Around 45% of the population of urban Angola speaks Portuguese natively,<ref name="censoAO">{{cite web|access-date=2025-11-24 |date=2025-11-20 |title=Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da População e Habitação – 2024 |url=https://www.ine.gov.ao/Arquivos/arquivosCarregados//Carregados/Publicacao_638992698392586291.pdf}}<!-- auto-translated from Portuguese by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> with approximately 85% fluent; these rates are lower in the countryside.<ref>Medeiros, Adelardo. ''[[Portuguese in Africa]]'' – Angola</ref> Just over 50% (and rapidly increasing) of the population of [[Mozambique]] are native speakers of Portuguese, and 70% are fluent, according to the 2007 census.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.d.php|title=Portuguese in Africa – Mozambique|last=A. D. Medeiros|first=Adelardo|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=28 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050428022423/http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.d.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.c.php|title=Portuguese in Africa – Guinea-Bissau|last=A. D. Medeiros|first=Adelardo|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003558/http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.c.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Almost 50% of the East Timorese are fluent in Portuguese. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, and the monolingual population speaks the Portuguese-based [[Cape Verdean Creole]]. Portuguese is mentioned in the [[Constitution of South Africa]] as one of the languages spoken by communities within the country for which the [[Pan South African Language Board]] was charged with promoting and ensuring respect.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#6|title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996, Chapter 1: Founding Provisions|website=www.gov.za|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=18 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518042037/https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#6|url-status=live}}</ref>
There are also significant Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities in many territories including [[Andorra]] (17.1%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://static1.ara.cat/ara/public/content/file/original/2019/1216/13/principals-dades-de-l-estudi-sobre-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-d0807a0.pdf |title=Coneixements i usos lingüístics de la població d'Andorra: Situació actual i evolució 1995–2018 |date=2019 |language=Portuguese |publisher=Government of Andorra |access-date=20 July 2022 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322022207/https://static1.ara.cat/ara/public/content/file/original/2019/1216/13/principals-dades-de-l-estudi-sobre-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-d0807a0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bermuda]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Bermuda |title=Bermuda |publisher=World InfoZone |access-date=21 April 2010 |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507021514/https://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Bermuda |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Canada]] (400,275 people in the 2006 census),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm |title=Population by mother tongue, by province and territory (2006 Census) |publisher=Statistics Canada |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313161228/https://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm |archive-date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> [[France]] (1,625,000 people),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://languageknowledge.eu/languages/portuguese |title=Portuguese in Europe · Portuguese-speaking countries & Portuguese language knowledge in Europe |publisher=Languageknowledge.eu |access-date=2022-03-19 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326201622/https://languageknowledge.eu/languages/portuguese |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Japan]] (400,000 people),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.correiodoestado.com.br/noticias/japao-imigrantes-brasileiros-popularizam-lingua-portuguesa_43355/ |title=Japão: imigrantes brasileiros popularizam língua portuguesa |language=pt |year=2008 |access-date=13 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706152346/http://www.correiodoestado.com.br/noticias/japao-imigrantes-brasileiros-popularizam-lingua-portuguesa_43355/ |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Jersey]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jersey/ |title=4.6% according to the 2001 census, see |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113013826/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jersey |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Luxembourg]] (about 25% of the population as of 2021), [[Namibia]] (about 4–5% of the population, mainly refugees from Angola in the north of the country),<ref name="www.namibian.com.na">{{cite web|url=http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cache=1|title=The Namibian|author=Carin Pretorius – Developed CEIT Development CC|access-date=16 March 2012|archive-date=22 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082932/http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cache=1|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Paraguay]] (10.7% or 636,000 people),<ref>[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY Paraguay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231185530/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY |date=31 December 2022 }} in {{e25}}</ref> [[Switzerland]] (550,000 in 2019, learning + mother tongue),<ref>{{cite report |year=2019 |title=Lingue della Svizzera |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/it/home/statistiche/popolazione/rilevazioni/esrk.assetdetail.15324911.html |work=Pratiche linguistiche in Svizzera: Primi risultati dell'Indagine sulla lingua, la religione e la cultura 2019 |language=it |access-date=18 March 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326201622/https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/it/home/statistiche/popolazione/rilevazioni/esrk.assetdetail.15324911.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Venezuela]] (554,000),<ref>[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY Venezuela] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231185530/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY |date=31 December 2022 }} in {{e25}}</ref> and the United States (868,900).<ref>{{cite web |author=United States Census Bureau |title=Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over: 2017–2021 |url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/language-use/2017-2021-lang-tables.html |website=www.census.gov |date=June 2025 |access-date=3 April 2026}}</ref>
In some parts of former [[Portuguese India]], namely [[Goa]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.colaco.net/1/port.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010529163919/http://www.colaco.net/1/port.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 May 2001 |title=Portuguese Language in Goa |publisher=Colaco.net |access-date=21 April 2010 }}</ref> and [[Daman and Diu]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rjmacau.com/english/rjm1996n3/ac-mary/portuguese.html |title=The Portuguese Experience: The Case of Goa, Daman and Diu |publisher=Rjmacau.com |access-date=21 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721135904/http://www.rjmacau.com/english/rjm1996n3/ac-mary/portuguese.html |archive-date=21 July 2006 }}</ref> the language is still spoken by about 10,000 people. In 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.revistamacau.com/2014/06/02/1-500-pessoas-estudam-portugues-em-goa/|title=1.500 pessoas estudam português em Goa|publisher=Revistamacau.com|date=2 June 2014|access-date=10 July 2015|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003451/http://www.revistamacau.com/2014/06/02/1-500-pessoas-estudam-portugues-em-goa/|url-status=live}}</ref> Approximately 2% of the people of Macau, China are fluent speakers of Portuguese. Additionally, the language is being very actively studied in the Chinese school system right up to the doctorate level. The [[Kristang people]] in [[Malaysia]] speak [[Kristang language|Kristang]], a Portuguese-Malay creole; however, the Portuguese language itself is not widely spoken in the country.
=== Official status === {{Main|List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language}}
The [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]<ref name="CPLP">{{cite web |url=https://www.cplp.org/id-2597.aspx |title=Estados-membros |date=7 February 2017 |website=Community of Portuguese Language Countries |language=pt |trans-title=Member States |access-date=7 February 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207182400/https://www.cplp.org/id-2597.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> (in Portuguese ''Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa'', with the Portuguese acronym CPLP) consists of the nine independent countries that have Portuguese as an [[official language]]: [[Angola]], [[Brazil]], [[Cape Verde]], [[East Timor]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mozambique]], [[Portugal]] and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]].<ref name="CPLP" />
[[Equatorial Guinea]] made a formal application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010, a status given only to states with Portuguese as an official language.<ref>{{cite web |author=Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. |url=http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=703 |title=El portugués será el tercer idioma oficial de la República de Guinea Ecuatorial – Página Oficial del Gobierno de la República de Guinea Ecuatorial |publisher=Guineaecuatorialpress.com |date=20 July 2010 |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=4 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104083320/http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=703 |url-status=live }}</ref> Portuguese became its third official language (besides [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[French language|French]])<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/equatorial-guinea-adds-portuguese-as-the-countrys-third-official-language-131882808.html|title=Equatorial Guinea Adds Portuguese as the Country's Third Official Language|website=PR Newswire|access-date=7 February 2017|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163747/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/equatorial-guinea-adds-portuguese-as-the-countrys-third-official-language-131882808.html|url-status=live}}</ref> in 2011, and in July 2014, the country was accepted as a member of the CPLP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=5434|title=Equatorial Guinea, member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries|author=Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea|access-date=1 November 2016|archive-date=27 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227223516/https://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=5434|url-status=live}}</ref>
Portuguese is also one of the official languages of the Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China of Macau (alongside [[Chinese language|Chinese]]) and of several international organizations, including [[Mercosul]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-english/telearn/global/ilo/blokit/mercopro.htm#Chapter%20VIII |title=Official languages of Mercosul as agreed in the ''Protocol of Ouro Preto'' |publisher=Actrav.itcilo.org |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722053855/http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-english/telearn/global/ilo/blokit/mercopro.htm#Chapter%20VIII |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[Organization of Ibero-American States]],<ref>Statutes, Article 1{{cite web |url=http://www.oei.es/estatutos.htm |title=Official statute of the organization |publisher=Oei.es |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=28 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628144938/http://www.oei.es/estatutos.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Union of South American Nations]],<ref>Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations, Article 23 {{Cite web |title=Tratado Constitutivo de la Unión de Naciones Suramericanas |url=https://www.unasursg.org/images/descargas/DOCUMENTOS%20CONSTITUTIVOS%20DE%20UNASUR/Tratado-UNASUR-solo.pdf |access-date=4 October 2018 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715170723/http://www.unasursg.org/images/descargas/DOCUMENTOS%20CONSTITUTIVOS%20DE%20UNASUR/Tratado-UNASUR-solo.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[Organization of American States]],<ref>General Assembly of the OAS, [http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/agres_1737_xxxo00.htm Amendments to the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515221257/http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/agres_1737_xxxo00.htm |date=15 May 2011 }}, 5 June 2000</ref> the [[African Union]],<ref name="africa-union.org">Article 11, Protocol on Amendments to the Constitutive Act of the African Union {{cite web |url=http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20Amendments%20to%20the%20Constitutive%20Act.pdf |title=Protocol on the Amendments to the Constitutive Act of the African Union. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208183015/http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20Amendments%20to%20the%20Constitutive%20Act.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=5 February 2016}}</ref> the [[Economic Community of West African States]],<ref name="africa-union.org" /> the [[Southern African Development Community]]<ref name="africa-union.org" /> and the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Languages in Europe – Official EU Languages |publisher=EUROPA web portal |url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |access-date=12 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202112407/http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |archive-date=2 February 2009 }}</ref>
=== Lusophone countries === According to ''[[The World Factbook]]''{{'}}s country population estimates for 2018, the population of each of the ten jurisdictions is as follows (by descending order): {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ ! Country ! Population<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_main|title=Statistics Portugal – Web Portal|website=www.ine.pt|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712165513/https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpgid=ine_main&xpid=INE|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibge.gov.br/apps/populacao/projecao/index.html|title=IBGE | Projeção da população|website=www.ibge.gov.br|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=16 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116063907/http://www.ibge.gov.br/apps/populacao/projecao/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/|title=Population by Country (2022) – Worldometer|website=www.worldometers.info|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=5 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105162622/http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/|url-status=live}}</ref> ! More information ! Native language<br />of the majority ! Spoken by |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Brazil}} [[Brazil]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 203,062,512 || [[Brazilian Portuguese|Portuguese in Brazil]]||{{ya}}||95% as a native language<ref name="Ethn.ST">{{e26|por}}, 2022</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Angola}} [[Angola]] || style="text-align:right;"| 35,981,281 || [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese in Angola]]||{{na}}||45% as a native language,<ref name="censoAO" /> 82% total<ref name="Ethn.AO">{{e26|por}}, 2021</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Mozambique}} [[Mozambique]] || style="text-align:right;"| 32,513,805 || [[Mozambican Portuguese|Portuguese in Mozambique]]||{{na}}||40% as a native language, 60% total<ref name="Ethn.ST"/> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Portugal}} [[Portugal]] || style="text-align:right;"| 10,467,366 || [[European Portuguese|Portuguese in Portugal]]||{{ya}}||95% as a native language<ref name="Ethn.PT">{{e26|por}}</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Guinea-Bissau}} [[Guinea-Bissau]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 2,078,820 || [[Guinean Portuguese|Portuguese in Guinea-Bissau]]||{{na}}||5% as a native language, 50% total<ref name="Ethn.TL">{{e26|por}}, 2015</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;" | {{flagdeco|Equatorial Guinea}} [[Equatorial Guinea]]<sup>2</sup>|| style="text-align:right;" | 1,679,172 || [[Languages of Equatorial Guinea|Portuguese in Equatorial Guinea]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;" | {{flagdeco|East Timor}} [[East Timor]]|| style="text-align:right;" | 1,340,513 || [[East Timorese Portuguese|Portuguese in East Timor]]||{{na}}||0.5% as a native language; 50% total<ref name="Ethn.TL"/> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Macau}} [[Macau]]<sup>1</sup>||style="text-align:right;"| 682,300 || [[Macanese Portuguese|Portuguese in Macau]]||{{na}}||0.5% as a native language, 7% total<ref name="Ethn.MO">{{e26|por}}, 2017 (L1), 2021 census (L2)</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Cape Verde}} [[Cape Verde]] || style="text-align:right;"| 561,901 || [[Cape Verdean Portuguese|Portuguese in Cape Verde]]||{{na}}|| 5% as a native language, 80% total<ref name="Ethn.CV">{{e26|por}}, 2010 census</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"|{{flagdeco|São Tomé and Príncipe}} [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]|| style="text-align:right;"| 220,372 || [[São Tomean Portuguese|Portuguese in São Tomé and Príncipe]]||{{ya}}||75% as a native language, 99% total<ref name="Ethn.ST"/> |- class="sortbottom" |style="text-align:left;"| '''Total''' || style="text-align:right;"| 288,588,042 ||colspan=3|[[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] |} {{smalldiv|1= Notes: #[[Macau]] is one of the two autonomous [[Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China|Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China]] (the other being [[English language|Anglophone]] [[Hong Kong]], a former British colony). # [[Equatorial Guinea]] adopted Portuguese as one of its official languages in 2007, being admitted to CPLP in 2014. The use of the Portuguese language in this country is limited, but quickly growing. }}
The combined population of the entire [[Lusophone]] area was estimated at 300 million in January 2022.<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpgid=ine_main&xpid=INE|title=Statistics Portugal – Web Portal|website=www.ine.pt|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=9 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109182931/https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpgid=ine_main&xpid=INE|url-status=live}}</ref> This number does not include the Lusophone [[diaspora]], estimated at 10 million people (including 4.5 million Portuguese, 3 million Brazilians), although there are no official accurate figures for diasporic Portuguese speakers because a significant portion of these citizens are naturalized citizens born outside of Lusophone territory or are children of immigrants, and may have only a basic command of the language. Additionally, a large part of the diaspora is a part of the already-counted population of the Portuguese-speaking countries and territories, such as the high number of Brazilian and [[Portuguese-speaking African countries|PALOP]] emigrant citizens in Portugal or the high number of Portuguese emigrant citizens in the PALOP and Brazil.
The Portuguese language therefore serves more than 250 million people daily, who have direct or indirect legal, juridical and social contact with it, varying from the only language used in any contact, to only education, contact with local or international administration, commerce and services or the simple sight of road signs, public information and advertising in Portuguese.
=== Portuguese as a foreign language === Portuguese is a mandatory subject in the school curriculum in [[Uruguay]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://noticias.uol.com.br/ultnot/lusa/2007/11/05/ult611u75523.jhtm |title=Governo uruguaio torna obrigatório ensino do português |date=5 November 2007 |website=UOL Notícias |language=pt |trans-title=Uruguayan government makes Portuguese mandatory |access-date=13 July 2010 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003353/https://noticias.uol.com.br/ultnot/lusa/2007/11/05/ult611u75523.jhtm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other countries where Portuguese is commonly taught in schools or where it has been introduced as an option include [[Venezuela]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.letras.etc.br/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93:lingua-portuguesa-sera-opcao-no-ensino-oficial-venezuelano&catid=6:noticia&Itemid=13/ |title=Portuguese language will be option in the official Venezuelan teachings |language=pt |date=24 May 2009 |access-date=13 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522092756/https://www.letras.etc.br/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93%3Alingua-portuguesa-sera-opcao-no-ensino-oficial-venezuelano&catid=6%3Anoticia&Itemid=13%2F |archive-date=22 May 2011 }}</ref> [[Zambia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movv.org/2009/05/26/a-zambia-vai-adotar-a-lingua-portuguesa-no-seu-ensino-basico/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528221719/http://movv.org/2009/05/26/a-zambia-vai-adotar-a-lingua-portuguesa-no-seu-ensino-basico/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=28 May 2009 |title=Zambia will adopt the Portuguese language in their Basic school |language=pt |date=26 May 2009 |access-date=13 July 2010 }}</ref> the [[Republic of the Congo]],<ref name="estadao">{{cite web|url=https://cultura.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,congo-passara-a-ensinar-portugues-nas-escolas,561666 |title=Congo will start to teach Portuguese in schools |language=pt |date=4 June 2010 |access-date=13 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807021226/http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/arteelazer%2Ccongo-passara-a-ensinar-portugues-nas-escolas%2C561666%2C0.htm |archive-date=7 August 2010 }}</ref> [[Senegal]],<ref name="estadao" /> [[Namibia]],<ref name="www.namibian.com.na" /> [[Eswatini]],<ref name="estadao" /> [[South Africa]],<ref name="estadao" /> [[Ivory Coast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc21/comunicacao/noticia?i=20160623-mne-costa-marfim |title=Português entra no currículo escolar da Costa do Marfim no próximo ano letivo |date=23 June 2016 |website=www.portugal.gov.pt |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese enters the Ivory Coast school curriculum next school year |access-date=19 July 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003345/https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc21/comunicacao/noticia?i=20160623-mne-costa-marfim |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Mauritius]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cplp.org/id-4440.aspx|title=República da Maurícia|website=www.cplp.org|access-date=19 July 2019|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003439/https://www.cplp.org/id-4440.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2017, a project was launched to introduce Portuguese as a school subject in [[Zimbabwe]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-no-ensino-secundario-no-zimbabue |title=Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário no Zimbabué |date=18 January 2017 |website=SAPO 24 |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese to be introduced to secondary education in Zimbabwe |access-date=23 July 2019 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414133303/https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-no-ensino-secundario-no-zimbabue |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html |title=Zimbabwe: Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário do país |date=19 January 2017 |agency=Angola Press – ANGOP |language=pt |trans-title=Zimbabwe: Portuguese to be introduced into the country's secondary education |access-date=22 January 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806105712/http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Also, according to Portugal's Minister of Foreign Affairs, the language will be part of the school curriculum of a total of 32 countries by 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-sera-lingua-curricular-em-32-paises-no-proximo-ano-letivo |title=Português será língua curricular em 32 países no próximo ano letivo |date=22 July 2019 |website=SAPO 24 |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese will be curricular language in 32 countries next school year |access-date=23 July 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003350/https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-sera-lingua-curricular-em-32-paises-no-proximo-ano-letivo |url-status=live }}</ref> In such countries, Portuguese is spoken either as a native language by vast majorities due to their Portuguese colonial past or as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' in bordering and multilingual regions, such as on the Brazilian borders of Uruguay and Paraguay and in regions of Angola and Namibia. In many other countries, Portuguese is spoken by majorities as a second language. There remain communities of thousands of Portuguese (or [[Creole language|Creole]]) first language speakers in [[Goa]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Daman and Diu]], and other areas due to [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese colonization]]. In [[Timor-Leste|East Timor]], the number of Portuguese speakers is quickly increasing as Portuguese and Brazilian teachers are making great strides in teaching Portuguese in the schools all over the island.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/479/1/17753_Disserta00E700E3odeMestradoLCP.pdf|title=Portuguese language in Timor Leste|access-date=10 April 2022|archive-date=16 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616050638/https://repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/479/1/17753_Disserta00E700E3odeMestradoLCP.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, there are many large Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities all over the world.
{| class="wikitable sortable" |+ ! Country ! Population<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|title=The World Factbook – Field Listing – Population – CIA|access-date=2015-03-07|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|archive-date=4 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004113653/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />(July 2017 est.) ! More information ! Compulsory education ! Spoken by |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Uruguay}} ||style="text-align: right"| 3,444,006 || [[Uruguayan Portuguese|Portuguese in Uruguay]]||{{ya}}||Significant minority as a native language; significant minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Argentina}} || style="text-align: right"|43,847,430 || [[Portuguese in Argentina]]||{{ya}}||Minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Paraguay}} || style="text-align: right"| 7,052,984 || [[Portuguese in Paraguay]]||{{na}}||Significant minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Venezuela}} || style="text-align: right"|31,568,179 || [[Portuguese in Venezuela]]||{{ya}}||Minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|South Africa}} || style="text-align: right"| 57,725,600 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in South Africa]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Namibia}} || style="text-align: right"|2,606,971 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Namibia]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Congo}} || style="text-align: right"|5,125,821 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Congo]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Zambia}} || style="text-align: right"|16,591,390 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Zambia]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Senegal}} || style="text-align: right"| 15,411,614 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Senegal]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Eswatini}} || style="text-align: right"| 1,343,098 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Eswatini]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |}
=== Future === [[File:MC 澳門 Macau 港珠澳大橋 HK-Zhu-Macau Bridge port building Jan 2019 IX2 63.jpg|thumb|Multilingual signage in Chinese, Portuguese and English at the [[Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge]] port building in [[Macau]]. Portuguese is a co-official language in Macau.]] According to estimates by [[UNESCO]], Portuguese is the fastest-growing [[European language]] after [[English language|English]] and it has the highest potential for growth as an international language in [[southern Africa]] and [[South America]].<ref name="The Portugal News">{{cite web|url=http://www.theportugalnews.com/cgi-bin/article.pl?id=906-9|title=Portuguese language gaining popularity|publisher=Anglopress Edicões e Publicidade Lda|date=5 May 2007|access-date=18 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318152307/http://www.theportugalnews.com/cgi-bin/article.pl?id=906-9|archive-date=18 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Portuguese is a globalized language spoken officially on five continents, and as a second language by millions worldwide.
Since 1991, when Brazil signed into the economic community of [[Mercosul]] with other South American nations, namely [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Paraguay]], Portuguese is either mandatory, or taught, in the schools of those South American countries.
Although early in the 21st century, after [[Macau]] was returned to [[China]] and immigration of Brazilians of [[Japanese Brazilian|Japanese descent]] to [[Japan]] slowed down, the use of Portuguese was in decline in [[Asia]], it is once again becoming a language of opportunity there, mostly because of increased diplomatic and financial ties with economically powerful Portuguese-speaking countries in the world.<ref>{{cite web|last=Leach |first=Michael |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/ |title=talking Portuguese; China and East Timor |access-date=18 May 2011 |website=Arena Magazine |year=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105033001/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/ |archive-date=5 November 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.macaomagazine.net/china/promising-future-portuguese-language-china |title=Promising future for Portuguese language in China |last=Bilrero |first=António |date=15 March 2018 |website=Macao Magazine |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702230400/https://www.macaomagazine.net/china/promising-future-portuguese-language-china |archive-date=2019-07-02}}</ref>
===Current status and importance=== Portuguese, being a language spread on all continents, has official status in several international organizations. It is one of twenty official languages of the [[European Union]], an official language of NATO, the [[Organization of American States]] (alongside Spanish, French and English), and one of eighteen official languages of the [[European Space Agency]].
Portuguese is a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]] (alongside English, German, Spanish, French, Arabic and Russian), [[Amnesty International]] (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, French, German, and Italian), and [[Médecins sans Frontières]] (used alongside English, Spanish, French and Arabic), in addition to being the official legal language in the [[African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights]], also in [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], an international organization formed essentially by [[Lusophone|lusophone countries]].
== Linguistic demography ==
With approximately 250 million native speakers and 17 million [[second language]] speakers, Portuguese has approximately 267 million total speakers.<ref>{{Ethnologue28|por}},</ref> It is usually listed as the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|fifth-most spoken native language]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Emmanuel|last=da Silva|chapter=Socioliguistic Tensions in Toronoto|page=129|editor-first=Luiz Paulo|editor-last=Moita-Lopes|title=Global Portuguese: Linguistic Ideologies in Late Modernity|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1-31763-304-4}}</ref> the third-most spoken European language in the world in terms of native speakers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|title=CIA World Factbook|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032610/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the second-most spoken [[Romance languages|Romance language]] in the world, surpassed only by [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. Being the first most widely spoken language in [[South America]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Different Languages of South America|url=https://latinobridge.com/blog/the-different-languages-of-south-america-2/|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Latino Bridge|language=en|date=7 November 2022|archive-date=12 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212165044/https://latinobridge.com/blog/the-different-languages-of-south-america-2/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=2012 World Population Data Sheet Interactive Map – Population Reference Bureau |url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2012/world-population-data-sheet/world-map.aspx#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?rev_t=20230622000824&url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2012/world-population-data-sheet/world-map.aspx#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-06-15 |access-date=2024-09-09 |website=archive.wikiwix.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=La langue espagnole (présentation) |url=https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/Langues/2vital_inter_espagnol.htm |access-date=2024-09-09 |website=www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca}}</ref> and the most-spoken language in the [[Southern Hemisphere]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Potencial Económico da Língua Portuguesa|url=http://www.uc.pt/international-applicants/oportunidades/linguas/economic_potential_portuguese.pdf|website=University of Coimbra|access-date=21 June 2020|archive-date=24 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024163947/https://www.uc.pt/international-applicants/oportunidades/linguas/economic_potential_portuguese.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World Portuguese Language Day|url=https://www.unesco.org/en/days/portuguese-language|website=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=20 November 2023|archive-date=17 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117112028/https://www.unesco.org/en/days/portuguese-language|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=20 Most Spoken Languages in the World in 2023|url=https://www.berlitz.com/blog/most-spoken-languages-world|website=[[Berlitz Corporation]]|access-date=20 November 2023|archive-date=21 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121060019/https://www.berlitz.com/blog/most-spoken-languages-world|url-status=live}}</ref> it is also the second-most spoken language, after Spanish, in [[Latin America]], one of the 10 most spoken languages in [[Africa]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://africa-facts.org/top-10-most-spoken-languages-in-africa/ |website=Africa Facts |title=Top 11 Most Spoken Languages in Africa |date=2017-10-18 |access-date=10 October 2018 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918174122/https://africa-facts.org/top-10-most-spoken-languages-in-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and an official language of the [[European Union]], [[Mercosul]]<!-- This is the Portuguese spelling of Mercosur, Portuguese being an official language of that organization. -->, the [[Organization of American States#Official languages|Organization of American States]], the [[Economic Community of West African States]], the [[African Union]], and the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], an international organization made up of all of the world's officially [[Lusophone]] nations. In 1997, a comprehensive academic study ranked Portuguese as one of the 10 most influential languages in the world.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130507110651/http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm "The World's 10 most influential languages"], George Weber, 1997, ''Language Today'', "...includes besides many other languages, Bengali, English, French, German, Hindi/Urdu, Italian, Marathi, Panjabi, Persian, Brazilian (Portuguese), Russian, the Scandinavian languages, and Spanish." "''Portuguese'' today means above all Brazilian."</ref><ref>Bernard Comrie, Encarta Encyclopedia (1998); George Weber, [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm "Top Languages: The World's 10 Most Influential Languages"], ''Language Today'' (Vol. 2, December 1997). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110927062910/http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm Archived] from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-09-28.</ref>
== Classification and related languages == [[File:Lenguas y dialectos iberorromances.PNG|thumb|upright=1.45|right|Map showing mostly contemporary [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] and [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]] languages, as well many of their mainland European dialects (areas colored green, [[Aragonese language|gold]] or pink/purple represent languages deemed [[Endangered language|endangered]] by [[UNESCO]], so this may be outdated in less than a few decades). It shows European Portuguese, [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Galician-Asturian|Eonavian]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]] and the [[Fala language|Fala]] as not only closely related but as [[dialect continuum]], though it excludes dialects spoken in insular Portugal (Azores and Madeira–[[Canarian Spanish|Canaries]] is not shown either).{{Image reference needed|date=November 2022}}]]
{{Main|Iberian Romance languages| Galician–Portuguese |Comparison of Spanish and Portuguese}}
Portuguese belongs to the [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] branch of the [[Romance language]]s, and it has special ties with the following members of this group: * [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Fala language|Fala]]. * [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]] and [[Cantabrian dialect|Cantabrian]] ([[Astur-Leonese languages]]). Mirandese is the only recognised regional language spoken in Portugal (beside Portuguese, the only official language in Portugal). * [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Caló language|''calão'']] (the Portuguese term for ''caló'', language of the Iberian [[Romani people|Romani]]).
Portuguese and other Romance languages (namely [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]) share considerable similarities in both vocabulary and grammar. Portuguese speakers will usually need some formal study before attaining strong comprehension in those Romance languages, and vice versa. However, Portuguese and [[Galician language|Galician]] are fully mutually intelligible. Spanish is relatively intelligible for lusophones, owing to their geographic proximity and history as [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] ([[Ibero-Romance languages]]), historical contact between speakers and mutual influence, shared [[areal features]] as well as modern lexical, structural, and grammatical similarity (over 85%) between them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=John B. |year=1989 |title=On the Mutual Intelligibility of Spanish and Portuguese |journal=Hispania |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=848–852 |jstor=343562 |doi=10.2307/343562}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Penny |first=Ralph |year=2000 |title=Variation and Change in Spanish |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-78045-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVNGMlx7cOYC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA14 |page=14 |access-date=19 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105110/https://books.google.com/books?id=rVNGMlx7cOYC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA14#v=snippet&q=how%20well%20do%20spanish%20speakers%20understand%20portuguese&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |year=1998 |title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-11568-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb |url-access=registration |quote=how well do spanish speakers understand portuguese?. |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb/page/501 501]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ginsburgh |first1=Victor |last2=Weber |first2=Shlomo |year=2011 |title=How Many Languages Do We Need?: The Economics of Linguistic Diversity |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-13689-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA90 |page=90 |access-date=19 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105241/https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA90#v=snippet&q=how%20well%20do%20spanish%20speakers%20understand%20portuguese&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Similar languages to Portuguese |url=https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=por |website=EZ Glot |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302192659/https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=por |url-status=live }}</ref> Many young Portuguese speakers however, will often choose [[English language|English]] as the lingua-franca of choice, with Spanish, French, Italian, other Europeans, and speakers of other languages. Over 97% of 18 to 24 year olds in Portugal speak a second language fluently, 95% of those have English as L2, some 33.7% speak French, 23% German, and 14% Spanish.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsenglish.pt/pt/wse/blog/portugueses-falam-cada-vez-mais-e-melhor-l%C3%ADnguas-estrangeiras/ |title=Portugueses falam cada vez mais (e melhor) línguas estrangeiras |language=pt |editor=wse english|date=2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2016 |publisher=The Portugal News |title=Portugal's students amongst Europe's most bilingual |url=https://www.theportugalnews.com/news/portugals-students-among-europes-most-bilingual/37355}}<!-- auto-translated from Portuguese by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
[[Portuñol]]/Portunhol, a form of [[code-switching]], has a lively use and is mentioned in popular culture in South America. Said code-switching is not to be confused with the Portuguese varieties spoken on the borders of Brazil with Uruguay ({{lang|pt|dialeto do pampa}}) and Paraguay ({{lang|pt|dialeto dos [[Brasiguayos|brasiguaios]]}}), and of Portugal with Spain ({{lang|pt|[[barranquenho]]}}), that are Portuguese dialects spoken natively by thousands of people, which have been heavily influenced by Spanish.<ref name="Lipski">{{Cite conference |last=Lipski |first=John M |year=2006 |editor-last=Face |editor-first=Timothy L |editor2-last=Klee |editor2-first=Carol A |title=Too close for comfort? the genesis of 'portuñol/portunhol' |url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |pages=1–22 |access-date=21 June 2015 |journal=Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium |archive-date=16 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216225441/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
Portuguese and Spanish are the only Ibero-Romance languages, and perhaps the only Romance languages in Latin-America, with such thriving inter-language forms, in which visible and lively bilingual contact dialects and code-switching have formed, in which functional bilingual communication is achieved through attempting an approximation to the target foreign language (known as 'Portuñol') without a learned acquisition process, but nevertheless facilitates communication. There is an emerging literature focused on such phenomena in South America (including informal attempts of standardization of the linguistic continua and their usage).<ref name="Lipski" />
=== Galician–Portuguese in Spain === {{see also|Reintegrationism}} The closest relative of Portuguese is Galician, which is spoken in the autonomous community and historical nationality of Galicia ([[Spain]]). The two were part of a common dialect continuum during the Middle Ages, known today as [[Galician–Portuguese]], but they have diverged especially in pronunciation and vocabulary due to the political separation of [[County of Portugal|Portugal]] from [[Kingdom of Galicia|Galicia]]. There is, however, still a linguistic continuity consisting of the variant of Galician referred to as ''galego-português baixo-limiao'', which is spoken in several Galician and Portuguese villages within the transboundary biosphere reserve of [[Peneda-Gerês National Park|Gerês]]-[[Baixa Limia – Serra do Xurés|Xurés]]. It is "considered a rarity, a living vestige of the medieval language that ranged from [[Cantabria]] to [[Mondego River|Mondego]] [...]".<ref name="agal-gz.or">{{Cite web |title=A Fala Galego-Portuguesa da Baixa-Limia e Castro Laboreiro |url=http://www.agal-gz.org/pdf/falabaixalimia.pdf |trans-title=The Galician–Portuguese Speech of Baixa-Limia and Castro Laboreiro |language=pt |access-date=2018-10-05 |archive-date=13 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113080652/http://www.agal-gz.org/pdf/falabaixalimia.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> As reported by [[UNESCO]], due to the pressure of Spanish on the standard official version of Galician and centuries-old [[Hispanization|Castilianization]], the Galician language was on the verge of disappearing.<ref name="agal-gz.or" />
According to the UNESCO philologist Tapani Salminen, the proximity to Portuguese protects Galician.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 February 2009 |title=O galego deixa de ser unha das linguas 'en perigo' para a Unesco |language=gl |trans-title=Galician is no longer one of the "endangered" languages for Unesco |work=Galicia Hoxe |url=http://www.galiciahoxe.com/mare/gh/galego-deixa-ser-unha-das-linguas-perigo-unesco/idNoticia-397878 |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=6 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106122417/http://www.galiciahoxe.com/mare/gh/galego-deixa-ser-unha-das-linguas-perigo-unesco/idNoticia-397878 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The core vocabulary and grammar of Galician are noticeably closer to Portuguese than to those of Spanish. Within the EU, Galician, while not being a [[European Parliament]] official language, can be used and is in fact used by some European Parliament constituents due to its similarity with Portuguese.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agal-gz.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1349 |title=O Galego já é oficial na UE [GL/PT] |publisher=Associaçom Galega da Lingua |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030142629/http://www.agal-gz.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1349 |archive-date=30 October 2004 }}</ref><ref name="moniz1">{{cite journal|last=Moniz|first=Alexandre|date=2021|url=https://www.cambridge.org/engage/api-gateway/coe/assets/orp/resource/item/60fb35650b093e286fe31ba8/original/how-to-kill-a-language-planning-diglossia-bi-normativism-the-internet-and-galician.pdf|title=Galician: How to Kill a Language|website=Cambridge Engage|access-date=21 Sep 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921050757/https://www.cambridge.org/engage/api-gateway/coe/assets/orp/resource/item/60fb35650b093e286fe31ba8/original/how-to-kill-a-language-planning-diglossia-bi-normativism-the-internet-and-galician.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Galician like Portuguese, uses the future subjunctive, the personal infinitive, and the synthetic pluperfect. Mutual intelligibility estimated at 85% is excellent between Galicians and Portuguese.<ref>{{e25|glg|Galician}}</ref> Despite political efforts in Spain to define them as separate languages, many linguists consider [[Galician language|Galician]] and Portuguese to be co-dialects of the same language with regional variations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lusojornal.com/nuno-gomes-garcia-conversa-com-eduardo-maragoto-o-galego-e-o-portugues-sao-a-mesma-lingua|title=O galego e o português são a mesma língua/|date=27 January 2020|access-date=21 September 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921022638/https://lusojornal.com/nuno-gomes-garcia-conversa-com-eduardo-maragoto-o-galego-e-o-portugues-sao-a-mesma-lingua/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="moniz1"/>
Another member of the Galician–Portuguese group, most commonly thought of as a Galician dialect, is spoken in the [[Galician-Asturian|Eonavian]] region in a western strip in [[Asturias]] and the westernmost parts of the provinces of [[Province of León|León]] and [[Province of Zamora|Zamora]], along the frontier with Galicia, between the [[Eo (river)|Eo]] and [[Navia (river)|Navia]] rivers (or more exactly Eo and Frexulfe rivers). It is called ''eonaviego'' or ''gallego-asturiano'' by its speakers.
The Fala language, known by its speakers as ''xalimés'', ''mañegu'', ''a fala de Xálima'' and ''chapurráu'' and in Portuguese as ''a fala de Xálima'', ''a fala da Estremadura'', ''o galego da Estremadura'', ''valego'' or ''galaico-estremenho'', is another descendant of Galician–Portuguese, spoken by a small number of people in the Spanish towns of [[Valverde del Fresno]] (''Valverdi du Fresnu''), [[Eljas]] (''As Ellas'') and [[San Martín de Trevejo]] (''Sa Martín de Trevellu'') in the autonomous community of [[Extremadura]], near the border with Portugal.
There are a number of other places in Spain in which the native language of the common people is a descendant of the Galician–Portuguese group, such as [[La Alamedilla]], [[Cedillo]] (''Cedilho''), [[Herrera de Alcántara]] (''Ferreira d'Alcântara'') and [[Olivenza]] (''Olivença''), but in these municipalities, what is spoken is actually Portuguese, not disputed as such in the mainstream.
In the kingdom of Portugal, ''Ladinho'' (or ''Lingoagem Ladinha'') was the name given to the pure Portuguese romance language, without any mixture of Aravia or Gerigonça Judenga.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/diccionariodalin02morauoft|page=[https://archive.org/details/diccionariodalin02morauoft/page/140 140]|quote=aravia.|title=Diccionario da lingua portugueza|publisher=Na typ. de M. P. de Lacerda|access-date=30 May 2015|last1=Silva|first1=António de Morais|year=1823}}</ref> While the term ''língua vulgar'' was used to name the language before D. Dinis decided to call it "Portuguese language",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osório |first=Jorge A. |date=1993 |title=D. Dinis: o Rei a Língua e o Reino |trans-title=D. Dinis: the King the Language and the Kingdom |url=https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/20003/2/jaosoriomathesis41993000083737.pdf |hdl=10216/20003 |journal=Máthesis |language=pt |issue=2 |pages=17–36 |access-date=12 June 2015 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816084101/https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/20003/2/jaosoriomathesis41993000083737.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the erudite version used and known as Galician–Portuguese (the language of the Portuguese court) and all other Portuguese dialects were spoken at the same time. In a historical perspective the Portuguese language was never just one dialect. Just like today there is a standard Portuguese (actually two) among the several dialects of Portuguese, in the past there was Galician–Portuguese as the "standard", coexisting with other dialects.
=== Influence on other languages === [[File:St_Peter_Church_Melaka_3.jpg|thumb|An Old Portuguese [[memento mori]] memorial sign in [[Malacca City]]]] {{See also|List of English words of Portuguese origin|Loan words in Malayalam#Portuguese|Loan words in Indonesian|Japanese words of Portuguese origin|List of Malay loanwords|Portuguese loanwords in Sinhala|Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil#Portuguese|Sri Lanka Indo-Portuguese language|Hindustani etymology#Loanwords from Portuguese|Gujarati language#Portuguese|Burmese language|Bengali vocabulary#Portuguese (পর্তুগিজ Pôrtugij)|Thai language#Portuguese-origin|Chittagonian language|Tok Pisin}}
Portuguese has provided [[loanword]]s to many languages, such as [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Manado Malay]], [[Malayalam]], [[Sri Lanka Tamils (native)|Sri Lankan Tamil]] and [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English (language)|English]], [[Hindi]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Tetum language|Tetum]], [[Tsonga language|Xitsonga]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Lanc-Patuá creole|Lanc-Patuá]], [[Esan people#Language|Esan]], [[Bandar Abbas|Bandari]] (spoken in Iran) and [[Sranan Tongo]] (spoken in Suriname). It left a strong influence on the ''[[Old Tupi|língua brasílica]]'', a [[Tupi–Guarani language]], which was the most widely spoken in Brazil until the 18th century, and on the language spoken around [[Sikka Regency|Sikka]] in [[Flores]] Island, [[Indonesia]]. In nearby [[Larantuka]], Portuguese is used for prayers in [[Holy Week]] rituals. The Japanese–Portuguese dictionary ''[[Nippo Jisho]]'' (1603) was the first dictionary of Japanese in a European language, a product of [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionary activity in Japan. Building on the work of earlier Portuguese missionaries, the ''[[Dictionarium Anamiticum, Lusitanum et Latinum]]'' (Annamite–Portuguese–Latin dictionary) of [[Alexandre de Rhodes]] (1651) introduced the modern [[Vietnamese alphabet|orthography of Vietnamese]], which is based on the orthography of 17th-century Portuguese. The [[Romanization]] of [[Chinese language|Chinese]] was also influenced by the Portuguese language (among others), particularly regarding [[List of common Chinese surnames|Chinese surnames]]; one example is ''Mei''. During 1583–88 Italian Jesuits [[Michele Ruggieri]] and [[Matteo Ricci]] created a Portuguese–Chinese dictionary – the first ever European–Chinese dictionary.<ref name=camus>{{cite web|url=http://www.riccimac.org/doc/JesuitsJourneys.pdf|title=Jesuits' Journeys in Chinese Studies|last=Camus|first=Yves|access-date=12 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924090942/http://www.riccimac.org/doc/JesuitsJourneys.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="ricciDict">''Dicionário Português–Chinês : Pu Han ci dian: Portuguese–Chinese dictionary'', by Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci; edited by John W. Witek. Published 2001, Biblioteca Nacional. {{ISBN|972-565-298-3}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C Partial preview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215183226/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C |date=15 December 2022 }} available on [[Google Books]]</ref>
For instance, as [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese merchants]] were presumably the first to introduce the [[sweet orange]] in Europe, in several modern [[Indo-European languages]] the fruit has been named after them. Some examples are Albanian ''[[wikt:portokall#Albanian|portokall]]'', Bosnian (archaic) ''portokal'', ''prtokal'', Bulgarian [[wikt:портокал#Bulgarian|портокал]] (''portokal''), Greek [[wikt:πορτοκάλι#Greek|πορτοκάλι]] (''portokáli''), [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ''{{transliteration|mk|portokal}}'', Persian [[wikt:پرتقال#Persian|پرتقال]] (''porteghal''), and Romanian ''[[wikt:portocală#Romanian|portocală]]''.<ref name="plantname">{{cite web |title=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database: Sorting Citrus Names |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |publisher=[[University of Melbourne]] |access-date=11 December 2012 |archive-date=15 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515001035/http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="OstergrenBosse2011">{{cite book |author1=Ostergren, Robert C. |author2=Le Bosse, Mathias |name-list-style=amp |title=The Europeans, Second Edition: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-1fwix23zMC&pg=PA129 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-1-60918-140-6 |page=129}}</ref> Related names can be found in other languages,<!--"[[Amharic language|Amharic]] birtukan": NOT in sources--> such as Arabic [[wikt:البرتقال#Arabic|البرتقال]] (''burtuqāl''), [[Georgian language|Georgian]] [[wikt:ფორთოხალი#Georgian|ფორთოხალი]] (''p'ort'oxali''), Turkish ''[[wikt:portakal#Turkish|portakal]]'' and [[Amharic]] ''birtukan''.<ref name="plantname" /> Also, in southern [[Italian language|Italian dialects]] (e.g. [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]]), an orange is ''[[:wikt:portogallo|portogallo]]'' or ''[[:wikt:it:purtuallo|purtuallo]]'', literally "(the) Portuguese (one)", in contrast to [[standard Italian]] ''arancia''.
[[File:2014 Lusophony Games map.svg|thumb|right|Participating countries of the [[Lusophony Games]]]]
=== Derived languages === {{Main|Portuguese-based creole languages}}
Beginning in the 16th century, the extensive contacts between Portuguese travelers and settlers, African and Asian slaves, and local populations led to the appearance of many [[pidgin]]s with varying amounts of Portuguese influence.
As each of these pidgins became the mother tongue of succeeding generations, they evolved into fully fledged [[creole language]]s, which remained in use in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America until the 18th century.
Some Portuguese-based or Portuguese-influenced creoles are still spoken today, namely [[Cape Verdean Creole]] and [[Papiamento]]. Portuguese-based creoles are spoken by over three million people worldwide, especially people of partial [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] ancestry.
== Phonology == {{Main|Portuguese phonology}} {{multiple image |align=right |direction=horizontal |image1=WIKITONGUES- Sara speaking Portuguese.webm |caption1=Sara, a native speaker of the [[European Portuguese]] of Lisbon |image2=WIKITONGUES- Freddie speaking Portuguese.webm |caption2=Freddie, a native speaker of the [[Brazilian Portuguese]] of São Paulo }}
[[Portuguese phonology]] and [[phonetics]] vary across regional dialects, but these differences generally do not impede [[mutual intelligibility]] among speakers. Portuguese has one of the larger phonological inventories among the Romance languages.{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|pp=1–2}} This overview mainly describes [[European Portuguese]] (EP) and [[Brazilian Portuguese]] (BP), the [[standard varieties]] of Portugal and Brazil respectively.{{sfn|Noll|2022|p=113}}
==== Vowels ==== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image1 = European Portuguese vowel chart.svg | caption1 = Monophthongs of European Portuguese as they are pronounced in Lisbon, from {{Harvcoltxt|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}. The vowel transcribed {{IPA|/ɯ/}} on this chart appears only in unstressed syllables and corresponds to the symbol {{IPA|/ɨ/|cat=no}} in this article | image2 = Brazilian Portuguese vowel chart.svg | caption2 = Monophthongs of Brazilian Portuguese as they are pronounced in São Paulo, from {{Harvcoltxt|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}}. The vowels {{IPA|[ɪ, ʊ, ë]|cat=no}} appear only in unstressed syllables. | class1 = skin-invert-image | class2 = skin-invert-image }} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- |+ Vowel phonemes of Portuguese{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=92}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}}{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=11}} |- !rowspan="2"| !colspan="2"|[[Front vowel|Front]] !colspan="2"|[[Central vowel|Central]] !colspan="2"|[[Back vowel|Back]] |- !{{small|oral}} !{{small|nasal}} !{{small|oral}} !{{small|nasal}} !{{small|oral}} !{{small|nasal}} |- ![[Close vowel|Close]] |{{IPA link|i}} |{{IPA link|ĩ}} |({{IPA link|ɯ̽|ɨ}}) | |{{IPA link|u}} |{{IPA link|ũ}} |- ![[Near-close vowel|Near-close]] |{{IPA link|ɪ}} | |colspan="2"| |{{IPA link|ʊ}} | |- ![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]] |{{IPA link|e}} |{{IPA link|ẽ}} |colspan="2"| |{{IPA link|o}} |{{IPA link|õ}} |- ![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]] |{{IPA link|ɛ}} | |{{IPA link|ɐ}} |{{IPA link|ɐ̃}} |{{IPA link|ɔ}} | |- ![[Open vowel|Open]] |colspan="2"| |{{IPA link|ä|a}} | |colspan="2"| |}
EP has nine oral vowels ({{IPA|/a, ɐ, e, ɛ, i, o, ɔ, u, ɨ/}}) and 19 consonants,{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}} while BP is generally analyzed as having seven oral vowels in stressed position ({{IPA|/i, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, u/}}).{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} Both varieties have five [[nasal vowel]]s,{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} though linguists Maria Helena Mateus and Ernesto d'Andrade analyze these as [[allophone]]s of the oral vowels rather than independent phonemes.{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=20}} Portuguese has ten oral [[diphthong]]s and five nasal diphthongs.{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}}
In unstressed positions, EP frequently reduces or deletes vowels in colloquial speech, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:dever#Portuguese|dever]]}} ({{gloss|to owe}}) realized as {{IPA|pt|ˈdveɾ||}}. In both varieties, the tense mid vowels /e/ and /o/ tend to raise when unstressed, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:menino#Portuguese|menino]]}} ({{gloss|boy}}) {{IPA|pt|mĩ.ˈnĩ.nu||}}. In BP, this raising is especially consistent in word-final position, while in other syllables tends to vary depending on the accent, where the most common vocalic realizations are {{IPA|/i/|}}, {{IPA|/a/|}} and {{IPA|/u/|}}, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:sabe#Portuguese|sabe]]}} ({{gloss|he/she knows}}) {{IPA|pt|ˈsa.bi||}} and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:juro#Portuguese|juro]]}} ({{gloss|I swear}}) {{IPA|pt|ˈʒu.ɾu||}}.{{sfn|Ferreira|Holt|2014|pp=131–132}} BP frequently employs vowel [[epenthesis]] to break up consonant clusters, typically inserting a high front vowel such as {{IPA|[i]}} or {{IPAblink|ɪ}}, although many times it can be completely removed or reduced to palatalization ("prática" [ˈpɾatʃikɐ > ˈpɾatʃkɐ]; "truque" ['tɾuki > 'tɾukʲ]).{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=227}} [[Semivowel]]s contrast with unstressed high vowels in verbal conjugation, as in {{lang|pt|(eu) rio}} ({{gloss|I laugh}}) {{IPA|/ˈʁi.u/}} and {{lang|pt|(ele) riu}} ({{gloss|he laughed}}) {{IPA|/ˈʁiw/}}.{{sfn|Rodrigues|2012|pp=39–40}} Phonologists discuss whether their nature is vowel or consonant.{{sfn|Bisol|2005|p=123}}
==== Consonants ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- |+ Consonant phonemes of Portuguese{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=228}}{{sfn|Carvalho|2012|p=20}}{{sfn|Bisol|2005|p=122}} ! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | ! rowspan=2| [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! rowspan=2| [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! rowspan=2| [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]](-[[postalveolar|alveolar]]) ! colspan=2| [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]] |- ! {{small|plain}} ! {{small|[[Labialization|labialized]]}} |- !colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} | {{IPA link|ɲ}} |colspan=2| |- !rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]/<br />[[Affricate]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA link|t}} | {{IPA link|tʃ}} | {{IPA link|k}} | {{IPA link|kʷ}} |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|d}} | {{IPA link|dʒ}} | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | {{IPA link|ɡʷ}} |- !rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|s}} | {{IPA link|ʃ}} |colspan=2| |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|z}} | {{IPA link|ʒ}} | {{IPA link|ʁ}} | |- !rowspan=2| [[Sonorant]] ! {{small|[[median consonant|median]]}} | {{IPA link|w}} | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | {{IPA link|j}} | | ({{IPA link|w}}) |- ! {{small|[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]}} | | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|ʎ}} |colspan=2| |}
EP has 19 consonant phonemes,{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}} while BP has 21, including the post-alveolar [[affricate]]s [tʃ] and [dʒ].{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=228}} In most Brazilian varieties, the stops /t/ and /d/ are realized as the affricates [tʃ] and [dʒ] before the high front vowel [i], as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:tia#Portuguese|tia]]}} ({{gloss|aunt}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:dia#Portuguese|dia]]}} ({{gloss|day}}).{{sfn|Bechara|2024|pp=60–61}} Portuguese distinguishes two rhotic phonemes: a flap /ɾ/, occurring intervocalically as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:caro#Portuguese|caro]]}} ({{gloss|cheap}}), and a stronger rhotic /R/, occurring word-initially and in the geminate RR as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:carro#Portuguese|carro]]}} ({{gloss|car}}).{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=15}} The consonant hereafter denoted as {{IPA|/ʁ/}} has a variety of realizations depending on dialect. In EP, it is typically a [[uvular trill]] {{IPA|[ʀ]}}; however, a pronunciation as a [[voiced uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[ʁ]}} may be becoming dominant in urban areas. There is also a realization as a [[voiceless uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[χ]}}, and the original pronunciation as an [[alveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r]}} also remains very common in various dialects.{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|pp=5–6, 11}} A common realization of the word-initial {{IPA|/r/}} in the Lisbon accent is a [[voiced uvular fricative trill]] {{IPA|ʀ̝}}.{{sfn|Grønnum|2005|p=157}} In Brazil, {{IPA|/ʁ/}} can be [[velar consonant|velar]], [[uvular consonant|uvular]], or [[glottal consonant|glottal]] and may be voiceless unless between voiced sounds.{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=228}} The typical syllable-final rhotic is the {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in Portugal and the hard {{IPA|/ʁ/}} (or other common allophones) in Brazil, although the pronunciation as {{IPA|/ɾ/}} and {{IPA|/ɹ/}} ~ {{IPA|/ɻ/}} exists in some accents of the country.{{Sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}}
Portuguese has a strong tendency toward falling diphthongs, in which a vowel is followed by a semivowel, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:feira#Portuguese|feira]]}} ({{gloss|market}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:noivo#Portuguese|noivo]]}} ({{gloss|fiancé}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:ruivo#Portuguese|ruivo]]}} ({{gloss|auburn}}).{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=177}} Sequences of two vowels in separate syllables, known as [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]], also occur, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:saída#Portuguese|saída]]}} ({{gloss|exit}}).{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=59}} The lateral /l/ in syllable-final position is realised as the semivowel [w] in most of Brazil, making {{lang|pt|[[wikt:alto#Portuguese|alto]]}} ({{gloss|high}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:auto#Portuguese|auto]]}} ({{gloss|public deed}}) phonetically identical in those varieties;{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=59}} in EP, the same consonant is realised as a velarized {{IPAblink|ɫ}}.{{sfn|Noll|2022|p=120}} Many speakers of BP further shift {{IPA|ɫ}} to {{IPA|[w]}} in closed syllables.{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} {{Harvcoltxt|Bisol|2005|p=122}} proposes that Portuguese possesses labio-velar stops {{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}} as additional phonemes rather than sequences of a velar stop and {{IPA|/w/}}.{{sfn|Bisol|2005|p=122}}
[[Sibilant]]s in syllable-final position are realised as the palato-alveolar fricatives [ʃ] and [ʒ] in EP{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=156}} and in the Rio de Janeiro variety of BP, while most other Brazilian varieties retain the alveolar [s] and [z].{{sfn|da Hora|Battisti|2022|p=358}} In most of Brazil and Angola, the consonant hereafter denoted as {{IPA|/ɲ/}} is realized as a [[nasal palatal approximant]] {{IPAblink|ȷ̃|j̃}}, which [[Nasalization|nasalizes]] the vowel that precedes it: {{IPA|[ˈnĩj̃u]}}.{{sfn|Thomas|1974|p=8}} In northern and central Portugal, the voiced stops ({{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) are usually lenited to [[fricative]]s {{IPAblink|β}}, {{IPAblink|ð}}, and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}, respectively, except at the beginning of words or after nasal vowels.{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=92}}{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=11}}
=== Stress, rhythm and intonation === Prosodically, [[stress (linguistics)|syllabic stress]] in Portuguese falls on one of the last three syllables of a word. [[Paroxytone]]s, with stress on the penultimate syllable, are the most frequent pattern, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:barro#Portuguese|barro]]}} ({{gloss|clay}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:poderoso#Portuguese|poderoso]]}} ({{gloss|powerful}}), followed by [[oxytone]]s, with stress on the final syllable, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:café#Portuguese|café]]}} ({{gloss|coffee}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:principal#Portuguese|principal]]}} ({{gloss|principal}}), and [[proparoxytone]]s, with stress on the antepenultimate syllable, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:sólido#Portuguese|sólido]]}} ({{gloss|solid}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:felicíssimo#Portuguese|felicíssimo]]}} ({{gloss|very happy}}).{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=77}} European Portuguese is generally described as [[stress-timed]], with unstressed syllables subject to significant reduction. Brazilian Portuguese is more syllable-timed, with unstressed vowels better preserved.{{sfn|Noll|2022|p=130}} In [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], declarative sentences are typically characterized by a falling pitch contour,{{sfn|Queiroz|2008|p=305}} while [[yes/no question]]s are marked by a rise in pitch on the final stressed syllable; in BP, a pattern with pitch rising on both the first and last accented syllables is common.{{sfn|da Hora|Battisti|2022|p=362}} [[Wh-question|''Wh''-question]]s typically carry a falling contour when seeking information.{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=93}}
== Orthography == {{excerpt|Portuguese orthography|only=paragraphs|paragraphs=1-2}}
==== Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990 ==== {{excerpt|Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990|Changes|only=table|tables=2}}
== Grammar == {{Main|Portuguese grammar}}
A notable aspect of the grammar of Portuguese is the verb. Morphologically, more verbal inflections from classical Latin have been preserved by Portuguese than by any other major [[Romance language]]. Portuguese and Spanish share very similar grammar, vocabulary and sentence structure. Portuguese also has some grammatical innovations not found in other Romance languages (except Galician and Fala): * The [[present perfect]] has an iterative sense unique to the Galician–Portuguese language group. It denotes an action or a series of actions that began in the past but expected to occur again in the future. For instance, the sentence ''Tenho tentado falar contigo'' would be translated to "I have been trying to talk to you", not "I have tried to talk to you." On the other hand, the correct translation of "Have you heard the latest news?" is not ''*Tens ouvido as últimas?'' but ''Ouviste as últimas?'' since no repetition is implied.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Verbal Periphrases in Romance: Aspect, Actionality, and Grammaticalization |last=Squartini |first=Mario |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |year=1998 |isbn=978-3-11-016160-1 |location=Berlin |oclc=39007172}}</ref> * Portuguese makes use of the future [[subjunctive mood]], which developed from medieval [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian Romance]]. In modern Spanish and Galician, it has almost entirely fallen into disuse. The future subjunctive appears in dependent clauses that denote a condition that must be fulfilled in the future so that the independent clause will occur. English normally employs the present tense under the same circumstances:
:''Se eu ''for'' eleito presidente, mudarei a lei.'' :If ''I am'' elected president, I will change the law.
:''Quando ''fores'' mais velho, vais entender.'' :When ''you grow'' older, you will understand. * The personal [[infinitive]] can [[inflection|inflect]] according to its subject in [[Grammatical person|person]] and [[Grammatical number|number]]. It often shows who is expected to perform a certain action. ''É melhor voltares'' "It is better [for you] to go back", ''É melhor voltarmos'' "It is better [for us] to go back." Perhaps for that reason, infinitive clauses replace subjunctive clauses more often in Portuguese than in other Romance languages.
== Vocabulary == {{Main|Portuguese vocabulary}}
The Portuguese lexicon consists of around 228,500 entries, 382,000 definitions, 415,500 synonyms, 26,400 antonyms and 57,000 [[Archaism|archaic word]]s, according to an estimate based on the 2001 edition of the ''[[Houaiss Dictionary of the Portuguese Language]]''.{{sfn|de Albuquerque|Coelho|Antunes|do Nascimento|2015|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Timbane|2012|p=21}} Most of the lexicon of Portuguese is derived, directly or through other Romance languages, from Latin.{{sfn|Azevedo|2005|p=171}}
A number of Portuguese words can still be traced to the [[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|pre-Roman inhabitants of Portugal]], which included the [[Gallaeci]], [[Lusitanians]], [[Celtici]] and [[Cynetes]]. Most of these words derived from the Hispano-Celtic [[Gallaecian language]] of northwestern Iberia, and are very often shared with [[Galician language|Galician]] since both languages have the same origin in the medieval language of Galician–Portuguese. A few of these words existed in Latin as loanwords from other [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] sources, often [[Gaulish]]. Altogether these are over 3,000 words, verbs, toponymic names of towns, rivers, surnames, tools, lexicon linked to rural life and natural world.<ref name="Filppula-Klemola">{{cite journal |last1=Filppula |first1=Markku |last2=Klemola |first2=Juhani |title=Celtic Influences in English: A Re-Evaluation |journal=Neuphilologische Mitteilungen |volume=115 |number=1 |date=2014 |pages=33–53 |jstor=43344757 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43344757 |access-date=20 January 2024 |archive-date=20 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120002914/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43344757 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman [[Hispania]]) was conquered by the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Suebi]] and [[Visigoths]]. As they adopted the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] civilization and language, however, these people contributed with some 500 [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] words to the lexicon. Many of these words are related to: * '''warfare''', such as {{lang|pt|espora}} 'spur', {{lang|pt|estaca}} ('stake'), and {{lang|pt|guerra}} ('war'), from [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''*spaúra'', ''*stakka'', and ''*wirro'' respectively; * '''natural world''', such as {{lang|pt|suino}} ('swine') from ''*sweina'', {{lang|pt|gavião}} ('hawk') from ''*gabilans'', {{lang|pt|vaga}} ('spot') from ''*vigan''; * '''human emotions''', such as {{lang|pt|orgulho}} or {{lang|pt|orgulhoso}} ('pride', 'proud') from Old Germanic ''*urguol'', and * '''verbs''' like {{lang|pt|gravar}} ('to craft, record, graft') from ''*graba'' or {{lang|pt|esmagar}} ('to squeeze, quash, grind') from Suebian ''*magōn'' or {{lang|pt|esfarrapar}} ('to shred') from ''*harpō''.
The [[Germanic languages]] influence also exists in [[toponymic surname]]s and [[patronymic surname]]s borne by Visigoth sovereigns and their descendants, and it dwells on placenames such as [[Ermesinde]], [[Esposende]] and [[Resende, Portugal|Resende]] where ''sinde'' and ''sende'' are derived from the Germanic ''sinths'' ('military expedition') and in the case of Resende, the prefix ''re'' comes from Germanic ''reths'' ('council'). Other examples of Portuguese names, surnames and town names of Germanic [[toponymic]] origin include Henrique, [[Henriques (surname)|Henriques]], Vermoim, Mandim, Calquim, Baguim, Gemunde, Guetim, Sermonde and many more, are quite common mainly in the old [[Suebi]] and later [[Visigothic]] dominated regions, covering today's Northern half of Portugal and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].
Between the 9th and early 13th centuries, Portuguese acquired some 400 to 600 words from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] by influence of [[al-Andalus|Moorish Iberia]]. They are often recognizable by the initial [[Definite article in Arabic|Arabic article ''a(l)-'']], and include common words such as {{lang|pt|aldeia}} ('village') from الضيعة ''aḍ-ḍayʿa'', {{lang|pt|alface}} ('lettuce') from الخسة ''al-khassa'', {{lang|pt|armazém}} ('warehouse') from المخزن ''al-makhzan'', and {{lang|pt|azeite}} ('olive oil') from الزيت ''az-zayt''.
[[File:State_Central_Library,_Goa_Dec_27,_2012_14.JPG|thumb|left|A sign at [[Goa State Central Library|Goa Central Library]], in [[Panaji]], India, listing three Portuguese-language newspapers]]
Starting in the 15th century, the Portuguese maritime explorations led to the introduction of many loanwords from Asian languages. For instance, {{lang|pt|catana}} ('[[cutlass]]') from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''[[katana]]'', {{lang|pt|chá}} ('tea') from [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ''[[Tea#Etymology|chá]]'', and ''[[Canja de galinha|canja]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Canja |url=https://dicionario.priberam.org/Canja |website=Dicionário Priberam |access-date=23 September 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924033808/https://dicionario.priberam.org/Canja |url-status=live }}</ref> ('chicken-soup, piece of cake') from [[Malayalam]].
.
From the 16th to the 19th centuries, because of the role of Portugal as intermediary in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], and the establishment of large Portuguese colonies in Angola, Mozambique, and Brazil, Portuguese acquired several words of African and [[indigenous peoples of Brazil|Amerind]] origin, especially names for most of the animals and plants found in those territories. While those terms are mostly used in the former colonies, many became current in European Portuguese as well. From [[Kimbundu language|Kimbundu]], for example, came ''kifumate'' > {{lang|pt|cafuné}} ('head caress') (Brazil), ''kusula'' > {{lang|pt|caçula}} ('youngest child') (Brazil), {{lang|pt|marimbondo}} ('tropical wasp') (Brazil), and ''kubungula'' > {{lang|pt|bungular}} ('to dance like a wizard') (Angola). From South America came {{lang|pt|batata}} ('[[potato]]'), from [[Taíno language|Taino]]; {{lang|pt|ananás}} and {{lang|pt|abacaxi}}, from [[Tupi–Guarani languages|Tupi–Guarani]] ''naná'' and [[Tupi language|Tupi]] ''ibá cati'', respectively (two species of [[pineapple]]), and {{lang|pt|pipoca}} ('[[popcorn]]') from Tupi and {{lang|pt|tucano}} ('[[toucan]]') from [[Guarani language|Guarani]] ''tucan''.
Finally, it has received a steady influx of loanwords from other European languages, especially French and [[English language|English]]. These are by far the most important languages when referring to loanwords. There are many examples such as: {{lang|pt|colchete}}/{{lang|pt|crochê}} ('bracket'/'crochet'), {{lang|pt|paletó}} ('jacket'), {{lang|pt|batom}} ('lipstick'), and {{lang|pt|filé}}/{{lang|pt|filete}} ('steak'/'slice'), {{lang|pt|rua}} ('street'), respectively, from French {{lang|fr|crochet}}, {{lang|fr|paletot}}, {{lang|fr|bâton}}, {{lang|fr|filet}}, {{lang|fr|rue}}; and {{lang|pt|bife}} ('steak'), {{lang|pt|futebol}}, {{lang|pt|revólver}}, {{lang|pt|stock}}/{{lang|pt|estoque}}, {{lang|pt|folclore}}, from English "beef", "football", "revolver", "stock", "folklore".
Examples from other European languages: {{lang|pt|macarrão}} ('pasta'), {{lang|pt|piloto}} ('pilot'), {{lang|pt|carroça}} ('carriage'), and {{lang|pt|barraca}} ('barrack'), from Italian {{lang|it|maccherone}}, {{lang|it|pilota}}, {{lang|it|carrozza}}, and {{lang|it|baracca}}; {{lang|pt|melena}} ('hair lock'), {{lang|pt|fiambre}} ('wet-cured ham') (in Portugal, in contrast with ''presunto'' 'dry-cured ham' from Latin ''prae-exsuctus'' 'dehydrated') or ('canned ham') (in Brazil, in contrast with non-canned, wet-cured (''presunto cozido'') and dry-cured (''presunto cru'')), or ''castelhano'' ('Castilian'), from Spanish ''melena'' ('mane'), ''fiambre'' and ''castellano.''
== Dialects, accents and varieties ==
Modern Standard [[European Portuguese]] ({{lang|pt|português padrão}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infoescola.com/linguistica/portugues-na-europa/|title=Português na Europa|website=InfoEscola}}</ref> or {{lang|pt|português continental}}) is based on the Portuguese spoken in the area including and surrounding the cities of [[Coimbra]] and [[Lisbon]], in central Portugal. Standard European Portuguese is also the preferred standard by the Portuguese-speaking African countries. As such, and despite the fact that its speakers are dispersed around the world, Portuguese has only two dialects used for learning: the European and the Brazilian. Some aspects and sounds found in many dialects of Brazil are exclusive to South America, and cannot be found in Europe. The same occur with the Santomean, Mozambican, Bissau-Guinean, Angolan and Cape Verdean dialects, being exclusive to Africa. See [[Portuguese in Africa]].
Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below. There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronunciation.
=== Portugal === [[File:Portugal portuguese dialects.png|thumb|Portugal's Portuguese dialects]] [[File:Lusofonia Angola Censo.png|thumb|Map of Angola 2024 – percentage of native speakers in each municipality.]] [[File:Portuguese as a Native Language in Mozambique - Proportion of Speakers.png|thumb|Portuguese as a Native Language in Mozambique – Proportion of Speakers]] [[File:Edificio de Correos y Telégrafos, Macao, 2013-08-08, DD 03.jpg|thumb|right|The main [[post office]] building of [[Macau]]]] {{Pie chart |caption = Percentage of worldwide Portuguese speakers per country (c. 2023)<ref name="Publico25">{{cite web | last1=Sanches | first1=Andreia | last2=Mendonç | first2=tia | last3=Moreira | first3=Cristiana Faria | last4=Gó | first4=Gabriela | last5=Pedro | first5=Gabriela | title=A língua portuguesa no mundo | website=PÚBLICO | date=2025-03-04 | url=https://www.publico.pt/2025/03/04/infografia/lingua-portuguesa-mundo-854 | language=pt | access-date=2025-03-08}}</ref> |value1=80.1 |label1=Brazil |color1=#009440 |value2=9.0 |label2=Angola |color2=Black |value3=5.9 |label3=Mozambique |color3=#FCCF03 |value4=4.1 |label4=Portugal |color4=#FF0000 |value5=0.9 |label5= Others |color5=Blue }} # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som69.html ''Micaelense (Açores)''] (São Miguel) – [[Azores]]. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som40.html ''Alentejano''] – [[Alentejo]] ([[Alentejan Portuguese]]), with the [[Oliventine Portuguese|Oliventine]] subdialect. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som44.html ''Algarvio''] – [[Algarve]] (there is a particular dialect in a small part of western Algarve). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som1.html ''Minhoto''] – Districts of [[Braga]] and Viana do Castelo (hinterland). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som49.html ''Beirão''; ''Alto-Alentejano''] – Central Portugal (hinterland). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som9.html ''Beirão''] – Central Portugal. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som22.html ''Estremenho''] – Regions of [[Coimbra]] and [[Lisbon]] (this is a disputed denomination, as Coimbra and is not part of "Estremadura", and the Lisbon dialect has some peculiar features that are not only not shared with that of Coimbra, but also significantly distinct and recognizable to most native speakers from elsewhere in Portugal). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som60.html ''Madeirense''] (Madeiran) – [[Madeira]]. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som14.html ''Portuense''] – Regions of the district of [[Porto]] and parts of [[Aveiro, Portugal|Aveiro]]. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som6.html ''Transmontano''] – [[Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro]].
[[File:Uso dos pronomes de segunda pessoa no Brasil.svg|thumb|The status of second person pronouns in Brazil: {{col-begin}} {{legend|#A40000|Near exclusive use of {{lang|pt|você}} (greater than 96%)}} {{legend|#5B4FDE|Decidedly predominant use of {{lang|pt|tu}} (greater than 80%), but with near exclusive third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#590000|50-50 {{lang|pt|você}}/{{lang|pt|tu}} variation, with {{lang|pt|tu}} being nearly always accompanied by third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#00C4DC|Decidedly predominant to near exclusive use of {{lang|pt|tu}} (76% to 95%) with reasonable frequency of second person ({{lang|pt|tu}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#85C700|Balanced você/tu distribution, being {{lang|pt|tu}} exclusively accompanied by third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#006700|Balanced {{lang|pt|você}}/{{lang|pt|tu}} distribution, {{lang|pt|tu}} being predominantly accompanied by third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#E6E6E6|No data}} {{col-end}}]] [[File:2018 Rio de Janeiro - Fachada do Real Gabinete Português de Leitura - Luis de Camões.jpg|thumb|right|[[Statue]] of the Portuguese poet [[Luís de Camões]] at the entrance of the [[Royal Portuguese Cabinet of Reading]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]]]] [[File:Estação da luz-13.jpg|thumb|right|[[Museum of the Portuguese Language]] in [[São Paulo]]]]
Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/mapa07.html|title=Audio samples of the dialects of Portuguese|access-date=12 June 2015|publisher=[[Instituto Camões]]|archive-date=27 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427031743/http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/mapa07.html|url-status=live}}</ref> There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronunciation.
=== Brazil === [[File:Brazil dialect map.png|thumb|Brazil's Portuguese dialects]] # ''[[Caipira dialect|Caipira]]'' – Spoken in the states of [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] (most markedly on the countryside and rural areas); southern [[Minas Gerais]], northern [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]] and southeastern [[Mato Grosso do Sul]]. Depending on the vision of what constitutes ''caipira'', [[Triângulo Mineiro]], border areas of [[Goiás]] and the remaining parts of Mato Grosso do Sul are included, and the frontier of ''caipira'' in Minas Gerais is expanded further northerly, though not reaching metropolitan [[Belo Horizonte]]. It is often said that ''caipira'' appeared by [[decreolization]] of the [[Old Tupi|língua brasílica]] and the related [[língua geral paulista]], then spoken in almost all of what is now São Paulo, a former [[lingua franca]] in most of the contemporary [[Centro-Sul]] of Brazil before the 18th century, brought by the ''[[bandeirante]]s'', interior pioneers of [[Colonial Brazil]], closely related to its northern counterpart [[Nheengatu language|Nheengatu]], and that is why the dialect shows many general differences from other variants of the language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm |title=Nheengatu and caipira dialect |publisher=Sosaci.org |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215070133/http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm |archive-date=15 December 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It has striking remarkable differences in comparison to other Brazilian dialects in phonology, prosody and grammar, often [[Social stigma|stigmatized]] as being strongly associated with a [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|substandard variant]], now mostly rural.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Ferraz |first=Irineu da Silva |title=Características fonético-acústicas do /r/ retroflexo do portugues brasileiro: dados de informantes de Pato Branco (PR) |date=2005 |degree=Master's |publisher=Universidade Federal do Paraná |url=http://dspace.c3sl.ufpr.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1884/3955/CARACTER%C3%8DSTICAS%20FON%C3%89TICO.pdf?sequence=1 |hdl=1884/3955 |trans-title=Acoustic-phonetic characteristics of the Brazilian Portuguese's retroflex /r/: data from respondents in Pato Branco, Paraná |pages=19–21 |lang=pt |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175335/http://dspace.c3sl.ufpr.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1884/3955/CARACTER%C3%8DSTICAS%20FON%C3%89TICO.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leite |first=Cândida Mara Britto |date=2010 |title=O /r/ em posição de coda silábica na capital do interior paulista: uma abordagem sociolinguística |trans-title=Syllable coda /r/ in the "capital" of the Paulista hinterland: a sociolinguistic analysis |url=http://cedae.iel.unicamp.br/revista/index.php/sinteses/article/download/1198/1766 |journal=Sínteses |language=pt |volume=15 |page=111 |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082929/http://cedae.iel.unicamp.br/revista/index.php/sinteses/article/download/1198/1766}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Callou |first1=Dinah |title=Iniciação à Fonética e à Fonologia |last2=Leite |first2=Yonne |publisher=Jorge Zahar Editora |year=2001 |page=24 |language=pt |trans-title=Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Castilho |first=Ataliba T. de |title=Saber uma língua é separar o certo do errado? A língua é um organismo vivo que varia conforme o contexto e vai muito além de uma coleção de regras e normas de como falar e escrever |url=http://www.poiesis.org.br/files/mlp/texto_16.pdf |trans-title=To know a language is really about separating correct from awry? Language is a living organism that varies by context and goes far beyond a collection of rules and norms of how to speak and write |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082936/http://www.poiesis.org.br/files/mlp/texto_16.pdf |publisher=[[Museu da Língua Portuguesa]] |language=pt |archive-date=22 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Linguistic prejudice and the surprising (academic and formal) unity of Brazilian Portuguese |url=http://www.lendo.org/preconceito-linguistico-o-portugues-do-brasil-apresenta-uma-unidade-surpreendente/ |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021055958/http://www.lendo.org/preconceito-linguistico-o-portugues-do-brasil-apresenta-uma-unidade-surpreendente/ |archive-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> # [[North coast Portuguese|''Cearense'' or ''Costa norte'']] – is a dialect spoken more sharply in the states of Ceará and Piauí. The variant of Ceará includes fairly distinctive traits it shares with the one spoken in Piauí, though, such as distinctive regional phonology and vocabulary (for example, a debuccalization process stronger than that of Portuguese, a different system of the vowel harmony that spans Brazil from ''fluminense'' and ''mineiro'' to ''amazofonia'' but is especially prevalent in ''nordestino'', a very coherent coda sibilant palatalization as those of Portugal and Rio de Janeiro but allowed in fewer environments than in other accents of ''nordestino'', a greater presence of dental stop palatalization to palato-alveolar in comparison to other accents of ''nordestino'', among others, as well as a great number of archaic Portuguese words).<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://repositorio.ufc.br/bitstream/riufc/31547/1/2000_art_jlmonteiro.pdf |title=As descrições fonológicas do português do Ceará: de Aguiar a Macambira |first=José Lemos |last=Monteiro |journal=Revista do GELNE |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=2000 |access-date=7 March 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308002954/http://repositorio.ufc.br/bitstream/riufc/31547/1/2000_art_jlmonteiro.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Maia |first=Viviane dos Santos |title='Tu vai para onde? ... Você vai para onde?': manifestações da segunda pessoa na fala carioca |date=2012 |degree=Master's |publisher=Federal University of Rio de Janeiro |url=http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/mestrado/SantosVM.pdf |language=pt |trans-title='Tu vai para onde? ... Você vai para onde?: manifestations of the second person in Carioca speech |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052321/http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/mestrado/SantosVM.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Aragão |first=Maria do Socorro Silva de |title=Aspectos Fonético-Fonológicos do Falar do Ceará: O Que Tem Surgido nos Inquéritos Experimentais do Atlas Lingüístico do Brasil – ALiB-Ce |url=http://www.profala.ufc.br/trabalho6.pdf |trans-title=Phonetic-Phonological Aspects of the Speech of Ceará: What Has Appeared in Experimental Surveys of the Linguistic Atlas of Brazil – ALiB-Ce |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201172230/https://profala.ufc.br/trabalho6.pdf |language=pt |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-date=2014-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Seung Hwa |date=2006 |title=Sobre as vogais pré-tônicas no Português Brasileiro |trans-title=About pre-tonic vowels in Brazilian Portuguese |url=http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2006/sistema06/shl.pdf |journal=Estudos Lingüísticos |language=pt |volume=XXXV |pages=166–175 |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052324/http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2006/sistema06/shl.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aragão |first=Maria do Socorro Silva de |date=2009 |title=Os estudos fonético-fonológicos nos estados da Paraíba e do Ceará |trans-title=Phonetic-phonological studies in the states of Paraíba and Ceará |url=http://www.abralin.org/site/data/uploads/revistas/2009-vol-8-n-1/mariasocorro.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Revista da ABRALIN |language=pt |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=163–184 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052325/http://www.abralin.org/site/data/uploads/revistas/2009-vol-8-n-1/mariasocorro.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nascimento |first1=Katiene |last2=Guimarães |first2=Daniela |last3=Barboza |first3=Clerton |last4=Silva |first4=Thaïs Cristófaro |display-authors=3 |year=2012 |title=Revisitando a palatalização no português brasileiro |trans-title=Revisiting palatalization in Brazilian Portuguese |url=http://www.periodicos.letras.ufmg.br/index.php/relin/article/view/2744/2699 |journal=Revista de Estudos da Linguagem |language=pt |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=59–89 |doi=10.17851/2237-2083.20.2.59-89 |access-date=18 April 2013 |archive-date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203130207/http://www.periodicos.letras.ufmg.br/index.php/relin/article/view/2744/2699 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref> # ''Baiano'' – Found in [[Bahia]] and border regions with [[Goiás]] and [[Tocantins]]. Similar to ''nordestino'', it has a very characteristic [[Stress timing|syllable-timed rhythm]] and the greatest tendency to pronounce unstressed vowels as open-mid {{IPAblink|ɛ}} and {{IPAblink|ɔ}}. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som90.html ''Fluminense''] – A broad dialect with many variants spoken in the states of [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Espírito Santo]] and neighboring eastern regions of [[Minas Gerais]]. ''Fluminense'' formed in these previously ''caipira''-speaking areas due to the gradual influence of European migrants, causing many people to distance their speech from their original dialect and incorporate new terms.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sibila.com.br/english/learn-about-portuguese-language-2/2721|title=Learn about Portuguese language|newspaper=Sibila – Revista de Poesia e Crítica Literária |date=25 April 2009|publisher=Sibila|access-date=27 November 2012|archive-date=22 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082929/http://sibila.com.br/english/learn-about-portuguese-language-2/2721|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Fluminense'' is sometimes referred to as ''carioca'', however ''carioca'' is a more specific term referring to the accent of the [[Greater Rio de Janeiro]] area by speakers with a ''fluminense'' dialect. # ''[[Gaúcho dialect|Gaúcho]]'' – in [[Rio Grande do Sul]], similar to ''sulista''. There are many distinct accents in Rio Grande do Sul, mainly due to the heavy influx of European immigrants of diverse origins who have settled in colonies throughout the state, and to the proximity to [[Hispanosphere|Spanish-speaking nations]]. The word ''gaúcho'' itself is a Spanish [[loanword]] into Portuguese, of obscure [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Indigenous Amerindian]] origins. # ''[[Mineiro]]'' – [[Minas Gerais]] (but not prevalent in the [[Triângulo Mineiro]]). As with the ''fluminense'' area, its associated region was formerly a sparsely populated land where ''caipira'' was spoken, but [[Minas Gerais#History|the discovery of gold and gems made it the most prosperous Brazilian region]], attracting Portuguese colonists, commoners from other parts of Brazil, and their African slaves. The south-southwestern, [[Zona da Mata (Minas Gerais)|southeastern]], and northern areas of the state each have fairly distinctive speech, actually approximating to ''caipira'', ''fluminense'' (popularly and often pejoratively called ''carioca do brejo'', "marsh carioca"), and ''baiano'' respectively. [[Belo Horizonte]] and the area surrounding it have a distinctive accent. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som91.html ''Nordestino'']<ref name="ReferenceB">Note: the speaker of this sound file is from Rio de Janeiro, and he is talking about his experience with ''nordestino'' and ''nortista'' accents.</ref> – more marked in the [[Sertão]] (7), where, in the 19th and 20th centuries and especially in the area including and surrounding the ''sertão'' (the dry land after [[Agreste]]) of Pernambuco and southern Ceará, it could sound less comprehensible to speakers of other Portuguese dialects than Galician or [[Rioplatense Spanish]], and nowadays less distinctive from other variants in the metropolitan cities [[Zona da Mata|along the coasts]]. It can be divided in two regional variants, one that includes the northern [[Maranhão]] and southern of [[Piauí]], and other that goes from [[Ceará]] to [[Alagoas]]. # ''Nortista'' or ''[[amazofonia]]'' – Most of [[Amazon Basin]] states, i.e. [[North Region, Brazil|Northern Brazil]]. Before the 20th century, most people from the ''nordestino'' area fleeing the droughts and their associated poverty settled here, so it has some similarities with the Portuguese dialect there spoken. The speech in and around the cities of [[Belém]] and [[Manaus]] has a more European flavor in phonology, prosody and grammar. # ''[[Paulistano dialect|Paulistano]]'' – Variants spoken around [[Greater São Paulo]] in its maximum definition and more easterly areas of São Paulo state, as well as perhaps "educated speech" from anywhere in [[São Paulo (state)|the state of São Paulo]] (where it coexists with ''caipira''). ''Caipira'' is the hinterland sociolect of much of the [[Centro-Sul|Central-Southern half]] of Brazil, nowadays conservative only in the rural areas and associated with them, that has a historically [[prestige (sociolinguistics)|low prestige]] in cities as Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Belo Horizonte, and until some years ago, in São Paulo itself. [[Sociolinguistics]], or what by times is described as "[[linguistic discrimination|linguistic prejudice]]", often correlated with [[Class discrimination|classism]],<ref>{{cite web |title=O MEC, o "português errado" e a linguistica... |url=http://www.imprenca.com/2011/05/mec-portugues-errado-e-linguistica.html |date=2011-05-17 |website=Imprenca.com |language=pt |trans-title=MEC, "wrong Portuguese" and linguistics… |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419090139/http://www.imprenca.com/2011/05/mec-portugues-errado-e-linguistica.html |archive-date=19 April 2012 |access-date=23 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cartilha do MEC ensina erro de Português |url=http://www.saindodamatrix.com.br/archives/2011/05/cartilha_do_mec.html |date=18 May 2011 |website=Saindo da Matrix |language=pt |trans-title=MEC primer teaches Portuguese error |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=12 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612030228/http://www.saindodamatrix.com.br/archives/2011/05/cartilha_do_mec.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jornaldebeltrao.com.br/noticia/63414/livro-do-mec-ensina-o-portugues-errado-ou-apenas-valoriza-as-formas-linguisticas |title=Livro do MEC ensina o português errado ou apenas valoriza as formas linguísticas? |work=Jornal de Beltrão |language=pt |date=26 May 2011 |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=11 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111080402/http://www.jornaldebeltrao.com.br/noticia/63414/livro-do-mec-ensina-o-portugues-errado-ou-apenas-valoriza-as-formas-linguisticas |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a polemic topic in the entirety of the country since the times of [[Adoniran Barbosa#Musical production|Adoniran Barbosa]]. Also, the "Paulistano" accent was heavily influenced by the presence of immigrants in the city of São Paulo, especially the Italians. # ''Sertanejo'' – [[Center-West Region, Brazil|Center-Western states]], and also much of [[Tocantins]] and [[Rondônia]]. It is closer to ''mineiro'', ''caipira'', ''nordestino'' or ''nortista'' depending on the location. # ''Sulista'' – The variants spoken in the areas between the northern regions of [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and southern regions of São Paulo state, encompassing most of [[South Region, Brazil|southern Brazil]]. The city of [[Curitiba]] does have a fairly distinct accent as well, and a relative majority of speakers around and in [[Florianópolis]] also speak this variant (many speak ''florianopolitano'' or ''manezinho da ilha'' instead, related to the European Portuguese dialects spoken in [[Azores]] and [[Madeira]]). Speech of northern Paraná is closer to that of inland São Paulo. # ''[[Florianopolitan dialect|Florianopolitano]]'' – Variants heavily influenced by European Portuguese spoken in [[Florianópolis]] city (due to a heavy immigration movement from Portugal, mainly its [[Autonomous regions of Portugal|insular regions]]) and much of its metropolitan area, [[Grande Florianópolis]], said to be a continuum between those whose speech most resemble ''sulista'' dialects and those whose speech most resemble ''fluminense'' and European ones, called ''manezinho da ilha''. # ''[[Carioca]]'' – Not a dialect, but [[sociolect]]s of the ''fluminense'' variant spoken in an area roughly corresponding to [[Greater Rio de Janeiro]]. It appeared after locals came in contact with the Portuguese aristocracy amidst the [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|Portuguese royal family fled]] in the early 19th century. There is actually a continuum between Vernacular countryside accents and the ''carioca'' sociolect, and the educated speech (in Portuguese ''norma culta'', which most closely resembles other Brazilian Portuguese standards but with marked recent Portuguese influences, the nearest ones among the country's dialects along ''florianopolitano''), so that not all people native to the state of Rio de Janeiro speak the said sociolect, but most ''carioca'' speakers will use the standard variant not influenced by it that is rather uniform around Brazil depending on context (emphasis or formality, for example). # ''Brasiliense'' – used in [[Brasília]] and its metropolitan area.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sotaque branco |url=http://www.meiamaratonadebrasilia.com.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73&Itemid=71 |publisher=Meia Maratona Internacional CAIXA de Brasília |language=pt |trans-title=White accent |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517200320/http://www.meiamaratonadebrasilia.com.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73&Itemid=71 |archive-date=17 May 2016 |access-date=25 September 2012}}</ref> It is not considered a dialect, but more of a regional variant – often deemed to be closer to ''fluminense'' than the dialect commonly spoken in most of Goiás, ''sertanejo''. # ''Arco do desflorestamento'' or ''[[:pt:Dialeto da serra amazônica|serra amazônica]]'' – Known in its region as the "accent of the migrants", it has similarities with ''caipira'', ''sertanejo'' and often ''sulista'' that make it differing from ''amazofonia'' (in the opposite group of Brazilian dialects, in which it is placed along ''nordestino'', ''baiano'', ''mineiro'' and ''fluminense''). It is the most recent dialect, which appeared by the settlement of families from various other Brazilian regions attracted by the cheap land offer in recently [[Deforestation|deforested]] areas.<ref>{{cite web |title=O Que É? Amazônia |url=http://amarnatureza.org.br/site/amazonia-2,9399/ |date=1 September 2009 |website=Amarnatureza.org.br |publisher=Associação de Defesa do Meio Ambiente Araucária (AMAR) |language=pt |trans-title=What is? Amazon |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222084453/https://amarnatureza.org.br/site/amazonia-2%2C9399/ |archive-date=22 December 2012 |access-date=25 September 2012}}</ref> # ''Recifense'' – used in [[Recife]] and its metropolitan area. # ''Amazônico Ocidental'' — used in the extreme [[Amazônia Legal|Western Amazon]] region, namely: Southwestern [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]], including the region of [[Boca do Acre]] and throughout the State of [[Acre (state)|Acre]], which share important historical-cultural aspects, such as, once belonging to [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation]], the First [[Amazon rubber cycle]] and [[Time in Brazil|Acre Time Zone]], sociologically, is considered a homogenous region. Differing from the traditional Northern dialect, in which the phonetic realization of the "s" always has the sound of ''ch'', in the Brazilian Western Amazon region, there will only be the sound of ''ch'' whose words the "s" are in the middle of the word, as examples; ''costa'', ''festa'' or ''destino'', as well as the one observed in [[North coast Portuguese|dialect of the north coast]]. Within the [[:pt:Interior do Brasil|Brazilian countryside]], it is one of the few areas where the phonetic realization of "r" resembles those observed in the Carioca dialect (open), other examples where this phenomenon is observed: Brasília dialect and [[Mineiro|Belo Horizonte dialect]].<ref>[https://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/8/8136/tde-07052002-130429/publico/tese04b. pdf] – Seringueiros da Amazônia, University of São Paulo (USP), Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Human Sciences, Department of Geography</ref> {{lang|pt|Você}}, a pronoun meaning "you", is used for educated, formal, and colloquial respectful speech in most Portuguese-speaking regions. In a few Brazilian states such as [[Rio Grande do Sul]], Pará, among others, {{lang|pt|você}} is virtually absent from the spoken language. Riograndense and European Portuguese normally distinguishes formal from informal speech by verbal conjugation. Informal speech employs {{lang|pt|tu}} followed by second person verbs, formal language retains the formal {{lang|pt|você}}, followed by the third person conjugation.
Conjugation of verbs in {{lang|pt|tu}} has three different forms in Brazil (verb "to see": {{lang|pt|tu viste?}}, in the traditional second person; {{lang|pt|tu viu?}}, in the third person; and {{lang|pt|tu visse?}}, in the innovative second person), the conjugation used in the Brazilian states of Pará, Santa Catarina and Maranhão being generally traditional second person, the kind that is used in other Portuguese-speaking countries and learned in Brazilian schools.
The predominance of Southeastern-based media products has established {{lang|pt|você}} as the pronoun of choice for the second person singular in both writing and multimedia communications. However, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, the country's main cultural center, the usage of {{lang|pt|tu}} has been expanding ever since the end of the 20th century,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.celsul.org.br/Encontros/09/artigos/Viviane%20dos%20Santos.pdf |title=A Constituição de Corpora Orais Para a Análise das Formas de Tratamento |last=Viviane Maia dos Santos |publisher=Anais do IX Encontro do CELSUL Palhoça, SC, out. 2010 Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034721/http://www.celsul.org.br/Encontros/09/artigos/Viviane%20dos%20Santos.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref> being most frequent among youngsters, and a number of studies have also shown an increase in its use in a number of other Brazilian dialects.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.uel.br/revistas/uel/index.php/signum/article/view/11776/11181 |title='Por onde tá "o tu"?' no português falado no Maranhão |last=Béliche Alves |first=Cibelle Corrêa |journal=Signum: Estudos da Linguagem |volume=15 |number=1 |pages=13–31 |year=2012 |doi=10.5433/2237-4876.2012v15n1p13 |access-date=10 August 2017 |doi-access=free |archive-date=30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630172240/http://www.uel.br/revistas/uel/index.php/signum/article/view/11776/11181 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loregian-Penkal |first=Loremi |date=2005 |title=Alternância tu/você em Santa Catarina: uma abordagem variacionista |url=http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2005/4publica-estudos-2005-pdfs/alternancia-tu-voce-411.pdf |journal=Estudos Lingüísticos |language=pt |volume=XXXIV |pages=362–367 |access-date=10 August 2017 |via=Tu/você alternation in Santa Catarina: a variationist approach |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052320/http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2005/4publica-estudos-2005-pdfs/alternancia-tu-voce-411.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Other countries and dependencies === * {{flag|Angola}} – [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://www.cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som85.html ''Angolano''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806102044/http://www.cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som85.html |date=6 August 2020 }} ([[Angolan Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Cape Verde}} – [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som87.html ''Cabo-verdiano''] ([[Cape Verdean Portuguese]]) * {{flag|India}} – ''Damaense'' (Damanese Portuguese) and ''Goês'' ([[Goan Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} – [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som88.html ''Guineense''] ([[Guinean Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Macau}} – [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som92.html ''Macaense''] ([[Macanese Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Mozambique}} – [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som89.html ''Moçambicano''] ([[Mozambican Portuguese]]) * {{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}} – [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som83.html ''Santomense''] ([[São Tomean Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Timor-Leste}} – [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som84.html ''Timorense''] ([[East Timorese Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Uruguay}} – [[Riverense Portuñol language|''Dialetos Portugueses do Uruguai (DPU)'']]
Differences between dialects are mostly of [[Accent (dialect)|accent]] and [[vocabulary]], but between the Brazilian dialects and other dialects, especially in their most colloquial forms, there can also be some grammatical differences. The [[Portuguese creole|Portuguese-based creoles]] spoken in various parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas are independent languages.
=== Characterization and peculiarities === Portuguese, like [[Catalan language|Catalan]], preserves the stressed vowels of [[Vulgar Latin]] which became diphthongs in most other Romance languages; cf. Port., Cat., Sard. ''[[wikt:pedra|pedra]]''; Fr. ''{{Wikt-lang|fr|pierre}}'', Sp. ''{{Wikt-lang|es|piedra}}'', It. ''{{Wikt-lang|it|pietra}}'', Ro. ''{{Wikt-lang|ro|piatră}}'', from Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|petra}}'' ("stone"); or Port. ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|fogo}}'', Cat. ''{{Wikt-lang|ca|foc}}'', Sard. ''{{Wikt-lang|sc|fogu}}''; Sp. ''{{Wikt-lang|es|fuego}}'', It. ''{{Wikt-lang|it|fuoco}}'', Fr. ''{{Wikt-lang|fr|feu}}'', Ro. ''{{Wikt-lang|ro|foc}}'', from Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|focus}}'' ("fire"). Another characteristic of early Portuguese was the loss of [[:wiktionary:intervocalic|intervocalic]] ''l'' and ''n'', sometimes followed by the merger of the two surrounding vowels, or by the insertion of an [[epenthesis|epenthetic vowel]] between them: cf. Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|salire}}'' ("to exit"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|tenere}}'' ("to have"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|catena}}'' ("jail"), Port. ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|sair}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|ter}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|cadeia}}''.
When the [[elision|elided]] consonant was ''n'', it often [[nasalization|nasalized]] the preceding vowel: cf. Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|manum}}'' ("hand"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|ranam}}'' ("frog"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|bonum}}'' ("good"), Old Portuguese ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|mão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|rãa}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|bõo}}'' (Portuguese: ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|mão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|rã}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|bom}}''). This process was the source of most of the language's distinctive nasal diphthongs. In particular, the Latin endings ''-anem'', ''{{Wikt-lang|la|-anum}}'' and ''{{Wikt-lang|la|-onem}}'' became ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|-ão}}'' in most cases, cf. Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|canis}}'' ("dog"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|germanus}}'' ("brother"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|ratio}}'' ("reason") with Modern Port. ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|cão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|irmão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|razão}}'', and their plurals ''-anes'', ''-anos'', ''-ones'' normally became ''-ães'', ''-ãos'', ''-ões'', cf. ''cães'', ''irmãos'', ''razões''. This also occurs in the minority Swiss [[Romansh language|Romansh]] language in many equivalent words such as ''maun'' ("hand"), ''bun'' ("good"), or ''chaun'' ("dog").<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://romansh.romanche.free.fr/|title=Apprendre la langue romanche et le vocabulaire, dictionnaire Rumantsch|website=romansh.romanche.free.fr|access-date=10 May 2023|archive-date=10 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510203459/http://romansh.romanche.free.fr/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Portuguese language is the only [[Romance language]] that preserves the clitic case [[mesoclisis]]: cf. {{lang|pt|dar-te-ei}} (I'll give thee), {{lang|pt|amar-te-ei}} (I'll love you), {{lang|pt|contactá-los-ei}} (I'll contact them). Like [[Galician language|Galician]], it also retains the Latin synthetic [[pluperfect]] tense: {{lang|pt|eu estivera}} (I had been), {{lang|pt|eu vivera}} (I had lived), {{lang|pt|vós vivêreis}} (you had lived).<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GILmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |chapter=On the Italian, Latin, and Portuguese Temporal Systems |title=Tense and Aspect: From Semantics to Morphosyntax |isbn=978-0-19-509193-9|last1=Giorgi|first1=Alessandra|last2=Pianesi|first2=Fabio|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> [[Romanian language|Romanian]] also has this tense, but uses the -s- form.
== Sample text == Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Portuguese:<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Portuguese (Portugal) |website=Unicode |url=https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_por_PT.html |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109134209/https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_por_PT.html |url-status=live }}</ref> :{{lang|pt|Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e em direitos. Dotados de razão e de consciência, devem agir uns para com os outros em espírito de fraternidade.}}
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|publisher=United Nations|access-date=9 January 2022|archive-date=16 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|url-status=live}}</ref> :''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
Phonetic transcription ([[Brazilian Portuguese]]): :[ˈtoduz us ˈseɾiz uˈmɐnuz ˈnasẽȷ̃ ˈlivɾiz i‿iˈgwajz ẽȷ̃ d͡ʒigniˈdad͡ʒi‿i‿ẽȷ̃ d͡ʒiˈɾejtus {{!}} doˈtaduz d͡ʒi ʁaˈzɐ̃w i d͡ʒi kõsiˈẽsjɐ {{!}} devẽȷ̃ aˈʒiʁ ũs ˈpaɾɐ kõ‿uz ˈotɾuz ẽȷ̃‿sˈpiɾitu d͡ʒi fɾateʁniˈdad͡ʒi ‖]
Phonetic transcription ([[European Portuguese]]): :[ˈtoðuz uʃ ˈseɾɨz uˈmɐnuʒ ˈnaʃsɐ̃j ˈɫivɾɨz i‿iˈɣwajz ɐ̃j diɣniˈðaðɨ‿i‿ɐ̃j diˈɾɐjtuʃ {{!}} duˈtaðuʒ dɨ ʁɐˈzɐ̃w i dɨ kõʃsiˈẽsjɐ {{!}} ˈdevɐ̃j ɐˈʒiɾ ũʃ ˈpɐɾɐ kõ‿uz ˈotɾuz ɐ̃j‿ʃˈpiɾɨtu dɨ fɾɐtɨɾniˈðaðɨ ‖]
== See also == {{Portal|Portugal|Language}} * [[Portuguese literature]] * [[Portuguese Africans]] * [[Angolan literature]] * [[Brazilian literature]] * [[Gallaecian language]] *[[Indo-Portuguese]] * [[Reintegrationism|Galician Reintegrationism]] * [[International Portuguese Language Institute]] * [[List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language]] * [[List of international organizations which have Portuguese as an official language]] * [[List of Portuguese-language poets]] * [[Lusitanian language]] * [[Mozambican Portuguese]] * [[Portuguese language in Asia]] * [[Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990]] * [[Portuguese poetry]]
==References==
===Citations=== {{Reflist}}
=== Bibliography === {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{Cite journal |last1=de Albuquerque |first1=Iana Ciara Santos |last2=Coelho |first2=Jéssica Fernanda Ramos |last3=Antunes |first3=João Pedro Lobo |last4=do Nascimento |first4=Cínthia Diniz |last5=de Lima |first5=Darlla Layse Torres |last6=Costa Rodolfo |first6=da Silva |last7=da Silva |first7=Neyvan Renato Rodrigues |title=Construção de um dicionário virtual para incremento do aprendizado de Biologia no ensino propedêutico |journal=Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação |volume=23 |issue=03 |date=29 December 2015 |issn=1414-5685 |doi=10.5753/rbie.2015.23.03.131 |page=131 |url=http://www.br-ie.org/pub/index.php/rbie/article/view/3304 |access-date=28 April 2026 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Azevedo |first=Milton M. |title=Portuguese: A Linguistic Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2005-01-13 |isbn=978-0-521-80515-5 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511755057 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511755057/type/book |access-date=2026-05-13 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Barbosa |first1=Plínio A. |last2=Albano |first2=Eleonora C. |year=2004 |title=Brazilian Portuguese |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/brazilian-portuguese/8EE69D52AE2D06C1EDA2841EA2E14FEC |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=227–232 |doi=10.1017/S0025100304001756 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last1=Basso |first1=Renato |last2=Gonçalves |first2=Rodrigo Tadeu |title=História concisa da língua portuguesa |trans-title=Concise history of the Portuguese language |publisher=Editora Vozes |date=2014 |isbn=978-85-326-4648-4 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last=Bechara |first=Evanildo |title=Moderna gramática portuguesa |publisher=Nova Fronteira |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro, RJ |date=26 December 2024 |isbn=978-65-5640-430-1 |author-link=Evanildo Bechara |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Bessa |first1=Waldemberg Araújo |last2=Feitosa |first2=Luziane de Sousa |last3=da Cunha |first3=Silvia Helena Muniz |last4=Brito |first4=Deyse Gabriely Machado |last5=Barroso |first5=Erika Vanessa Melo |last6=Reis |first6=Ynnara Soares |last7=Silva |first7=Jardinara Santos |last8=Sousa |first8=Everlly Karollynne da Costa |last9=Nascimento |first9=Vitor Ferreira |last10=Moreira |first10=Milena Lima |last11=Pereira e Silva |first11=Rita de Cassia da Costa |last12=Moura |first12=Sabrina Campos |title=Trovadorismo português: a ressignificação dos elementos da poética trovadoresca na música popular contemporânea |url=https://periodicos.newsciencepubl.com/arace/article/view/11477 |journal=ARACÊ |publisher=Seven Events |volume=7 |issue=12 |date=29 December 2025 |issn=2358-2472 |doi=10.56238/arev7n12-323 }} * {{Cite book |last=Bisol |first=Leda |year=2005 |title=Introdução a estudos de fonologia do português brasileiro |location=Porto Alegre – Rio Grande do Sul |publisher=EDIPUCRS |language=pt-br |isbn=978-85-7430-529-5 |author-link=Leda Bisol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TFzWAq-S7I0C&pg=PA215 |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105113/https://books.google.com/books?id=TFzWAq-S7I0C&pg=PA215#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bottaro |first=Silvia Etel Gutiérrez |title=El portugués uruguayo y las marcas de la oralidad en la poesía del escritor uruguayo Agustín R. Bisio |date=2014 |url=http://www.hispanistas.org.br/arquivos/revistas/sumario/revista6/109-129.pdf |journal=Abehache |volume=4 |issue=6 |trans-title=Uruguayan Portuguese and oral marks in the poetry of Uruguayan writer Agustín R. Bisio |language=es |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812061109/http://www.hispanistas.org.br/arquivos/revistas/sumario/revista6/109-129.pdf |archive-date=12 August 2019 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Boxer |first=Charles Ralph |authorlink=C. R. 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Eric |title=Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics |chapter=On the partially divergent phonology of Spanish, Portuguese and points in between |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |publication-place=Amsterdam |volume=1 |date=30 October 2014 |isbn=978-90-272-5800-7 |doi=10.1075/ihll.1.08fer |url=https://benjamins.com/catalog/ihll.1.08fer |access-date=26 April 2026 }} * {{Cite book |last=Grønnum |first=Nina |author-link=Nina Grønnum |year=2005 |title=Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk |edition=3rd |publisher=Akademisk Forlag |location=Copenhagen |isbn=978-87-500-3865-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ |access-date=25 December 2015 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112193003/https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Kevin |authorlink=Kevin Jackson (writer) |title=Invisible Forms: A Guide to Literary Curiosities |publisher=St. Martin's Press |publication-place=New York |date=2000 |isbn=978-1-4668-8854-8 }} * {{Cite book |last=Júnior |first=Benjamin Abdala |title=Literaturas de língua portuguesa |publisher=Arte & Ciência |publication-place=São Paulo |date=2007 |isbn=978-85-7473-336-4 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last=Kabatek |first=Johannes |last2=Wall |first2=Albert |title=Manual of Brazilian Portuguese Linguistics |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |date=10 October 2022 |isbn=978-3-11-040595-8 |doi=10.1515/9783110405958 |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110405958/html |pages=1–639 |access-date=28 April 2026 }} ** {{harvc|last=Lobo |first=Tânia |chapter=2: The social history of Brazilian Portuguese |pages=53–84 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=Noll |first=Volker |chapter=4: Historical phonetics and phonology |pages=113–132 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=Lipski |first=John M. |chapter=11: Brazilian Portuguese: contemporary language contacts |pages=309–336 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=da Hora |first=Dermeval |last2=Battisti |first2=Elisa |chapter=12: Sound-related aspects of Brazilian Portuguese |pages=337–368 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=Fiorin |first=José Luiz |chapter=19: Linguistic policy and the orthographic agreement |pages=553–578 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Lima |first1=Alexander da Silva |last2=Ribeiro |first2=Andryelle Brito da Silva |last3=Souza |first3=Karla Andrea Azevedo de |last4=Reis |first4=Valéria Assunção |last5=Santana |first5=Isis Terezinha Santos de |last6=Amorim |first6=Jhonata Jankowitsch |last7=Alves |first7=Marcos Túlio Elias |last8=Costa |first8=Robson Antônio Tavares |last9=Pinheiro |first9=Weider Silva |title=Texto de Fernão de Oliveira de 1536 e sua contribuição na formação da língua portuguesa |journal=Cognitionis Scientific Journal |publisher=Brazilian Journals |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=21 March 2025 |issn=2595-8801 |doi=10.38087/2595.8801.600 |page=e600 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Machado |first1=José Barbosa |title=Signo e significação no primeiro livro impresso em língua portuguesa |journal=Revista de Letras |publisher=[[University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro]] |volume=2 |number=3 |date=December 2007 |url=https://revistadeletras.utad.pt/index.php/revistadeletras/issue/view/36 |language=pt-pt |access-date=9 May 2026 }} * {{Cite book |last=Machungo |first=Inês |title=Pesquisa e ensino em línguas moçambicanas: um tributo a Bento Sitoe |chapter=Empréstimos lexicais no Português de Moçambique |date=2022 |publisher=Gala-Gala edições |isbn=978-989-53245-9-0 |language=pt-MZ |pages=100–113 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Mateus |first1=Maria Helena |last2=d'Andrade |first2=Ernesto |year=2000 |title=The Phonology of Portuguese |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Onr9OFylajYC&pg=PP1 |isbn=978-0-19-823581-1 |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105242/https://books.google.com/books?id=Onr9OFylajYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{Cite thesis |last=Martins |first=Ana Maria |title=O Primeiro Século do Português Escrito |date=2007 |access-date=April 27, 2026 |publisher=[[University of Lisbon]] |url=https://www.clul.ulisboa.pt/files/ana_maria_martins/MartinsPrimeiroSeculo.pdf |language=pt-pt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223124127/https://www.clul.ulisboa.pt/files/ana_maria_martins/MartinsPrimeiroSeculo.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2024 |pages=161–184 }} * {{Cite book |last=Neto |first=Serafim da Silva |title=História da língua portuguesa |publisher=Presença |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro |date=1986 |isbn=978-85-252-0008-2 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite journal |last=Petter |first=Margarida Maria Taddoni |title=Línguas africanas no Brasil |journal=África |issue=27-28 |date=2007-12-09 |issn=2526-303X |doi=10.11606/issn.2526-303X.v0i27-28p63-89 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Dinis (1279-1325) |journal=Acta Scientiarum. Education |publisher=Universidade Estadual de Maringá |volume=44 |date=3 March 2022 |issn=2178-5201 |doi=10.4025/actascieduc.v44i1.54713 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Teyssier |first=Paul |title=História da língua portuguesa |publisher=Livraria Sa Da Costa |publication-place=Lisboa |date=2001 |isbn=978-972-562-129-5 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Earl W. |title=A Grammar of Spoken Brazilian Portuguese |publisher=Vanderbilt University Press |location=Nashville, TN |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-8265-1197-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gm8yS1ZKJ5gC |access-date=8 January 2016 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105116/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Gm8yS1ZKJ5gC&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last=Timbane |first=Alexandre António |title=A criatividade lexical da língua portuguesa: uma análise com brasileirismos e moçambicanismos |journal=Caligrama: Revista de Estudos Românicos |volume=18 |issue=2 |date=8 November 2012 |issn=2238-3824 |doi=10.17851/2238-3824.18.2.7-30 |pages=7–30 |url=https://periodicos.ufmg.br/index.php/caligrama/article/view/30064 |access-date=28 April 2026 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Venâncio |first=Fernando |title=Assim nasceu uma língua |publisher=Tinta-da-China Brasil |publication-place=São Paulo, SP |date=2024-04-15 |isbn=978-65-84835-22-1 |language=pt-BR }} {{refend}}
== External links == * [http://crandall.altervista.org/p/phonetic-portuguese-portugues-fonetico.html ''Automatic Transcription of Phonemic and Phonetic Portuguese'']
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