Polyethnicity

{{Short description|Mutual interactions between ethnicities}} [[File:NewYorkStreetScene-People.JPG|thumb|Polyethnicity in New York City]]

'''Polyethnicity''', also known as '''pluri-ethnicity''' or '''multi-ethnicity''', refers to specific cultural phenomena that are characterized by social proximity and mutual interaction of people from different ethnic backgrounds, within a country or other specific geographic region.<ref name=mcneil85>McNeil 1985, pages 85</ref>

Same terms may also relate to the ability and willingness of individuals to identify themselves with multiple ethnicities. It occurs when multiple ethnicities inhabit a given area, specifically through means of immigration, intermarriage, trade, conquest and post-war land-divisions.<ref name=arabandi>Arabandi 2000, Online</ref><ref name=smith190>Smith 1998, page 190</ref><ref name=smith200>Smith 1998, page 200</ref> This has had many political and social implications on countries and regions.<ref name=safranintro>Safran 2000, Introduction</ref><ref name=benhabib154-155>Benhabib 1996, pages 154–155</ref>

Many, if not all, countries have some degree of polyethnicity, with countries like Nigeria and Canada having high levels and countries like Japan and Poland having very low levels (and more specifically, a sense of homogeneity).<ref name=usb>U.S. Census Bureau</ref><ref name=thomson213-215>Thomson 2000, pages 213-215</ref><ref name=Burgess>Burgess 2007, Online</ref><ref name=safran1-2>Safran 2000, pages 1-2</ref> The amount of polyethnicity prevalent in some Western countries has spurred some arguments against it, which include a belief that it leads to the weakening of each society's strengths, and also a belief that political-ethnic issues in countries with polyethnic populations are better handled with different laws for certain ethnicities.<ref name=robertson1-10>Robertson 1992, pages 1-10</ref><ref name=thomson214-215>Thomson 2000, pages 214–215</ref>

== Conceptual history == In 1985, Canadian historian William H. McNeill gave a series of three lectures on polyethnicity in ancient and modern cultures at the University of Toronto.<ref name=ritzer141>Ritzer 2004, page 141</ref> The main thesis throughout his lectures was the argument that it has been the cultural norm for societies to be composed of different ethnic groups. McNeill argued that the ideal of homogeneous societies may have grown between 1750 and 1920 in Western Europe because of the growth in the belief in a single nationalistic base for the political organization of society. McNeill believed that during World War I, the desire for homogeneous nations began to weaken.<ref name=dr>Dreisziger 1990, pages 1-2</ref>

== Impact on politics == Polyethnicity divides nations, complicating the politics as local and national governments attempt to satisfy all ethnic groups.<ref name=safranintro/> Many politicians in countries attempt to find the balance between ethnic identities within their country and the identity of the nation as a whole.<ref name=safranintro/> Nationalism also plays a large part in these political debates, as cultural pluralism and consociationalism are the democratic alternatives to nationalism for the polyethnic state.<ref name=kellas8>Kellas 1991, page 8</ref>

The idea of nationalism being social instead of ethnic entails a variety of culture, a shared sense of identity and a community not based on descent.<ref name=kellas65>Kellas 1991, page 65</ref> Culturally-plural states vary constitutionally between a decentralized and unitary state (such as the United Kingdom) and a federal state (such as Belgium, Switzerland, and Canada).<ref name=kellas180-183>Kellas 1991, pages 180-183</ref> Ethnic parties in these polyethnic regions are not anti-state but instead seek maximum power within this state.<ref name=robertson1-10/><ref name=kellas65/> Many polyethnic countries face that dilemma with their policy decisions.<ref name=safran2-3>Safran 2000, pages 2-3</ref> The following nations and regions are just a few specific examples of this dilemma and its effects:

=== United States === <div style="font-size: 90%"> {| class="wikitable" border="1" table style="border:1px black; float:right; margin-left:1em" ! style="background:#f99;" colspan="2"|U.S. languages (2006)<ref name=usb/> |- |English (''only'')||224.2 million |- |Spanish, incl. Creole||34.0 million |- |Chinese||2.5 million |- |French, incl. Creole||2.0 million |- |Tagalog||1.4 million |- |Vietnamese||1.2 million |- |German||1.1 million |- |Korean||1.1 million |} </div> The United States is a nation founded by different ethnicities frequently described as coming together in a "melting pot," a term used to emphasize the degree to which constituent groups influence and are influenced by each other, or a "salad bowl," a term more recently coined in contrast to the "melting pot" metaphor and emphasizing those groups' retention of fundamentally distinct identities despite their proximity to each other and their influence on the overall culture that all of those groups inhabit.<ref name="adams">Adams 2001 {{Page needed|date=January 2021}}</ref>

A controversial political issue in recent years has been the question of bilingualism.<ref name=oakland>Navarrette 2007, online</ref> Many immigrants have come from Hispanic America, who are native Spanish speakers, in the past centuries and have become a significant minority and even a majority in many areas of the Southwest.<ref name=usb/><ref name=languages>Hakimzadeh 2007, Online</ref> In New Mexico the Spanish speaking population exceeds 40%.<ref name=usb/><ref>Crawford 1992, page 154</ref> Disputes have emerged over language policy, since a sizeable part of the population, and in many areas the majority of the population, speak Spanish as a native language.<ref name=oakland/>

The biggest debates are over bilingual education for language minority students, the availability of non-English ballots and election materials and whether or not English is the official language.<ref name=oakland/><ref>Cromwell 1998, Online</ref><ref>Roache 1996, Online</ref> It has evolved into an ethnic conflict between the pluralists who support bilingualism and linguistic access and the assimilationists who strongly oppose this and lead the official English movement.<ref name=young73>Young 1993, page 73</ref> The United States does not have an official language, but English is the ''de facto'' national language and is spoken by the overwhelming majority of the country's population.<ref name=mcarthur38>McArthur 1998, page 38</ref>

=== Canada === Canada has had many political debates between the French speakers and English speakers, particularly in the province of Quebec.<ref name=belanger>Bélanger 2000, online</ref> Canada holds both French and English as official languages.<ref name=tuohy325>Tuohy 1992, page 325</ref> The politics in Quebec are largely defined by nationalism as French Québécois wish to gain independence from Canada as a whole, based on ethnic and linguistic boundaries.<ref name=mcneil86>McNeil 1985, page 86</ref> The main separatist party, Parti Québécois, attempted to gain sovereignty twice (once in 1980 and again in 1995) and failed by a narrow margin of 1.2% in 1995.<ref name=leyton>Leyton-Brown 2002, page 5</ref> Since then, in order to remain united, Canada granted Quebec ''statut particulier'', recognizing Quebec as a nation within the united nation of Canada.<ref name=calgary>The Calgary Declaration</ref>

=== Belgium === The divide between the Dutch-speaking north (Flanders) and the French-speaking South (Wallonia) has caused the parliamentary democracy to become ethnically polarized.<ref name=lj39>Lijphart 199, page 39</ref> Though an equal number of seats in the Chamber of Representatives are prescribed to the Flemish and Walloons, Belgian political parties have all divided into two ideologically identical but linguistically and ethnically different parties.<ref name=lj39/> The political crisis has grown so bad in recent years that the partition of Belgium has been feared.<ref name=sfchronicle>Bryant, Online</ref>

=== Ethiopia === Ethiopia is a polyethnic nation consisting of 80 different ethnic groups and 84 indigenous languages.<ref name=levinson131>Levinson 1998, page 131</ref><ref name=ethnologue>Grimes 1996</ref> The diverse population and the rural areas throughout the nation made it nearly impossible to create a strong centralized state, but it was eventually accomplished through political evolution.<ref name=young147>Young 1993, page 147</ref> Prior to 1974, nationalism was discussed only within radical student groups, but by the late 20th century, the issue had come to the forefront of political debate.<ref name=tiruneh>Tiruneh 1993, page 150</ref><ref name=young149>Young 1993, page 149</ref>

Ethiopia was forced to modernize their political system to properly handle nationalism debates.<ref name=young149/> The Derg military government took control with a Marxist–Leninist ideology, urging self-determination and rejecting compromise over any nationality issues.<ref name=young152>Young 1993, page 152</ref> In the 1980s, Ethiopia suffered a series of famines and, after the Soviet Union broke apart, lost its aid from the Soviets; the Derg government later collapsed.<ref name=young152/> Eventually, Ethiopia restabilized and adopted a modern political system that models a federal parliamentary republic.<ref name=kavalski>Kavalski 2008, page 31</ref>

It was still impossible to create a central government holding all power and so the central government was torn.<ref name=young159>Young 1993, page 159</ref> It now presides over ethnically-based regional states, and each ethnic state is granted the right to establish its own government with democracy.<ref name=young209>Young 1993, page 209</ref>

=== Spain === In Spain from 1808 to 1814, the Spanish War of Independence took place in a multicultural Spain.<ref name=baramendi>Baramendi 2000, pages 80-84</ref> Spain, at the time, was then under the control of King Joseph Bonaparte, who was Napoleon Bonaparte's brother.<ref name=baramendi/> Because they were under the control of French rule, the Spanish formed coalitions of ethnic groups to reclaim their own political representation to replace the French political system, which had lost power.<ref name=baramendi/>

=== Southeast Asia === left|thumb|Southeast Asia countries, 2009-10-10 In Southeast Asia the continental area (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam) generally practices Theravada or Mahayana Buddhism.<ref name="hirschman19">Hirschman 1995 page 19</ref> Most of insular Southeast Asia (namely Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia) practices mostly Sunni Islam.<ref name=hirschman20>Hirschman 1995 page 20</ref> The rest of the insular region (Philippines and East Timor) practices mostly Roman Catholic Christianity and Singapore practises mostly Mahayana Buddhism.<ref name=hirschman20/>

Significant long-distance labor migration that occurred during the late 19th century and the early 20th century provided many different types of ethnic diversity.<ref name=hirschman21>Hirschman 1995 page 21</ref> Relations between the indigenous population of the region arose from regional variations of cultural and linguistic groups.<ref name=hirschman21/> Immigrant minorities, especially the Chinese, then developed as well.<ref name=hirschman21/> Although there were extreme political differences for each minority and religion, they were still legitimate members of political communities, and there has been a significant amount of unity throughout history.<ref name=hirschman22>Hirschman 1995 page 22</ref> This differs from both nearby East and South Asia.<ref name=hirschman22/>

== Impact on society == Polyethnicity, over time, can change the way societies practice cultural norms.<ref name=benhabib154-155/>

=== Marriage === An increase in intermarriage in the United States has led to the blurring of ethnic lines.<ref name=arabandi/> Anti-miscegenation laws (laws banning interracial marriages) were abolished in the United States in 1967 and now it is estimated that one-fifth of the population in the United States by 2050 will be part of the polyethnic population.<ref name=lee221-245>Lee 2000, pages 221-245</ref> In 2000, self-identified Multiracial Americans numbered 6.8 million or 2.4% of the population.<ref name=usb/><ref name=jonessmith>Jones & Smith 2000 Online</ref> While the number of interethnic marriages is on the rise, there are certain ethnic groups that have been found more likely to become polyethnic and recognize themselves with more than one ethnic background. Bhavani Arabandi states in his article on polyethnicity that:<blockquote> Asians and Latinos have much higher rates of interethnic marriages than do blacks, and they are more likely to report polyethnicity than blacks who more often claim a single ethnicity and racial identity. This is the case, the authors [Lee, J & Bean, F.D] argue, because blacks have a "legacy of slavery," a history of discrimination, and have been victimized by the "one-drop rule" (where having any black blood automatically labeled one as black) in the US.<ref name=arabandi/> </blockquote>

=== Military === thumb|Maj. Gen. William B. Garrett III, commander of U.S. Army Africa, Gen. Nyakayirima Aronda, Chief of Defense Forces, Ugandan People's Defense Force and Gen. Jeremiah Kianga, Chief of General Staff, Kenya, render honors during the opening ceremony for Natural Fire 10, Kitgum, Uganda, Oct. 16, 2009. Presently, most armed forces are composed of people from different ethnic backgrounds.<ref name=dr/> They are considered to be polyethnic due to the differences in race, ethnicity, language or background.<ref name="dr2">Dreisziger 1990 page 1</ref> While there are many examples of polyethnic forces, the most prominent are among the largest armed forces in the world, including those of the United States, the former Soviet Union, and China.<ref name=dr/> Polyethnic armed forces are not a new phenomenon since multi-ethnic forces existed during the Roman Empire, the Middle Eastern Empires, and even the Mongol Khans.<ref name=dr2/> The US military was one of the first modern militaries to begin ethnic integration, by order of President Harry Truman in 1945.<ref name=yang>Yang 2000, page 168</ref>

== Criticisms == There are also arguments against polyethnicity, as well as the assimilation of ethnicities in polyethnic regions. Wilmot Robertson in ''The Ethnostate'' and Dennis L. Thomson in ''The Political Demands of Isolated Indian Bands in British Columbia'', argue for some level of separatism.<ref name=robertson1-10/><ref name=thomson214-215/>

In ''The Ethnostate'', Robertson declares polyethnicity as an ideal that only lessens each culture.<ref name=robertson1-10/> He believes that, within a polyethnic culture, the nation or region as a whole is less capable of cultural culmination than each of the individual ethnicities that make it up.<ref name=robertson10>Robertson 1992 p. 10</ref> Essentially, polyethnicity promotes the dilution of ethnicity and thus hinders each ethnicity in all aspects of culture.<ref name=robertson10/>

In ''The Political Demands of Isolated Indian Bands in British Columbia'', Thomson points out the benefits in some level (albeit small) of separatist policies.<ref name=thomson214-215/> He argues the benefits of allowing ethnic groups, like the Amish and the Hutterites in the United States and Canada or the Sami in Norway, to live on the edges of governance.<ref name=thomson214-215/> These are ethnic groups that would prefer to retain their ethnic identity and thus prefer separatist policies for themselves, as they do not require them to conform to policies for all ethnicities of the nation.<ref name=thomson214-215/>

== Notes == {{reflist|30em}}

== References == {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book |last=Adams |first=J.Q |author2=Strother-Adams, Pearlie |title=Dealing with Diversity |publisher=Kendall/Hunt |location=Chicago |year=2001 |isbn=0-7872-8145-X}} * {{cite book |last=Arabandi |first=Bhavani |title=Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology: Polyethnicity |editor=George Ritzer |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4051-2433-1}} * {{cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DTTable?_bm=y&-context=dt&-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_&-CONTEXT=dt&-mt_name=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_B02001&-tree_id=306&-redoLog=false&-currentselections=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_B02001&-currentselections=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_B02003&-currentselections=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_C02003&-geo_id=01000US&-geo_id=02000US1&-geo_id=02000US2&-geo_id=02000US3&-geo_id=02000US4&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en |title=B02001. RACE - Universe: TOTAL POPULATION |work=2006 American Community Survey |access-date=2008-01-30 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200211183834/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DTTable?_bm=y&-context=dt&-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_&-CONTEXT=dt&-mt_name=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_B02001&-tree_id=306&-redoLog=false&-currentselections=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_B02001&-currentselections=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_B02003&-currentselections=ACS_2006_EST_G2000_C02003&-geo_id=01000US&-geo_id=02000US1&-geo_id=02000US2&-geo_id=02000US3&-geo_id=02000US4&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en |archive-date=2020-02-11 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite web |url=http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/readings/llaws.htm |title=The Rise of the Language Issue since the Quiet Revolution |first=Claude |last=Bélanger |publisher=Marianopolis College |date=August 2000 |access-date=2009-11-22}} * {{cite book |last=Benhabib |first=Seyla |title=Democracy and difference: contesting the boundaries of the political |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1996 |isbn=0-691-04478-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/democracydiffere0000unse }} * {{cite book |last=Beramendi |first=Justo G |title=Identity and Territorial Autonomy in Plural Societies: "Identity, Ethnicity, and the State in Spain: 19th and 20th Centuries" |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |isbn=0-7146-5027-7}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf |first=Angela |last=Brittingham |author2=G. Patricia de la Cruz |title=Ancestry 2000 |publisher=U.S.Census Bureau |date=June 2004 |access-date=2007-06-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040920132346/http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf |archive-date=2004-09-20 }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/10/12/MNB6SEM9K.DTL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429194505/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/10/12/MNB6SEM9K.DTL |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 29, 2011 |title=Divisions could lead to a partition in Belgium |first=Elizabeth |last=Bryant |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=2008-05-28 |date=2007-10-12}} * {{cite web |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20070327zg.html|first=Chris |last=Burgess|title=Multicultural Japan remains a pipe dream|publisher=Japan Times|access-date=2009-11-22|date=March 2007}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.exec.gov.nl.ca/currentevents/unity/unityr1.htm |title=The Calgary Declaration: Premiers' Meeting |publisher=Canadian Executive Council |access-date=2009-11-22 |date=September 14, 1997}} * {{cite book |last=Crawford |first=James |title=Language loyalties: a source book on the official English controversy |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-226-12016-3}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr047.shtml |title=The Bilingual Education Debate: Part I |first=Sharon |last=Cromwell |publisher=Education World|year=1998 |access-date=2009-11-22}} * {{cite book |last=Dreisziger |first=Nándor F. |title=Ethnic armies: polyethnic armed forces from the time of the Habsburgs to the age of the superpowers |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |year = 1990 |isbn=0-88920-993-6}} * {{cite book |last=Grimes |first=Joseph Evans |author2=Barbara F. Grimes |title=Ethnologue: language family index to the thirteenth edition of the Ethnologue |publisher =Summer Institute of Linguistics |year=1996 |isbn=1-55671-028-3}} * {{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-6.pdf |title=The Two or More Races Population: 2000. Census 2000 Brief |access-date=2008-05-08 |last=Jones |first=Nicholas A. |author2=Amy Symens Smith |publisher=United States Census Bureau |date=November 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729121559/https://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-6.pdf |archive-date=2019-07-29 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite web |url=http://pewresearch.org/pubs/644/english-language-usage-hispanics |title=English Usage among Hispanics in the United States |first=Shirin |last=Hakimzadeh |author2=D'Vera Cohn |date=November 2007 |access-date=2009-11-22 |publisher=Pew Research Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215031706/http://pewresearch.org/pubs/644/english-language-usage-hispanics |archive-date=2012-12-15 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Hirschman |first=Charles |title=Population, Ethnicity, and Nation-Building |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, Colorado |year=1995 |isbn=0-8133-8953-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/populationethnic00calv }} * {{cite book |last=Kavalski |first=Emilian |author2=Magdalena Żółkoś |title=Defunct federalisms: critical perspectives on federal failure |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7546-4984-7}} * {{cite book |last=Kellas |first=James G. |title=The Politics of Nationalism and Ethnicity |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1991 |isbn=0-312-06159-5}} * {{cite book |last=Lee |first=J. |author2=Bean, F.D. |title=American Review of Sociology: America's Changing Color Lines: Immigration, Race/Ethnicity, and Multiracial Identification |year=2000}} * {{cite book |last=Levinson |first=David |title=Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1998 |isbn=1-57356-019-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicgroupsworl00levi }} * {{cite book |last=Leyton-Brown |first=David |title=Canadian Annual Review of Politics and Public Affairs: 1995 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=0-8020-3673-2}} * {{cite book |last=Lijphart|first=Arend |title=Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries |publisher=Yale University |year=1999 |isbn=0-300-07893-5}} * {{cite book |last=McArthur |first=Thomas Burns |title=The English languages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-521-48130-9 }} * {{cite book |last=McNeill |first=William H. |title=Polyethnicity and National Unity in World History |url=https://archive.org/details/polyethnicitynat0000mcne |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |year=1985 |isbn=0-8020-6643-7}} * {{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_20070606/ai_n19203054/ |title=Language debate only divides us further |first=Ruben |last=Navarrette |access-date=2009-11-22 |publisher=Oakland Tribune|date=June 2007}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}} * {{cite book |last=Rajagopalan |first=Swarna |title=Identity and Territorial Autonomy in Plural Societies: "Internal Unit Demarcation and National Identity: India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka" |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |isbn=0-7146-5027-7}} * {{cite book |last=Ritzer |first=George |title=Handbook of social problems: a comparative international perspective |publisher=SAGE |year=2004 |isbn=0-7619-2610-0 }} * {{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nizd=1347&dat=19960419&id=VtUSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=svwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6838,5781233 |title=Panel opens debate on bilingual ballots |publisher=The Ledger |first=Mario |last=Roache |date=April 1996 |access-date=2009-11-22}} * {{cite book |last=Robertson |first=Wilmot |title=The Ethnostate |publisher=Howard Allen Enterprises, Inc |location=Cape Canaveral, FL |year=1992 |isbn=0-914576-22-4}} * {{cite book |last=Shaw |first=Ian |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |location=Oxford, England |isbn=0-500-05074-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/chronicleofphara00clay }} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Anthony D. |title=Nationalism and modernism |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=0-415-06341-8}} * {{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_DP2&-context=adp&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-tree_id=306&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format= |title=Selected Social Characteristics in the United States: 2007 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=2008-10-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425163238/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_DP2&-context=adp&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-tree_id=306&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format= |archive-date=2009-04-25 }} * {{cite book |last=Thomson |first=Dennis L |title=Identity and Territorial Autonomy in Plural Societies: "The Political Demands of Isolated Indian Bands in British Columbia" |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |isbn=0-7146-5027-7}} * {{cite book |last=Tiruneh |first=Andargachew |title=The Ethiopian revolution, 1974-1987: a transformation from an aristocratic to a totalitarian autocracy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |isbn=0-521-43082-8}} * {{cite book |last=Tuohy |first=Carolyn J. |title=Policy and politics in Canada: institutionalized ambivalence |publisher=Temple University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-87722-870-1}} * {{cite book |last=Yang |first=Philip Q. |title=Ethnic studies: issues and approaches |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-7914-4480-5}} * {{cite book |last=Young|first=Crawford |title=The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism |url=https://archive.org/details/risingtideofcult00youn|url-access=registration|publisher=The University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison, WI|year=1993 |isbn=0-299-13880-1}} * {{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2008pubs/09statab/pop.pdf|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|author=United States Census Bureau|work=Statistical Abstract of the United States 2009| title=Table 52—Languages Spoken at Home by Language: 2006|access-date = 2009-10-11}} * {{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DatasetMainPageServlet?_program=ACS&_submenuId=&_lang=en&_ts=|access-date=2009-11-22|author=United States Census Bureau|title=United States - Data Sets - American FactFinder|publisher=United States Census Bureau|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212042343/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DatasetMainPageServlet?_program=ACS&_submenuId=&_lang=en&_ts=|archive-date=2020-02-12|url-status=dead}} {{refend}}

{{good article}} {{Ethnicity}} Category:Ethnicity Category:Multiculturalism