{{short description|Type of vehicle}} {{for-multi|the more general category of electric drive for all type of vehicles|electric vehicle|the specific electric drive cars and SUVs|electric car|and|plug-in hybrid}} {{Multiple image | align = right | caption_align = center | direction = vertical | header = {{ubl|All-time top-selling plug-in cars|{{small|(global sales since inception)}}}} | header_align = center | width = 235k | image1 = Tesla Model Y (2025) MYLE Festival 2025 DSC 9565.jpg | caption1 = [[Tesla Model Y]] [[electric car]] (2.49 million) | image2 = Tesla Model 3 Performance (Facelift) – f 01012025.jpg | caption2 = [[Tesla Model 3]] [[electric car]] (2.06 million) | image3 = 2021 Wuling Hongguang Mini EV Macaron (front).jpg | caption3 = [[Wuling Hongguang Mini EV]] [[electric car]] (1.22 million) | image4 = 2023 BYD Song Plus DM-i (front).jpg | caption4 = [[BYD Song|BYD Song DM]] [[plug-in hybrid car]] (>1.05 million) | footer = {{small|{{as of|2023|12}}<ref name=MY>{{Cite web |last=Akhtar |first=Riz |date=2024-01-29 |title=Tesla Model Y confirmed as world's best-selling car in 2023, beating Rav4 and Corolla |url=https://thedriven.io/2024/01/29/tesla-model-y-confirmed-as-worlds-best-selling-car-in-2023-beating-rav4-and-corolla/ |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=The Driven |language=en-US |quote=The Model Y first emerged as a best seller in the first quarter of last year, and now data firm Jato Dynamics has confirmed that it maintained this status for the entire year, selling 1.23 million cars.}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=【易车销量榜】全国2021年纯电动批发量销量榜-易车榜-易车 |url=https://car.yiche.com/newcar/salesrank/?flag=2021&energy=2&saleType=0 |access-date=2024-01-21 |website=car.yiche.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=【易车销量榜】全国2023年插电混动批发量销量榜-易车榜-易车 |url=https://car.yiche.com/newcar/salesrank/?flag=2023&energy=3&saleType=0 |access-date=2024-01-21 |website=car.yiche.com}}</ref><ref name="GlobalTopEVs062023">{{Cite web |last=Pontes |first=José |date=2023-08-02 |title=World EV Sales Now 19% Of World Auto Sales! |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2023/08/02/world-ev-sales-now-19-of-world-auto-sales/ |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=CleanTechnica |language=en-US}} "The top 5 global best selling plug-in electric cars during the first half of 2023 were the Tesla Model Y (579,552), the Tesla Model 3 (279,320), the BYD Song (BEV + PHEV) with 259,723, the BYD Qin Plus (BEV + PHEV) with 204,529 and the BYD Yuan Plus/Atto 3 (201,505). The Wuling Hongguang Mini EV sold 122,052 units, the BYD Han (BEV + PHEV) 96,437 units and the VW ID.4 86,481 units."</ref>}} }}
A '''plug-in electric vehicle''' is any [[road vehicle]] that can utilize an external source of [[electricity]] (such as a [[wall socket]] that connects to the [[power grid]]) via a detachable [[power cable]] to store [[electrical energy]] within its [[electric vehicle battery|onboard rechargeable battery packs]], which will in turn power an [[electric motor|electric]] [[traction motor]] that propels the vehicle's [[drive wheel]]s. It is a [[subset]] of [[electric vehicle]]s and includes [[battery electric vehicle|all-electric/battery electric vehicle]]s (BEVs) and [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s (PHEVs)<ref name=PEVs>{{cite book |title=Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? |editor=[[David B. Sandalow]] |year=2009 |publisher=[[The Brookings Institution]] |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |edition=1st. |url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx |pages=2–5}} ''See definition on pp. 2.''</ref><ref name="CSE"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.duke-energy.com/plugin/pev-faqs.asp |title=PEV Frequently Asked Questions |publisher=[[Duke Energy]] |access-date=2010-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327101552/http://www.duke-energy.com/plugin/pev-faqs.asp |archive-date=2012-03-27}}</ref> both of which are capable of sustained [[charge-depleting|all-electric driving]] within [[all-electric range|a designated range]] due to the ability to fully charge their batteries before a journey.
Plug-in electric vehicles have several benefits compared to conventional [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles. All-electric vehicles have lower operating and maintenance costs, and produce little or no [[air pollution]] when under [[all-electric mode]], thus (depending on the electricity source) reducing societal dependence on [[fossil fuel]]s and significantly decreasing [[greenhouse gas emissions]], but recharging takes longer time than refueling and is heavily reliant on sufficient [[electric vehicle charging network|charging infrastructure]]s to remain operationally practical. Plug-in hybrid vehicles are a good in-between option that provides most of electric vehicles' benefits when they are operating in electric mode, though typically having shorter [[all-electric range]]s, but have the auxiliary option of driving as a [[full hybrid|conventional hybrid vehicle]] when the battery is low, using its internal combustion engine (usually a [[gasoline engine]]) to alleviate the [[range anxiety]] that accompanies current electric vehicles.
Sales of the first [[production car|series production]] plug-in electric vehicles began in December 2008 with the introduction of the plug-in hybrid [[BYD F3DM]], and then with the all-electric [[Mitsubishi i-MiEV]] in July 2009, but global [[retail sales]] only gained traction after the introduction of the [[mass production]] all-electric [[Nissan Leaf]] and the plug-in hybrid [[Chevrolet Volt]] in December 2011. Cumulative global sales of highway-legal plug-in electric [[passenger car]]s and [[Utility vehicle|light utility vehicle]]s achieved the 1 million unit mark in September 2015,<ref name=Global1mi/> 5 million in December 2018.<ref name=5miGlobal/> and the 10 million unit milestone in 2020.<ref name=Global10mi>{{cite web |url=https://www.zap-map.com/there-are-now-more-than-10-million-electric-vehicles-on-the-road/ |title=There are now more than 10 million electric vehicles on the road |first=Jess |last=Shanahan |work=Zap Map |date=2021-01-21 |access-date=2021-01-21 |quote=there are now more than 10 million of these vehicles on the road around the world. According to EV Volumes, the total is now 10.8 million worldwide}}</ref> Despite the rapid growth experienced, however, the stock of plug-in electric vehicles represented just 1% of all passengers vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2020, of which pure electrics constituted two thirds.<ref name=GlobalEVOutlook2021>{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021 |title=Global EV Outlook 2021: Accelerating ambitions despite the pandemic |author=International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=[[International Energy Agency]] |date=2021-04-29 |access-date=2021-05-16 |quote=After a decade of rapid growth, in 2020 the global electric car stock hit the 10 million mark, a 43% increase over 2019, and representing a 1% stock share. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) accounted for two thirds of new electric car registrations and two-thirds of the stock in 2020.}}</ref>
{{As of|2023|12}}, the [[Tesla Model Y]] ranked as the world's top selling highway-capable plug-in electric car in history.<ref name="MY" /> The [[Tesla Model 3]] was the first electric car to achieve global sales of more than 1,000,000 units.<ref name="Model3TopEV">{{cite news |last=Holland |first=Maximilian |date=2020-02-10 |title=Tesla Passes 1 Million EV Milestone & Model 3 Becomes All Time Best Seller |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2020/03/10/tesla-passes-1-million-ev-milestone-and-model-3-becomes-all-time-best-seller/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412045911/https://cleantechnica.com/2020/03/10/tesla-passes-1-million-ev-milestone-and-model-3-becomes-all-time-best-seller/ |archive-date=April 12, 2020 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=CleanTechnica |quote=Tesla's quarterly reports, meanwhile, had put the Model 3's cumulative sales at 447,980 at the end of 2019.}}</ref><ref name=1miModel3>{{cite web |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2021/08/26/tesla-model-3-has-passed-1-million-sales/ |title=Tesla Model 3 Has Passed 1 Million Sales |first=Zachary |last=Shahan |publisher=CleanTechnica |date=2021-08-26 |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref> The [[BYD Song|BYD Song DM]] SUV series is the world's all-time best selling plug-in hybrid, with global sales over 1,050,000 units through December 2023.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web |title=【易车销量榜】全国2023年比亚迪插电混动零售量销量榜-易车榜-易车 |url=https://car.yiche.com/newcar/salesrank/?flag=2023&brandId=15&energy=3 |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=car.yiche.com}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite web |title=【易车销量榜】全国2022年比亚迪插电混动零售量销量榜-易车榜-易车 |url=https://car.yiche.com/newcar/salesrank/?flag=2022&brandId=15&energy=3 |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=car.yiche.com}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=2021年全球新能源乘用车销量榜: 冠亚军分别是特斯拉、比亚迪、上汽通用五菱-华夏EV网 |url=http://www.evinchina.com/newsshow-779.html#:~:text=%E5%AF%BC%E8%AF%BB%EF%BC%9A2021%E5%B9%B4%EF%BC%8C%E7%89%B9%E6%96%AF,%E4%B8%89%E6%AC%BE%E6%96%B0%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E8%BD%A6%E3%80%82 |access-date=2024-04-30 |website=www.evinchina.com}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite web |title=【易车销量榜】全国2020年比亚迪插电混动零售量销量榜-易车榜-易车 |url=https://car.yiche.com/newcar/salesrank/?flag=2020&brandId=15&energy=3 |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=car.yiche.com}}</ref> {{As of|2021|12}}, [[China]] had the world's largest stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars with 7.84 million units, representing 46% of the world's stock of plug-in cars.<ref name=China2021parc/> [[Europe]] ranked next with about 5.6 million light-duty plug-in cars and vans at the end of 2021, accounting for around 32% of the global stock.<ref name="EVOutlook2020" /><ref name="Europe2021ACEA"/><ref name="Europe2021ACEA_LCV"/> The U.S. cumulative sales totaled about 2.32 million plug-in cars through December 2021.<ref name="SalesUSA2021">{{cite web |url=https://www.anl.gov/es/light-duty-electric-drive-vehicles-monthly-sales-updates |title=Light Duty Electric Drive Vehicles Monthly Sales Updates: Plug-In Vehicle Sales |author=[[Argonne National Laboratory]] |publisher=Argonne National Laboratory |date=January 2022 |access-date=2022-01-13 |quote=Cumulatively, 607,567 PHEVs and BEVs have been sold in 2021. In total, 2,322,291 PHEVs and BEVs have been sold since 2010.}}</ref> {{As of|2021|07}}, [[Germany]] is the leading European country with cumulative sales of 1 million plug-in vehicles on the road,<ref name="Germany1mi">{{cite press release |url=https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2021/08/20210802-erstmals-rollen-eine-million-elektrofahrzeuge-auf-deutschen-strassen.html |title=Erstmals rollen eine Million Elektrofahrzeuge auf deutschen Straßen |language=German |trans-title=For the first time, a million electric vehicles are rolling on German roads |author=Bundersministerium für Wirstschaft und Energie |publisher=BMWI |date=2021-08-02 |access-date=2021-10-12 |archive-date=2021-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028170141/https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2021/08/20210802-erstmals-rollen-eine-million-elektrofahrzeuge-auf-deutschen-strassen.html }}</ref> and also has led the continent plug-in sales since 2019.<ref name="Europe2021ACEA"/><ref name="Germay2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.kba.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/Fahrzeugzulassungen/pm02_2021_n_12_20_pm_komplett.html? |title=Pressemitteilung Nr. 02/2021 - Fahrzeugzulassungen im Dezember 2020 - Jahresbilanz |language=de |trans-title=Press release No. 02/2021 - Vehicle registrations in December 2020 - Annual balance sheet |author=Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) |publisher=KBA |date=2021-01-08 |access-date=2021-01-21 |archive-date=2021-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719055859/https://www.kba.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/Fahrzeugzulassungen/pm02_2021_n_12_20_pm_komplett.html }} ''A total of 394,632 plug-in electric passenger cars were registered in Germany in 2021, consisting of 200,469 plug-in hybrids (6.9% market share) and 194,163 all-electric cars (6.7% market share).''</ref> [[Norway]] has the highest [[market penetration]] [[per capita]] in the world,<ref name="TopTen2016">{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/top-10-plug-in-vehicle-adopting-countries-of-2016/ |title=Top 10 Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries of 2016 |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=17 January 2017 |access-date=23 January 2017 |archive-date=29 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429203246/https://www.hybridcars.com/top-10-plug-in-vehicle-adopting-countries-of-2016/ }}</ref> and also achieved in 2021 the world's largest annual plug-in [[market share]] ever registered, 86.2% of new car sales.<ref name=Norway2021/>
{{toc limit|3}}
==Terminology== [[File:Brammo Empulse at charging station, August 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Brammo Empulse]] [[electric motorcycle]] at a [[charging station]]]]
===Plug-in electric vehicle=== A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any [[motor vehicle]] with [[Rechargeable battery|rechargeable battery packs]] that can be charged from the [[electric grid]], and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion.<ref name=PEVs/><ref name=CSE/> Plug-in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid-enabled vehicles (GEV),<ref name=CSE/> and the [[European Automobile Manufacturers Association]] (ACEA) calls them electrically chargeable vehicles (ECV).<ref name=ACEA1>{{cite web |url=http://www.acea.be/index.php/news/news_detail/electric_vehicles_turning_buzz_into_reality/ |title=Electric Vehicles: Turning Buzz into Reality |publisher=[[European Automobile Manufacturers Association]] |date=2010-02-09 |access-date=2010-04-23 |archive-date=2010-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329032149/http://www.acea.be/index.php/news/news_detail/electric_vehicles_turning_buzz_into_reality/ }}</ref>
PEV is a subcategory of [[electric vehicle]]s that includes [[battery electric vehicle]]s (BEVs), [[plug-in hybrid vehicle]]s (PHEVs), and [[electric vehicle conversion]]s of [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s and conventional [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles.<ref name=PEVs/><ref name=CSE>{{cite web |url=http://energycenter.org/index.php/technical-assistance/transportation/electric-vehicles |title=Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) |publisher=Center for Sustainable Energy, California |access-date=2010-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620210051/http://energycenter.org/index.php/technical-assistance/transportation/electric-vehicles |archive-date=2010-06-20 }}</ref> Even though conventional [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s (HEVs) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the [[internal combustion engine]] and [[regenerative braking]], they can not be recharged from an off-vehicle electric energy source, and therefore, they do not belong to the category of plug-in electric vehicles.<ref name=PEVs/><ref name=CSE/>
"Plug-in electric drive vehicle" is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for [[Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles#Federal government|federal tax credits]] depending on battery size and their all-electric range.<ref name=IRS2009>{{cite web |url=https://www.irs.gov/irb/2009-48_IRB/ar09.html |title=Notice 2009–89: New Qualified Plug-in Electric Drive Motor Vehicle Credit |publisher=[[Internal Revenue Service]] |date=2009-11-30 |access-date=2010-04-01}}</ref><ref name=IRS0409>{{cite web |url=https://www.energy.gov/taxbreaks.htm |title=Consumer Energy Tax Incentives: Plug-In Hybrid Conversion Kits |publisher=[[U.S. Department of Energy]] |access-date=2010-04-01 |archive-date=2011-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728004717/http://www.energy.gov/taxbreaks.htm }}</ref> In some European countries, particularly in France, "electrically chargeable vehicle" is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives.<ref name=ACEA2>{{cite web |url=http://www.acea.be/index.php/news/news_detail/an_increasing_number_of_member_states_levy_co2_based_taxation_or_incentivis/ |title=An Increasing Number of Member States Levy CO2-Based Taxation or Incentivise Electric Vehicles |publisher=[[European Automobile Manufacturers Association]] |date=2010-04-21 |access-date=2010-04-23}}</ref> While the term "plug-in electric vehicle" most often refers to [[automobile]]s or "plug-in cars", there are several other types of plug-in electric vehicle, including [[battery electric multiple unit]]s, [[electric motorcycles and scooters]], [[neighborhood electric vehicle]]s or [[microcar]]s, [[city car]]s, [[van]]s, buses, [[electric truck|electric trucks or lorries]], and military vehicles.<ref name=PEVTracker>{{cite web |url=http://www.pluginamerica.org/vehicles |title=Plug-in Vehicle Tracker: What's Coming, When |work=Plug In America |publisher=[[Plug In America]] |access-date=2012-01-15 |archive-date=2013-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111054917/http://www.pluginamerica.org/vehicles }}</ref>
===New energy vehicles=== {{Main|Alternative energy vehicle}}
{{See also|Plug-in electric vehicles in China}} In [[China]], the term ''new energy vehicles'' (NEVs) refers to automobile vehicles that are fully powered or predominantly powered by [[alternative energy]] other than [[fossil fuel]]s, typically referring to [[electric motor]]-propelled vehicles such as [[battery electric vehicle]]s (BEVs), [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s (PHEVs) and [[fuel cell electric vehicle]]s (FCEVs, mainly [[hydrogen vehicle#Automobiles|hydrogen fuel cell vehicle]]s). The [[Chinese Government]] began implementation of its NEV program in 2009 to foster the development and introduction of new energy vehicles,<ref name=NEVs>{{cite web |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/333531468216944327/pdf/612590WP0PRTM01BOX358342B01PUBLIC11.pdf |title=The China New Energy Vehicles Program – Challenges and Opportunities |author=PRTM Management Consultants, Inc. |publisher=[[World Bank]] |date=April 2011 |access-date=2020-06-19}} ''See Acronyms and Key Terms, pp. v''</ref> aiming to reduce the country's [[list of countries by oil imports|reliance on petroleum imports]] and better achieve [[energy security]] by promoting more [[electrified]] transportation powered by [[energy independence|domestically generated]], [[sustainable]] energy supply (see [[Energy policy of China]]).
===Battery electric vehicles=== {{Main|Battery electric vehicle}}
[[File:Army receives first of six NEVs 12 Jan 2009.jpg|thumb|[[U.S. Army]] [[Global Electric Motorcars|GEM e2]] [[neighborhood electric vehicle]]]] A [[battery electric vehicle]] (BEV) uses chemical [[energy]] stored in [[rechargeable battery]] [[battery pack|packs]] as its only source for propulsion.<ref name=CSE/><ref name=EERE_EV>{{cite web |url=http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/electric_basics_ev.html |title=All-Electric Vehicle Basics |publisher=Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, US DoE |access-date=2010-12-29}}</ref> BEVs use [[electric motor]]s and [[motor controller]]s instead of [[internal combustion engine]]s (ICEs) for propulsion.<ref name=CSE/>
A plug-in hybrid operates as an all-electric vehicle or BEV when operating in [[charge-depleting]] mode, but it switches to [[charge-sustaining]] mode after the battery has reached its minimum [[state of charge]] (SOC) threshold, exhausting the vehicle's [[all-electric range]] (AER).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spinnovation.com/sn/Reports/Driving_Plug-In_Hybrid_Electric_Vehicles_-_reports_from_US_drivers_of_PHEVs.pdf |title=Driving Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Reports from U.S. Drivers of HEVs converted to PHEVs, circa 2006–07 |publisher=Institute of Transportation Studies, [[University of California, Davis]] |author=Kurani |date=2007-10-16 |access-date=2010-12-29 |display-authors=etal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812140505/http://www.spinnovation.com/sn/Reports/Driving_Plug-In_Hybrid_Electric_Vehicles_-_reports_from_US_drivers_of_PHEVs.pdf |archive-date=2010-08-12 }} ''See definitions in pp. 1–2''.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/sloan-auto-lab/research/beforeh2/files/kromer_electric_powertrains.pdf |title=Electric Powertrains: Opportunities and Challenges in the U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle Fleet |author1=Matthew A. Kromer |author2=John B. Heywood |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Sloan Automotive Laboratory, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |date=May 2007 |access-date=2010-12-29}} ''See definitions in pp. 30–31''.</ref>
BEVs are all-electric vehicles that use only electricity to power the motor, with no internal combustion engine. The energy stored in the rechargeable battery pack is used to power the electric motor, which propels the vehicle. BEVs have no tailpipe emissions and can be charged by plugging into a charging station or using a home charging system.
They are known for their quiet operation, instant torque, and smooth ride, and are also more environmentally friendly than traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. However, the range of a BEV is limited by the size of its battery, so it may not be suitable for long-distance travel.
===Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles=== {{Main|Plug-in hybrid}}
A [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]] (PHEV or PHV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a [[hybrid electric vehicle]] with [[rechargeable batteries]] that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external [[electric power]] source.<ref name=CSE/><ref name=EERE_PHEV>{{cite web |url=http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/electric_basics_phev.html |title=Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Basics |publisher=Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, US DoE |access-date=2010-12-29}}</ref> A plug-in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an [[all-electric vehicle]]: it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion, but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged, allowing operation in [[all-electric mode]] until the battery is depleted.<ref name=EERE_PHEV/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceage.vt.edu/phev |title=Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) |publisher=Center for Energy and the Global Environment, [[Virginia Tech]] |access-date=2010-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720110541/http://www.ceage.vt.edu/phev |archive-date=2011-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/plug-in-hybrid-cars |title=What Is A Plug-in Hybrid Car? |publisher=HybridCars.com |access-date=2010-12-29}}</ref>
PHEVs are a hybrid between a traditional gasoline-powered vehicle and an all-electric vehicle. They have both an internal combustion engine and an electric motor powered by a rechargeable battery pack. PHEVs operate as all-electric vehicles when the battery has a sufficient charge, and switch to gasoline power when the battery is depleted.
This provides a longer driving range compared to a pure electric vehicle, as the gasoline engine acts as a range extender. PHEVs can be charged by plugging into a charging station or using a home charging system. They are a good option for those who want the benefits of electric driving, but also need the longer driving range and refueling convenience of a gasoline-powered vehicle. [[File:CalCars Plug ins August 2007.jpg|right|thumb|Several [[CalCars#Prius+ and Kits|Prius+]] [[plug-in hybrid#Conversions of production hybrids|converted plug-in hybrids]]]]
====Dual plug-in hybrids==== These contain two different energy recovery systems.
The [[Mercedes-AMG ONE]] is a plug-in [[dual hybrid]].
The [[Mercedes-Benz C-Class (W206)]] and the [[Mercedes-Benz GLC#Second generation (X254/C254; 2022)|Mercedes C254/X254]] also have an [[electrically-assisted turbocharger]]/[[MGU-H]].<ref name="ams-2021-02">{{cite web |last=Holger Wittich, Patrick Lang |date=2021-02-22 |title=Neue Mercedes C-Klasse (W206) |url=https://www.auto-motor-und-sport.de/neuheiten/mercedes-c-klasse-w206-infos-daten-marktstart-preise |publisher=[[auto motor und sport]]}}</ref><ref name="mgu-h">{{cite web |url=https://www.roadandtrack.com/car-culture/a42821665/how-electric-turbochargers-are-changing-internal-combustion/ |title=How Electric Turbochargers Are Changing Internal Combustion |work=Road & Track |date=10 February 2023}}</ref>
===Aftermarket conversions=== {{See also|Plug-in hybrid#Conversions of production vehicles|l1=Plug-in hybrid conversions|electric vehicle conversion}} An [[Aftermarket (automotive)|aftermarket]] [[electric vehicle conversion]] is the modification of a conventional [[internal combustion engine]] vehicle (ICEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to [[electric]] propulsion, creating an [[all-electric]] or [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]].<ref name=PriusPlus>{{cite web |url=http://www.calcars.org/howtoget.html |title=How to Get a Plug-In Hybrid |publisher=[[CalCars]] |access-date=2010-12-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/plug-in-hybrid-cars#conversion |title=Plug-in Hybrid Conversions |publisher=HybridCars.com |access-date=2010-12-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/decision-process/top-7-issues-electric-car-conversion-25839.html |title=Top 7 Issues for an Electric Car Conversion |publisher=HybridCars.com |date=2009-06-02 |access-date=2010-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527093732/http://www.hybridcars.com/decision-process/top-7-issues-electric-car-conversion-25839.html |archive-date=2011-05-27}}</ref>
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions. The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug-in hybrid, but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker, the easiest conversions are for 2004–2009 [[Toyota Prius]] and for the [[Ford Escape Hybrid|Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner Hybrid]].<ref name=PriusPlus/>
==Advantages compared to ICE vehicles==
<!--Please keep the content of these sub-sections brief, as most of the content is treated in more detail in the respective BEV, electric car and PHEV article, or in the articles linked in the "See also" pointers-->
PEVs have several advantages. These include improved air quality, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, noise reduction, and national security benefits. According to the [[Center for American Progress]], PEVs are an important part of the group of technologies that will help the U.S. meet its goal under the [[Paris Agreement]], which is a 26–28 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2025.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/reports/2018/07/30/454084/investing-charging-infrastructure-plug-electric-vehicles/ |title=Investing in Charging Infrastructure for Plug-In Electric Vehicles - Center for American Progress |work=Center for American Progress |access-date=2018-08-30 |language=en-US}}</ref> New Energy Vehicles are expected to help address issues related to environmental degradation at the global level.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://brics-econ.arphahub.com/article/120897/ |title=Political Economy of STI in China: Analyzing Official Discourse on Science, Technology and Innovation-Driven Development in the Contemporary China |last=Akhilesh |first=Kumar |date=2024-06-12 |journal=BRICS Journal of Economics |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=131–154 |doi=10.3897/brics-econ.5.e120897 |doi-access=free |access-date=2024-06-14}}</ref>"
=== Improved air quality === {{See also|Environmental aspects of the electric car}} [[Electric car]]s, as well as [[plug-in hybrid]]s operating in [[all-electric mode]], emit no harmful [[motor vehicle emissions|tailpipe pollutants]] from the onboard source of power, such as [[particulate]]s ([[soot]]), [[volatile organic compound]]s, [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[carbon monoxide]], [[ozone]], [[lead]], and various [[NOx|oxides of nitrogen]]. However, like ICE cars, electric cars emit particulates from brake and tyres.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Study: Particulate emissions from tire wear is higher than from tailpipes |url=https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1127424_study-particulate-emissions-from-tire-wear-is-higher-than-from-tailpipes |access-date=2020-10-30 |website=Green Car Reports |date=12 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants where they can be more easily captured from flue gases.<ref name="TwoBillion" /> Cities with chronic [[air pollution]] problems, such as [[Los Angeles]], [[México City]], [[Santiago, Chile]], [[São Paulo]], [[Beijing]], [[Bangkok]] and [[Kathmandu]] may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities.
=== Lower greenhouse gas emissions === {{See also|Environmental aspects of the electric car|l1=|Plug-in hybrid#Greenhouse gas emissions|l2=Greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in hybrids}} [[File:Prius RechargeIT 03 2008 at Google's campus.jpg|thumb|[[RechargeIT]] converted [[Toyota Prius]] [[plug-in hybrid]]s at [[Google]]'s [[Mountain View, California|Mountain View]] campus. The garage has [[Charging station|recharging facilities]] powered by [[solar panel]]s.]] Plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit [[greenhouse gases]] from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a [[Tank-to-wheel|well-to-wheel assessment]], the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for [[electricity generation]]. This fact has been referred to as [[the long tailpipe]] of plug-in electric vehicles. From the perspective of a full [[life cycle analysis]], the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as [[wind power|wind]], [[solar energy|solar]], [[hydroelectric]], or [[nuclear power]] for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.<ref name=PEVs/><ref name=TwoBillion/> In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]].<ref name=PEVs/><!--Vehicles sorted in desscending order of overall mpg-e-->
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by [[nuclear power plants]]; similarly, most regions of Canada are primarily powered with hydroelectricity, nuclear, or [[natural gas]] which have no or very low emissions at the point of generation; and the state of [[California]], where most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The United Kingdom also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as low carbon sources such as wind turbines dominate the generation mix. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.<ref name=TwoBillion/>
Lifecycle GHG emissions are complex to calculate, but compared to ICE cars generally while the EV battery causes higher emissions during vehicle manufacture this excess carbon debt is paid back after several months of driving.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-13 |title=Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change |access-date=2020-10-30 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref>
=== Lower operating and maintenance costs === [[Internal combustion engine]]s are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. [[Electric motor]]s, on the other hand, are more [[thermal efficiency|efficient]] at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. [[Electric drive vehicle]]s do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through [[regenerative braking]].<ref name=PEVs2/><ref name=TwoBillion>{{Cite book |last=[[Sperling, Daniel]] and Deborah Gordon |title=Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22 22–26 and 114–139] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], New York |isbn=978-0-19-537664-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22}}</ref> Typically, conventional [[gasoline engine]]s effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and [[diesel engine]]s can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.<ref name=PEVs2>{{cite book |author=Saurin D. Shah |editor=[[David B. Sandalow]] |title=Chapter 2: Electrification of Transport and Oil Displacement |year=2009 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx |publisher=[[The Brookings Institution]] |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |edition=1st |pages=29, 37 and 43}} in [http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx ''"Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"'']</ref> [[File:11-09-04-iaa-by-RalfR-111.jpg|thumb|The operating cost of the [[Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid]] in the U.S. is estimated at {{USD|0.03}} per mile while operating in [[all-electric mode]].<ref name=PEVs2/><ref name=PopularM>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/news/4215681 |title=How Much Is That Hybrid Electric Really Saving You? |author=Emily Masamitsu |magazine=[[Popular Mechanics]] |date=2009-10-01 |access-date=2010-07-11}}</ref>]]
[[All-electric]] and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems onboard last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. All-electric PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.<ref name=PEVs2/><ref name=TwoBillion/>
===Less dependence on imported oil=== {{See also|Energy development#Energy resilience|l1=Energy resilience|Energy security|Mitigation of peak oil}} [[File:Brent Spot monthly.svg|thumb|Evolution of oil prices since 1987 (average [[Brent crude|Brent]] [[spot price]]s – adjusted for U.S. inflation)]]
For many [[developing countries]], and particularly for the poorest African countries, oil imports have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their [[balance of payments]], all leading to lower economic growth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.mongabay.com/bioenergy/2007/09/high-oil-prices-disastrous-for.html |title=High oil prices disastrous for developing countries |publisher=[[Mongabay]] |date=2007-09-12 |access-date=2010-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/Impact%20of%20High%20Oil%20Prices%20-%20Oil%20and%20Gas%20in%20Africa.pdf |title=Impact of High Oil Prices on African Economies |publisher=[[African Development Bank]] |date=2009-07-29 |access-date=2010-07-20}}</ref>
Through the gradual replacement of [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles for [[electric car]]s and [[plug-in hybrids]], electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the [[transport]] sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more [[Energy resilience|resilient energy supply]].<ref name=TwoBillion/><ref name="Reinventing">{{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=William J. |url=http://ilp.mit.edu/webpubdetail.jsp?id=40 |title=Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century |last2=Borroni-Bird |first2=Christopher |last3=Burns |first3=Lawrence D. |publisher=[[The MIT Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-262-01382-6 |edition=1st. |pages=85–95 |access-date=2010-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609164241/http://ilp.mit.edu/webpubdetail.jsp?id=40 |archive-date=2010-06-09 }} ''See Chapter 5: Clean Smart Energy Supply.''</ref><ref name="PEVs1">{{cite book |author=[[R. James Woolsey]] and [[Chelsea Sexton]] |url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx |title=Chapter 1: Geopolitical Implications of Plug-in Vehicles |publisher=[[The Brookings Institution]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |editor=[[David B. Sandalow]] |edition=1st |pages=11–21}}in [http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx ''"Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"'']</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future |title=An Electric Plan for Energy Resilience |author=[[Andrew Grove]] and Robert Burgelman |publisher=McKinsey Quarterly |date=December 2008 |access-date=2010-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825064622/http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future/ |archive-date=2014-08-25}}</ref>
===Vehicle-to-grid=== {{main|Vehicle-to-grid}}
Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the [[power grid]], thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks.<ref name=PEVs4>{{cite book |author=Jon Wellinhoff |editor=[[David B. Sandalow]] |title=Chapter 4: The CashBack Car |year=2009 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx |publisher=[[The Brookings Institution]] |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |edition=1st |pages=65–82}} in [http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx ''"Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"'']</ref> A [[vehicle-to-grid]] (V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S. this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car.<ref name="future">{{cite web |date=December 9, 2007 |title=Car Prototype Generates Electricity, And Cash |work=[[Science (journal)|Science Daily]] |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071203133532.htm |access-date=2010-07-17}}</ref> In a V2G system it would also be expected that [[battery electric vehicle|battery electric]] (BEVs) and [[plug-in hybrid]]s (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell [[Demand response#Electricity grids and peak demand response|demand response]] services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.<ref name=PEVs4/><ref name = "dictionary">{{cite book |last=Cleveland |first=Cutler J. |author2=Morris, Christopher |year=2006 |title=Dictionary of Energy |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |location=[[Amsterdam]] |isbn=0-08-044578-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofener00amst/page/473 473] |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofener00amst/page/473}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pge.com/about/news/mediarelations/newsreleases/q2_2007/070409.shtml |title=Pacific Gas and Electric Company Energizes Silicon Valley With Vehicle-to-Grid Technology |date=2007-04-07 |access-date=2011-01-12 |publisher=[[Pacific Gas & Electric]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091209122555/http://www.pge.com/about/news/mediarelations/newsreleases/q2_2007/070409.shtml |archive-date=2009-12-09}}</ref>
==Disadvantages== [[File:EV Parade SFO.jpg|thumb|[[Tesla Model S]] electric car (left) and [[Fisker Karma]] plug-in hybrid (right) at the parking spots reserved for green cars at [[San Francisco International Airport]]]]
=== Cost of batteries === {{Main|Electric vehicle battery}}
{{As of|2020|}}, plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles and [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s due to the additional cost of their [[lithium-ion battery]] pack. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aceee.org/sites/default/files/publications/researchreports/t133.pdf |title=Plug-in Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities |author1=Siddiq Khan |author2=Martin Kushler |name-list-style=amp |publisher=[[American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy]] |date=June 2013 |access-date=2013-07-09}} ''ACEEE Report Number T133''.</ref>
Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) concludes that battery costs are on a trajectory to make electric vehicles without government subsidies as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by 2022. BNEF projects that by 2040, long-range electric cars will cost less than {{USD|22,000}} expressed in 2016 dollars. BNEF expects electric car battery costs to be well below {{USD|120}} per kWh by 2030, and to fall further thereafter as new chemistries become available.<ref name=BNEF2015>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2016-ev-oil-crisis/ |title=Here's How Electric Cars Will Cause the Next Oil Crisis |first=Tom |last=Randall |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=2016-02-25 |access-date=2016-02-25}} ''[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2016-02-24/the-peak-oil-myth-and-the-rise-of-the-electric-car See embedded video].''</ref>
=== Availability of recharging infrastructure === [[File:Charging stations in SF City Hall 02 2009 01.jpg|thumb| [[plug-in hybrid#Conversions of production hybrids|Converted]] [[Toyota Prius]] plug-in hybrids recharging at [[San Francisco City Hall]] [[charging station]]]]
{{See also|Charging station|Range anxiety}} Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed.<ref name=PEVs5>{{cite book |author=Alan L. Madian |title=Chapter 5: The Impact of Plug-in Hybrids on U.S. Oil Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions |year=2009 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx |editor=[[David B. Sandalow]] |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |page=96 |publisher=[[The Brookings Institution]] |display-authors=etal}} in [http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx ''"Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"'']</ref><ref name=DoE2008>{{cite web |url=http://avt.inl.gov/pdf/phev/phevInfrastructureReport08.pdf |title=Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Review. Final Report |date=November 2008 |publisher=[[U.S. Department of Energy]] Vehicle Technologies Program |author=Kevin Morrow |access-date=2010-03-07 |display-authors=etal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222084442/http://avt.inl.gov/pdf/phev/phevInfrastructureReport08.pdf |archive-date=2009-12-22 }}</ref> Electrical outlets or [[charging station]]s near their places of residence, in commercial or public [[parking lot]]s, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called [[range anxiety]].<ref name=DoE2008/><ref name=NYT_SFO/> Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://projectgetready.com/city/raleigh-north-carolina |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307030504/http://projectgetready.com/city/raleigh-north-carolina |archive-date=2009-03-07 |title=Moving Forward in Raleigh PGR Plan |publisher=Project Get Ready |access-date=2010-03-07}}</ref> However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.<ref name=NYT_SFO>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/15/business/15electric.html?pagewanted=1&sq=San%20Francisco%20electric%20car&st=cse&scp=1 |title=Cities Prepare for Life With the Electric Car |author1=Todd Woody |author2=Clifford Krauss |name-list-style=amp |newspaper=New York Times |date=2010-02-14 |access-date=2010-03-07}}</ref>
====Battery swapping==== {{Main|Charging station#Battery swapping}}
{{see also|Tesla Supercharger|Better Place (company)|}} [[File:Better Place Charging Station IMG 6670.jpg|thumb|[[Better Place (company)|Better Place]]'s battery switching station in Israel]] A different approach to resolve the problems of [[range anxiety]] and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by [[Better Place (company)|Better Place]] but was not successful in the United States in the 2010s. {{As of|2020|}} battery swapping is available in China and is planned for other countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Deshp |first1=Trupti |last2=e |last3=Paladugula |first3=Anantha Lakshmi |date=2020-10-13 |title=The Importance of Selling Electric Vehicles and Their Batteries Separately |url=https://science.thewire.in/environment/electric-vehicles-batteries-ministry-of-road-transport-highways-energy-as-a-service-swapping-renting-standardisation/ |access-date=2020-10-30 |website=The Wire Science |language=en-GB}}</ref> As of 2025 some battery swapping is being performed in well under five minutes in China.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQMeKndHc8Q |title=5-Minute Recharge? NIO ES6 Battery Swap Technology in Action! |date=2025-01-16 |last=InsideEVs |access-date=2026-02-04 |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Liu |first=Iris |date=2025-05-06 |title=A new fully charged EV battery in five minutes: Are China's swap stations the future of electric cars? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20250506-are-chinas-swap-stations-the-future-of-electric-cars |access-date=2026-02-04 |website=www.[[bbc.com]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>
=== Potential overload of local electrical grids ===
The existing [[low-voltage network]], and local [[transformer]]s in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional [[electric power|power]] load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight when rates are lower.<ref name=NYT_SFO/><ref>{{cite news |url=http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/will-electric-cars-cause-more-summer-power-outages/?ref=automobiles |title=Will Electric Cars Cause More Summer Power Outages? |author=Jim Motavalli |newspaper=New York Times |date=2010-07-08 |access-date=2010-07-11}}</ref><ref>B. Naghibi, M. A. S. Masoum and S. Deilami, "Effects of V2H Integration on Optimal Sizing of Renewable Resources in Smart Home Based on Monte Carlo Simulations," in IEEE Power and Energy Technology Systems Journal, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 73-84, Sept. 2018. doi: 10.1109/JPETS.2018.2854709</ref>
In the five years from 2014 to 2019, EVs increased in number and range, and doubled power draw and energy per session. Charging increased after midnight, and decreased in the peak hours of early evening.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Berman |first1=Bradley |title=Study of 3,900 electric cars: How the Tesla Model 3 transformed EV charging habits |url=https://electrek.co/2020/04/22/study-of-3900-electric-cars-how-the-tesla-model-3-transformed-ev-charging-habits/ |website=[[Electrek]] |date=22 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=fc2020>{{cite web |title=Utilities are feeling growing pains from the evolution of electric vehicles |url=https://www.fleetcarma.com/utilities-are-feeling-growing-pains-from-the-evolution-of-electric-vehicles/ |website=FleetCarma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423163302/https://www.fleetcarma.com/utilities-are-feeling-growing-pains-from-the-evolution-of-electric-vehicles/ |archive-date=23 April 2020 |date=22 April 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
===Risks associated with noise reduction=== {{Main|Electric vehicle warning sounds}}
[[File:Nissan Leaf warning sound switch.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The 2011 [[Nissan Leaf]] had a switch to manually turn off its electric warning sound system.]]
[[Electric car]]s and [[plug-in hybrid]]s when operating in [[all-electric mode]] at low speeds produce less [[roadway noise]] as compared to vehicles propelled by an [[internal combustion engine]], thereby reducing harmful [[noise health effects]]. However, blind people or the [[visually impaired]] consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence plug-in electric cars and conventional [[hybrid vehicle|hybrid]]s could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/2007-10-03-2698183585_x.htm |title=Blind people: Hybrid cars pose hazard |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |first=Ben |last=Nuckols |date=3 March 2007 |access-date=2009-05-08}}</ref><ref name="Economist0509">{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13606446 |title=Electric cars and noise: The sound of silence |newspaper=Economist |date=7 May 2009 |access-date=2009-05-08}}</ref> Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below {{convert|20|mph|-1|abbr=on}} for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired.<ref name=NHTSA>{{cite web |url=http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/811204.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122092356/http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/811204.PDF |archive-date=November 22, 2009 |title=Incidence of Pedestrian and Bicyclist Crashes by Hybrid Electric Passenger Vehicles |publisher=[[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] |date=September 2009 |access-date=2009-10-05}} Technical Report DOT HS 811 204</ref><ref name=UCRNews>{{cite web |url=http://newsroom.ucr.edu/news_item.html?action=page&id=1803 |title=Hybrid Cars Are Harder to Hear |publisher=[[University of California, Riverside]] |date=2008-04-28 |access-date=2010-07-03}}</ref><ref name=SciAm0808>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=are-hybrid-cars-too-quiet |title=Are Hybrid Cars Too Quiet to Be Safe for Pedestrians? |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |date=August 2009 |author=Sarah Simpson |access-date=2010-07-03}}</ref> At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise.<ref name="Economist0509"/> Therefore, in the 2010s laws were passed in many countries mandating warning sounds at low speeds.{{Clear}}
===Risks of battery fire=== {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents}}
[[File:Volvo C30 Electric WAS 2011 852.JPG|thumb|Frontal crash test of a [[Volvo C30#C30 DRIVe Electric|Volvo C30 DRIVe Electric]] to assess the safety of the battery pack]] [[Lithium-ion batteries]] may suffer [[thermal runaway]] and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion.<ref name=Spotnitz:2003a>{{Cite journal |last1=Spotnitz |first1=R. |last2=Franklin |first2=J. |doi=10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00488-3 |title=Abuse behavior of high-power, lithium-ion cells |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=113 |pages=81–100 |year=2003 |issue=1 |bibcode=2003JPS...113...81S}}</ref> Reignition may occur days or months after the original fire has been extinguished.<ref>{{Cite web |title=04.8 EV fire reignition |url=https://www.evfiresafe.com/ev-fire-reignition |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=EV Fire Safe |language=en}}</ref> To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lithium Ion technical handbook |publisher=Gold Peak Industries Ltd. |date=November 2003 |url=http://www.gpina.com/pdf/Li-ion_Handbook.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007175038/http://www.gpbatteries.com/html/pdf/Li-ion_handbook.pdf |archive-date=2007-10-07}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2024}}<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1021/cr020730k |journal=Chemical Reviews |title=What Are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors? |first1=M. |volume=104 |last1=Winter |first2=J. |last2=Brodd |issue=10 |pages=4245–69 |year=2004 |pmid=15669155 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Several [[plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents]] have taken place since the introduction of mass-production plug-in electric vehicles in 2008. Most of them have been [[thermal runaway]] incidents related to the lithium-ion batteries. [[General Motors]], [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]], and [[Nissan]] have published a guide for [[firefighter]]s and [[certified first responder|first responder]]s to properly handle a crashed plug-in electric-drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems.<ref name="VoltGuide">{{cite news |url=http://media.gm.com/content/media/us/en/gm/news.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2011/Jan/0118_NFPA |title=Detroit First Responders Get Electric Vehicle Safety Training |author=General Motors |work=General Motors News |date=2011-01-19 |access-date=2011-11-12}}</ref><ref name="LeafGuide">{{cite web |url=http://www.nissan-techinfo.com/refgh0v/og/FRG/2011-Nissan-LEAF-FRG.pdf |title=2011 LEAF First Responder's Guide |author=Nissan |publisher=Nissan North America |year=2010 |access-date=2011-12-20}}</ref>
=== Car dealers' reluctance to sell ===
With the exception of [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] and other EV manufacturers that [[Direct-to-consumer automobile selling in the United States|sell directly]], almost all new cars in the United States are sold through [[Car dealerships in the United States|dealerships]], so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles, and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.<ref name=NYT11242015>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/01/science/electric-car-auto-dealers.html?hpw&rref=science&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=well-region®ion=bottom-well&WT.nav=bottom-well |title=A Car Dealers Won't Sell: It's Electric |author=Matt Ritchel |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2015-11-24 |access-date=2015-11-28}}</ref><ref name=UCDavis2014>{{cite web |url=http://www.its.ucdavis.edu/blog-post/the-future-of-electric-vehicles-part-1-car-dealers-hold-the-key/ |title=The Future Of Electric Vehicles Part 1: Car Dealers Hold The Key |author1=Eric Cahill |author2=Dan Sperling |name-list-style=amp |publisher=[[Institute of Transportation Studies]] (ITS), at the [[University of California, Davis]] |date=2014-11-03 |access-date=2015-11-28}}</ref> Dealers decide which cars they want to stock, and a salesperson can have a significant impact on how a customer feels about a prospective purchase. Salespeople have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars but often do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of their overall sales.<ref name=NYT11242015/> As with any new technology, and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles, retailers are central to ensuring that buyers, especially those switching to a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology.<ref name=UCDavis2014/>
[[File:DCA 06 2012 Chevy Volt 4034.JPG|thumb|Car dealerships can play a role in the sales of plug-in electric vehicles. Shown a dealership exhibiting first generation [[Chevrolet Volt]]s.]]
There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as a gasoline-powered cars. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the additional time required to explain a new technology, which hurts overall sales and the commissions of salespeople. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in the loss of recurring service revenue, and thus undermines the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the [[National Automobile Dealers Association]] (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales.<ref name=NYT11242015/>
==Government incentives and policies==
{{Main|Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles}}
{{See also|Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States#Government support|l1=Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S.}} {{See also|Plug-in hybrids in California#Government incentives|l1=Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles in California}} {{See also|Plug-in electric vehicles in Europe#EU average fleet CO2 emissions|l1=EU average fleet CO2 emissions}} {{See also|Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles}}
[[File:2022 Togg C-SUV.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Togg C-SUV]]<ref name="insideevs">{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/news/620213/turkey-national-carmaker-togg-starts-production-2023-c-suv-ev/ |title=Turkey's National Carmaker Togg Starts Production Of 2023 C SUV EV |website=insideevs.com |author=Dan Mihalascu |date=4 November 2022}}</ref> produced by [[Togg]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.togg.com.tr/ |title=TOGG Official Website |publisher=togg.com.tr |access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref> a [[Automotive industry in Turkey|Turkish automotive company]] established in 2018 for producing [[electric vehicle|EV]]s.<ref name="Jay Ramey">{{cite web |url=https://www.autoweek.com/news/green-cars/a30355931/turkey-bets-on-evs-with-the-pininfarina-designed-togg/ |title=Turkey Bets on EVs with the Pininfarina-Designed TOGG |author=Jay Ramey |work=Autoweek |publisher=autoweek.com |date=30 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Togg-2022">{{cite web |url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/a-game-changer-t%C3%BCrkiye-inaugurates-its-first-national-car-plant-62068 |title='A game changer': Türkiye inaugurates its first national car plant |publisher=[[TRT World]] |date=30 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="insideevs"/>]]
Several national, provincial, and local governments around the world have introduced policies to support the mass market adoption of plug-in electric vehicles. A variety of policies have been established to provide direct financial support to consumers and manufacturers; non-monetary incentives; subsidies for the deployment of charging infrastructure; procurement of electric vehicle for government fleets; and long term regulations with specific targets.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/><ref name=ICCT2020>{{cite web |url=https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/EV_city_policies_white_paper_fv_20200224.pdf |title=Analyzing Policies to Grow the Electric Vehicle Market in European Cities |first1=Sandra |last1=Wappelhorst |first2=Dale |last2=Hall |first3=Mike |last3=Nicholas |first4=Nic |last4=Lutsey |publisher=[[International Council on Clean Transportation]] |date=February 2020 |access-date=2020-06-18}}</ref>
[[File:Nissan Leaf in bus lanes Norway.jpg|thumb|225px|left|All-electric car on a [[bus lane]] in [[Oslo]]]]
Financial incentives for consumers aim to make plug-in electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars due to the still higher up front cost of electric vehicles. Among the financial incentives there are one-time purchase incentives such as [[tax credits]], purchase grants, exemptions from import duties, and other fiscal incentives; exemptions from [[Road toll (modern)|road]], [[toll bridge|bridge]] and [[toll tunnel|tunnel tolls]], and from [[congestion pricing]] fees; and exemption of registration and annual use vehicle fees. Some countries, like France, also introduced a [[bonus–malus]] {{CO2}} based tax system that penalize fossil-fuel vehicle sales.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/><ref name=ICCT2020/><ref name=QuotaEVS/>
{{As of|2020}}, monetary incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles are available, among others, in several [[European Union member states]], China, the United States, the UK, Japan, Norway, some provinces in Canada, South Korea, India, Israel, Colombia, and Costa Rica.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/><ref name=CRI072013/><ref name=COL2019>{{cite web |url=https://www.vehiculoselectricos.co/aprobada-ley-que-da-beneficios-a-propietarios-de-vehiculos-electricos-en-colombia/ |title=Sancionada ley que da beneficios a propietarios de vehículos eléctricos en Colombia |language=es |trans-title=Went into effec law that gives benefits to owners of electric vehicles in Colombia |first=Felipe |last=Vallejo Uribe |publisher=Revista Movilidad Eléctrica Sostenible |date=2019-07-13 |access-date=2020-06-19 |archive-date=2020-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619235909/https://www.vehiculoselectricos.co/aprobada-ley-que-da-beneficios-a-propietarios-de-vehiculos-electricos-en-colombia/ }}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="float: left; clear:left; margin-right: 20px" |+ Timeline of national targets<br />for full [[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles|ICE phase out]] {{Clarify|reason=how does "full ICE phase out" differ from "100% ZEV car sales"?|date=January 2021}}or<br />100% [[Zero-emissions vehicle|ZEV]] car sales<ref name=EVOutlook2020/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Tan |first1=Christopher |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/transport/singapore-budget-2020-push-to-promote-evs-in-move-to-phase-out-petrol-and-diesel |title=Singapore Budget 2020: Push to promote electric vehicles in move to phase out petrol and diesel vehicles |date=18 February 2020 |website=The Straits Times |access-date=19 June 2020}}</ref> |- ! style="background:#ABCDEF;"|Selected countries || style="background:#abcdef;"|Year
|- align=center | align=left|Norway <small>(100% ZEV sales)</small>|| 2025
|- align=center | align=left|Denmark || rowspan="5"|2030
|- align=center | align=left|Iceland
|- align=center | align=left|Ireland
|- align=center | align=left|Netherlands <small>(100% ZEV sales)</small>
|- align=center | align=left|Sweden
|- align=center | align=left|United Kingdom|| rowspan="5"|2040
|- align=center | align=left|France
|- align=center | align=left|Canada <small>(100% ZEV sales)</small>
|- align=center | align=left|Singapore
|- align=center | align=left|Sri Lanka <small>(100% HEV or PEV stock)</small>
|-align=center | align=left|Germany <small>(100% ZEV sales)</small>|| rowspan="4"|2050
|- align=center | align=left|U.S. <small>(only 10 [[California Air Resources Board#Zero-Emission Vehicle Program|ZEV]] states)</small>
|-align=center | align=left|Japan <small>(100% HEV/PHEV/ZEV sales)</small>
|-align=center | align=left|Costa Rica <small>(100% ZEV sales)</small>
|}
Among the non-monetary incentives there are several perks such allowing plug-in vehicles access to [[bus lane]]s and [[high-occupancy vehicle lane]]s, free parking and free charging.<ref name=ICCT2020/> In addition, in some countries or cities that restrict private car ownership (purchase quota system for new vehicles), or have implemented permanent [[Road space rationing|driving restrictions]] (no-drive days), the schemes often exclude electric vehicles from the restrictions to promote their adoption.<ref name=QuotaEVS/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/china/21700676-chinese-love-their-cars-do-not-want-pay-more-driving-them-great-crawl?frsc=dg%7Ca |title=The great crawl |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=2016-06-18 |access-date=2020-06-18}} From the print edition.</ref><ref name=CRI072013/><ref name=COL2014/>
For example, in [[Beijing]], the license plate lottery scheme specifies a fixed number of vehicle purchase permits each year, but to promote the electrification of its fleet, the city government split the number of purchase permits into two lots, one for conventional vehicles, and another dedicated for all-electric vehicle applicants.<ref name=QuotaEVS>{{cite journal |title=The role of the license plate lottery policy in the adoption of Electric Vehicles: A case study of Beijing |volume=139 |date=April 2020 |language=en |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111328 |last1=Zhuge |first1=Chengxiang |last2=Wei |first2=Binru |last3=Shao |first3=Chunfu |last4=Shan |first4=Yuli |last5=Dong |first5=Chunjiao |journal=Energy Policy |article-number=111328 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EnPol.13911328Z |hdl=10397/87860 |hdl-access=free}} Available online 24 February 2020.</ref> In the case of cities with driving alternate-days based on the license plate number, such as [[San José, Costa Rica]], since 2012, [[Vehicle restriction in São Paulo|São Paulo]] and [[Pico y placa|Bogotá]] since 2014, and [[Mexico City]] since 2015, all-electric vehicles were excluded from the driving restrictions.<ref name=CRI072013>{{cite news |url=http://www.nacion.com/economia/Carros-hibridos-electricos-Costa-Rica_0_1352064817.html |title=Carros híbridos y eléctricos se abren paso en Costa Rica |language=es |trans-title=Hybrid and electric cars make their way in Costa Rica |author=Camila Salazar |work=[[La Nación (San José)]] |date=2013-07-06 |access-date=2013-07-06}}</ref><ref name=COL2014>{{cite web |url=http://www.alcaldiabogota.gov.co/sisjur/normas/Norma1.jsp?i=55963 |title=Decreto 575 de 2013 Alcalde Mayor |language=es |trans-title=Major's Decree 575 of 2013 |publisher=Alcaldía de Bogotá |date=2014-12-18 |access-date=2020-06-18}}</ref><ref name=CarroLimpoSP>{{cite news |url=http://www.automotivebusiness.com.br/noticia/19727/eletricos-e-hibridos-sao-paulo-aprova-lei-de-incentivo |title=Elétricos e híbridos: São Paulo aprova lei de incentivo |language=pt |trans-title=All-electric and hybrids: São Paulo approves incentives law |work=Automotive Business |date=2014-05-28 |access-date=2014-09-21}}</ref><ref name=CDMX2015>{{cite news |url=https://www.dineroenimagen.com/2015-03-01/51689 |title=Autos eléctricos, exentos de tenencia y Hoy No Circula |language=es |trans-title=Electric cars exempted from ownership tax and "Hoy No Circula" driving restrictions |author=Notimex |work=Dinero e Imagen |date=2015-03-01 |access-date=2020-06-19}}</ref>
Some government have also established long term regulatory signals with specific target timeframes such as [[Zero-emissions vehicle|ZEV]] mandates, national or regional [[European emission standards#Obligatory vehicle CO2 emission limits|{{CO2}} emissions regulations]], stringent [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] standards, and the [[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles|phase out of internal combustion engine vehicle]] sales.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/><ref name=ICCT2020/> For example, Norway set a national goal that all new car sales by 2025 should be [[zero emission vehicles]] ([[battery electric vehicle|electric]] or [[fuel cell vehicle|hydrogen]]).<ref name=NTP>{{cite web |url=https://elbil.no/english/norwegian-ev-policy/#:~:text=The%20Norwegian%20Parliament%20has%20decided,cars%20(BEVs)%20in%20Norway |title=Norwegian EV policy |publisher=Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) |access-date=2020-06-18}}</ref><ref name=ZEV2025Norsk>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/norway-aiming-for-100-percent-zero-emission-vehicle-sales-by-2025/ |title=Norway Aiming For 100-Percent Zero Emission Vehicle Sales By 2025 |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-03-08 |access-date=2020-06-18}}</ref>
[[File:UK traffic sign TA4754.H.svg|thumb|upright|Sign for London's [[Ultra Low Emission Zone]] (ULEZ). A fee is charged to the most polluting vehicles entering [[Central London]].]]
Also, some cities are planning to establish [[zero-emission zone]]s (ZEZ) restricting traffic access into an urban cordon area or city center where only zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) are allowed access. In such areas, all internal combustion engine vehicles are banned.<ref name=ICCTbanICEs>{{cite web |url=https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/Combustion-engine-phase-out-briefing-may11.2020.pdf |title=The end of the road? An overview of combustionengine car phase-out announcements across Europe |first=Sandra |last=Wappelhorst |publisher=[[International Council on Clean Transportation]] |date=May 2020 |access-date=2020-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47816360 |title=London's ULEZ: How does it compare? |last=McGrath |first=Matt |date=2019-04-08 |access-date=2019-06-19 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
{{As of|2020|06}}, [[Oxford]] is slated to be the first city to implement a ZEZ scheme, beginning with a small area scheduled to go into effect by mid 2021. The plan is to expand the clean air zone gradually into a much larger zone, until the ZEZ encompasses the majority of the city center by 2035.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20299/air_quality_projects/1305/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez |title=Oxford's Zero Emission Zone - 20/03/2020 update |author=Oxford City Council |publisher=[[Oxford City Council]] |date=2020-03-20 |access-date=2020-06-18 |archive-date=2020-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621114658/https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20299/air_quality_projects/1305/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez }}</ref><ref name=UKZEZ>{{Cite web |url=https://www.buyacar.co.uk/cars/economical-cars/523/clean-air-zone-charges-where-are-britains-low-emission-zones |first=Dominic |last=Tobin |title=Clean air zone charges: where are Britain's low emission zones? |publisher=buyacar.co.uk |date=2019-03-12 |access-date=2020-03-29}}</ref>
{{As of|2020|05}}, other cities planning to gradually introduce ZEZ, or partial or total ban fossil fuel powered vehicles include, among others, [[Amsterdam]] (2030),<ref name="reutersAmsterdamBan">{{Cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-netherlands-pollution-amsterdam/city-of-amsterdam-to-ban-polluting-cars-from-2030-idUSKCN1S81XV |title=City of Amsterdam to ban polluting cars from 2030 |date=2019-05-02 |website=Reuters |language=en |access-date=2019-05-02}}</ref> [[Athens]] (2025),<ref name="climateprotection.org"/> [[Barcelona]] (2030),<ref name="climateprotection.org"/> [[Brussels]] (2030/2035),<ref name=ICCTbanICEs/> [[Copenhagen]] (2030),<ref name="climateprotection.org"/> London (2020/2025),<ref name=ICCTbanICEs/> [[Los Angeles]] (2030),<ref name="climateprotection.org"/> [[Madrid]] (2025),<ref name="auto2"/> [[Mexico City]] (2025),<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web |last=Harvey |first=Fiona |author-link=Fiona Harvey |date=2016-12-02 |title=Four of world's biggest cities to ban diesel cars from their centres |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/dec/02/four-of-worlds-biggest-cities-to-ban-diesel-cars-from-their-centres |access-date=2018-04-08 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> [[Milan]] (2030),<ref name="climateprotection.org"/> [[Oslo]] (2024/2030),<ref name=ICCTbanICEs/> [[Paris]] (2024/2030),<ref name=ICCTbanICEs/> [[Quito]] (2030),<ref name="climateprotection.org"/> [[Rio de Janeiro]] (2030),<ref name="climateprotection.org"/> [[Rome]] (2024/2030),<ref name=ICCTbanICEs/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Dow |first1=Jameson |url=https://electrek.co/2018/02/28/rome-bans-diesel-cars-2024/ |title=Rome latest city to announce car ban, will ban diesel cars from historical center starting 2024 |work=Electrek |date=28 February 2018}}</ref> [[Seattle]] (2030),<ref name="climateprotection.org"/> and [[Vancouver]] (2030).<ref name="climateprotection.org">{{Cite web |url=https://theclimatecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Survey-on-Global-Activities-to-Phase-Out-ICE-Vehicles-update-3.18.20-1.pdf |title=Survey of Global Activity to Phase Out Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles |last=Burch |first=Isabella |date=March 2020}}</ref>
==Production plug-in electric vehicles available== {{See also|List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles|electric car use by country}}
[[File:EV1A014 (1) cropped.jpg|thumb|The [[General Motors EV1]] was the first mass-produced and purpose-designed [[all-electric car]] of the modern era from a major automaker.]]
During the 1990s several highway-capable plug-in electric cars were produced in limited quantities, all were [[battery electric vehicle]]s. [[PSA Peugeot Citroën]] launched several electric "Électrique" versions of its models starting in 1991. Other models were available through leasing mainly in [[California]]. Popular models included the [[General Motors EV1]] and the [[Toyota RAV4 EV]]. Some of the latter were sold to the public and were still in use by the early 2010s.<ref name="Boschert06">{{Cite book |last=[[Sherry Boschert]] |title=Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America |year=2006 |publisher=New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada |isbn=978-0-86571-571-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/pluginhybridscar00bosc}}</ref>
In the late 2000s began a new wave of [[mass production]] plug-in electric cars, motorcycles and light trucks. However, {{as of|2011|lc=y}}, most [[electric vehicle]]s in the world roads were low-speed, low-range [[neighborhood electric vehicle]]s (NEVs) or electric [[heavy quadricycle|quadricycle]]s.<ref name=NEVsales>{{cite web |url=http://www.autoobserver.com/2011/06/neighborhood-electric-vehicle-sales-to-climb.html |title=Neighborhood Electric Vehicle Sales To Climb |author=Danny King |publisher=[[Edmunds.com]] Auto Observer |date=2011-06-20 |access-date=2012-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527110345/http://www.autoobserver.com/2011/06/neighborhood-electric-vehicle-sales-to-climb.html |archive-date=2012-05-27 }}</ref> Sales of low-speed electric vehicles experienced considerable growth in China between 2012 and 2016, with an estimated NEV stock between 3 million to 4 million units, with most powered by [[lead-acid batteries]].<ref name=Outlook2017/>
{{As of|2019|12}}, according to the [[International Energy Agency]], there were about 250 models of highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars available for sale in the world, up from 70 in 2014.<ref name=EVOutlook2020>{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2020 |title=Global EV Outlook 2020: Entering the decade of electric drive? |author=[[International Energy Agency]] (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=June 2020 |access-date=2020-06-15}} ''See Statistical annex, pp. 247–252 (See Tables A.1 and A.12). The global stock of plug-in electric passenger vehicles totaled 7.2 million cars at the end of 2019, of which, 47% were on the road in China. The stock of plug-in cars consist of 4.8 million battery electric cars (66.6%) and 2.4 million plug-in hybrids (33.3%). In addition, the stock of light commercial plug-in electric vehicles in use totaled 378 thousand units in 2019, and about half a million electric buses were in circulation, most of which are in China.''</ref> There are also available several commercial models of electric light commercial vehicles, plug-in motorcycles, all-electric buses, and plug-in heavy-duty trucks.
The [[Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance]] is the world's leading light-duty electric vehicle manufacturer. Since 2010, the Alliance's global all-electric vehicle sales totaled almost 725,000 units, including those manufactured by [[Mitsubishi Motors]] through December 2018, now part of the Alliance.<ref name=RNM725K>{{cite press release |url=https://media.group.renault.com/global/en-gb/renault-nissan-mitsubishi/media/pressreleases/21221696/les-ventes-des-entreprises-membres-de-lalliance-atteignent-1076-millions-dunites-en-2018 |title=Alliance members achieve combined sales of 10.76 million units in 2018 |work=Groupe Renault Media |location=Paris |date=2019-01-30 |access-date=2019-02-02}} ''As of December 2018, a total of 724,905 electric vehicles have been sold by the Alliance since 2010.''</ref> Its best selling all-electric [[Nissan Leaf]] was the world's top selling plug-in electric car in 2013 and 2014.<ref name=Top10PEVs2016/> [[Tesla Inc.|Tesla]] is the world's second largest plug-in electric passenger car manufacturer with global sales since 2012 of over 532,000 units {{as of|2018|12|lc=y}}.<ref name=Tesla500k>{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/tesla-production-deliveries-graphed-q4-2018/ |title=Tesla Production And Deliveries Graphed Through Q4 2018 |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2019-01-02 |access-date=2019-01-02}}</ref> Its [[Model S]] was the world's top selling plug-in car in 2015 and 2016,<ref name=Top10PEVs2016>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-is-worlds-best-selling-plug-in-car-for-second-year-in-a-row/ |title=Tesla Model S Is World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car For Second Year In A Row |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2017-01-26 |access-date=2017-01-26}} ''See also detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs.''</ref><ref name=Top30PEVs2016>{{cite news |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2017/02/04/tesla-model-s-clocked-as-worlds-best-selling-electric-car-in-2016/ |title=Tesla Model S & Nissan LEAF Clocked As World's Best-Selling Electric Cars In 2016 |first=Zachary |last=Sharan |work=EV Volumes |publisher=CleanTechnica.com |date=2017-02-04 |access-date=2017-02-04}}</ref> and its [[Model 3]] was the world's best selling plug-in electric car in 2018.<ref name=Top20Global2018/>
Ranking next is [[BYD Auto]] with more than 529,000 plug-in passenger cars delivered in China through December 2018.<ref name=Global2mi/><ref name=Top3BYD>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/chinas-byd-becomes-worlds-third-largest-plug-in-car-maker/ |title=China's BYD Becomes World's Third-Largest Plug-in Car Maker |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-11-07 |access-date=2016-11-07}}</ref><ref name=BYD2017sales>{{cite web |url=http://autonews.gasgoo.com/new_energy/70013135.html |title=Top 10 Automakers by 2017 NEV Sales |publisher=Gasgoo China Automotive News |date=2018-01-18 |access-date=2018-01-29 |quote=According to the data released by China Passenger Car Association (CPCA), BYD topped the rank with annual NEV delivery of 113,669 units, increasing 11% year on year. With NEV deliveries soaring 125% on an annual basis to 104,520 units, BAIC BJEV took the second place among the top ten automakers.}}</ref><ref name="BYD2018TopModels">{{cite web |last=Kane |first=Mark |date=2019-01-14 |title=BYD Sold Record 37,000 Electric Cars In December 2018 |url=https://insideevs.com/byd-sold-record-electric-cars-december-2018/ |access-date=2019-01-14 |publisher=InsideEVs.com}} ''BYD Auto sold in China 227,152 plug-in cars, up 109% from 2017. During 2018 BYD Qin sales totaled 47,425 units and BYD Tang sales totaled 37,146 units.''</ref> Its [[BYD Qin|Qin]] plug-in hybrid is the company's top selling model with almost 137,000 units sold in China through December 2018.<ref name=Top10PEVs2016/><ref name=BYD2017Top/><ref name=BYD2018TopModels/> {{As of|2018|12}}, the [[BMW Group]] had sold more than 356,000 plug-in cars since inception of the BMW i3, accounting for global sales its [[BMW i]] cars, [[BMW iPerformance]] plug-in hybrid models, and [[Mini (marque)|MINI brand]] plug-ins.<ref name=BMW356K>{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/bmw-sold-142617-plug-in-ev-cars-2018/ |title=BMW Sold 142,617 Plug-In Electric Cars In 2018 |author=Mark Kane |work=Inside EVs |date=2019-01-11 |access-date=2019-01-12}} ''The BMW Group sold 142,617 plug-in electric cars in 2018, and cumulative sales since inception of the BMW i3 totaled over 356,000 BMW and MINI electrified vehicles. BMW set a target of cumulative sales of 500,000 units by the end of 2019.''</ref>
BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with 61,722 units sold, followed by Tesla, with 50,580 units.<ref name=Top2015Global>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-was-worlds-best-selling-plug-in-car-in-2015/ |title=Tesla Model S Was World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015 |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-01-12 |access-date=2016-02-06}} ''The [[Tesla Model S]] was the top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 with 50,366 units sold, followed by the [[Nissan Leaf]] (about 43,000), the [[Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV]] (over 40,000), the [[BYD Qin]] (31,898) and the [[BMW i3 (hatchback)|BMW i3]] (24,057). The Model S is also the second-best seller ever with 107,148 sales since its mid-2012 launch, behind the Nissan Leaf and ahead of GM's Volt/Ampera family, credited with 106,000 sales. ''</ref><ref name=BYD2015Top>{{cite news |url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1101883_who-sold-the-most-plug-in-electric-cars-in-2015-its-not-tesla-or-nissan |title=Who Sold The Most Plug-In Electric Cars In 2015? (It's Not Tesla Or Nissan) |author=John Voelcker |work=Green Car Reports |date=2016-01-15 |access-date=2016-01-17}} ''BYD Auto delivered 31,898 Qins, 18,375 Tangs, and 7,029 e6s during 2015. Added to that are small numbers of the T3 small commercial van and e5 battery-electric compact sedan, along with 2,888 [[Denza|Denza EV]] compact hatchbacks built by its joint venture with Daimler. Altogether, BYD sold a total of 61,722 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in China in 2015.''</ref><ref name=BYD2015>{{cite news |url=http://autonews.gasgoo.com/china-news/alternative-energy-vehicles-account-half-of-byd-s-160304.shtml |title=Alternative Energy Vehicles Account HALF of BYD's Profits for the Very First Time in 2015 |author=Natasha Li |work=Gasgoo Automotive News |date=2016-03-04 |access-date=2016-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308124723/http://autonews.gasgoo.com/china-news/alternative-energy-vehicles-account-half-of-byd-s-160304.shtml |archive-date=2016-03-08 }} ''BYD Auto delivered 69,222 new energy vehicles in China in 2015, including buses, of which, a total of 61,722 were passenger vehicles, mostly plug-in hybrids, led by the Qin and Tang.''</ref> BYD was again the world's top selling plug-in car manufacturer in 2016, with 101,183 units delivered, one more time followed again by Tesla with 76,243 units.<ref name=Global2mi/><ref name=BYDtop2016>{{cite web |url=http://www.weidu8.net/wx/1010148405424698 |title=谁是2016年电动汽车市场的霸主? |language=zh |trans-title=Who is the dominant electric vehicle market in 2016? |author=Jin Peiling |publisher=Daily Observation Car |date=2017-01-10 |access-date=2017-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116173833/http://www.weidu8.net/wx/1010148405424698 |archive-date=2017-01-16}} ''BYD sold more than 100,000 new energy passenger cars in China in 2016, about 30,000 more units than Tesla Motors. The BYD Tang was the top selling plug-in car in China in 2016 with 31,405 units delivered.''</ref> In 2017 BYD ranked for the third consecutive year as the global top plug-in car manufacturer with 113,669 units delivered. [[BAIC Motor|BAIC]] ranked second with 104,520 units.<ref name=BYD2017sales/><ref name=BYD2017Top>{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/byd-1-world-plug-in-electric-car-sales-beats-tesla/ |title=BYD #1 In World For Plug-In Electric Car Sales In 2017, Beats Tesla Again |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2018-01-26 |access-date=2018-01-29}} "BYD sold 108,612 passenger plug-in cars in China in 2017, enough to make it the world's top selling plug-in car manufacturer for the third year in a row."</ref> The [[BAIC EC-Series]] all-electric [[city car]] ranked as the world's top selling plug-in car in 2017 with 78,079 units sold in China.<ref name=China2017pax/>
After 10 years in the market, Tesla was the world's top selling plug-in passenger car manufacturer in 2018, both as a [[brand]] and by [[Automotive industry|automotive group]], with 245,240 units delivered and a market share of 12% of all plug-in cars sold globally in 2018.<ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name=Top10OEM2018>{{cite web |url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/02/2018-global-sales-by-oem.html |title=2018 Global Sales by OEM |last=Jose |first=Pontes |publisher=EVSales.com |date=2019-02-03 |access-date=2019-02-03}} "Tesla led plug-in car sales among automotive groups in 2018, with 245,240 units delivered, followed by BYD with 229,338, and the Renault-Nissan Alliance with 192,711."</ref><ref name=Global2018brandshares>{{Cite web |url=https://www.electrive.com/2019/01/10/bmw-sells-over-140000-plug-in-cars-throughout-2018/ |title=BMW sells over 140,000 plug-in cars throughout 2018 |publisher=electricdrive.com |date=2019-01-10 |access-date=2019-01-14}} ''The global share of plug-in electric cars by brand in 2018 was led by Tesla with 12%, followed by BYD with 11%, BMW with 9%, BAIC with 6%, and Roewe and Nissan, both with 5%.''</ref> BYD Auto ranked second with 227,152 plug-in passenger cars sold worldwide, representing a market share of 11%.<ref name=Global2018brandshares/><ref name=BYD2018sales>{{cite web |url=http://autonews.gasgoo.com/m/Detail/70015547.html |title=BYD NEV sales in 2018 exceed 240,000 units |work=Gasgoo |date=2019-01-08 |access-date=2019-01-14}} ''BYD Auto sold 247,811 new energy vehicles in 2018 (including commercial heavy-duty vehicles), up 118% from 2018, of which, 227,152 were passenger cars, consisting of 103,263 units all-electric cars and 123,889 units were plug-in hybrid vehicles. In addition, 20,659 new energy commercial vehicles were sold in 2018.''</ref>
In 2025, BYD Auto surpassed Tesla with 2.26 million units sold that year while Tesla reported 1.63 million sold, representing a 9% decrease from 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jolly |first=Jasper |date=2026-01-02 |title=China’s BYD overtakes Tesla as world’s biggest electric car seller |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2026/jan/02/china-byd-tesla-worlds-biggest-electric-car-seller-elon-musk-donald-trump-ev |access-date=2026-04-12 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Tesla faces additional competition from Chinese technology firm [[Xiaomi|Xiaomi Corp]], which aims to take Tesla on in the luxury electric vehicle market. In January 2026, the Xiaomi YU7 SUV outsold the Tesla Model Y with 37,869 units sold against Tesla's 16,845 Model Y vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cheng |first=Evelyn |date=2026-02-13 |title=Xiaomi's electric SUV tops China sales in January, sells twice as many as Tesla's Model Y |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2026/02/13/xiaomis-electric-suv-tops-china-sales-in-january-sells-twice-as-many-as-teslas-model-y.html |access-date=2026-04-12 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>
===Sales and main markets===
<!--This section includes a summary only of top countries or regions with sales of about or over 100,000 PEVs registered. ({{As of|2018|12}}, only the world's top 10 PEV selling markets meet this criteria (Canada is close). Please add sections only countries with PEV sales above this limit to keep the article size reasonable. The section about Europe is longer than the other because this is the only article that presents detailed information about this region.
The countries are listed in descending order of PEV sales as of December 2018. The article [[Electric car use by country]] includes all countries with registered PEVs. Please go to that article to add information about countries not listed here, or to provide more details about the countries listed here. The European countries are listed following the same descending order criteria. Thanks. --Mariordo -->
[[File:Detroit Electric car charging.png|thumb|[[Detroit Electric]] car charging in 1919. During the [[History of the electric vehicle#1895-1920: the Electric Golden Age as taxis, fast sprint cars and urban cars for society women|Golden Age]] of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at about 30,000 vehicles.<ref name=Golden30K/>]]
The global stock of plug-in electric vehicles between 2005 and 2009 consisted exclusively of all-electric cars, totaling about 1,700 units in 2005, and almost 6,000 in 2009. The plug-in stock rose to about 12,500 units in 2010, of which, only 350 vehicles were plug-in hybrids.<ref name=Outlook2016>{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Global_EV_Outlook_2016.pdf |title=Global EV Outlook 2016: Beyond one million electric cars |author=[[International Energy Agency]] (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=May 2016 |access-date=2016-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824165154/https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Global_EV_Outlook_2016.pdf |archive-date=2016-08-24 }} ''See pp. 4–5, and 24–25 and Statistical annex, pp. 34–37''.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://app.ft.com/cms/s/31d68af8-6e0a-11e6-9ac1-1055824ca907.html |title=Motor Industry: Pressure on the Pump |first1=Pilita |last1=Clark |first2=Peter |last2=Campbell |work=[[Financial Times]] |date=2016-08-31 |access-date=2016-09-01}}</ref> By comparison, during the [[History of the electric vehicle#1895-1920: the Electric Golden Age as taxis, fast sprint cars and urban cars for society women|Golden Age]] of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles.<ref name=Golden30K>{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/justingerdes/2012/05/11/the-global-electric-vehicle-movement-best-practices-from-16-cities/ |title=The Global Electric Vehicle Movement: Best Practices From 16 Cities |author=Justin Gerdes |work=[[Forbes]] |date=2012-05-11 |access-date=2014-10-20}}</ref>
After the introduction of the first mass-production plug-in cars by major carmakers in late 2010, plug-in car global sales went from about 50,000 units in 2011, to 125,000 in 2012, almost 213,000 in 2013, and over 315,000 units in 2014.<ref name=Global2011_2015/> By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans reached the one million sales milestone,<ref name=Global1mi>{{cite web |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/one-million-global-plug-in-sales-milestone-reached/ |title=One Million Global Plug-In Sales Milestone Reached |author=Jeff Cobb |publisher=HybridCars.com |date=2015-09-16 |access-date=2015-09-16}} ''Cumulative global sales totaled about 1,004,000 highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty vehicles by mid-September 2015.''</ref><ref name=GlobalICCT1mi>{{cite web |url=http://www.theicct.org/blogs/staff/global-milestone-first-million-electric-vehicles |title=Global milestone: The first million electric vehicles |author=Nic Lutsey |publisher=[[International Council on Clean Transportation]] (ICCT) |date=2015-09-29 |access-date=2015-10-10 |archive-date=2016-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412102557/http://www.theicct.org/blogs/staff/global-milestone-first-million-electric-vehicles }}</ref> almost twice as fast as [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s (HEV).<ref name=Global1mi/><ref name=GlobalICCT1mi/>
[[File:Global plug-in car sales since 2011.png|thumb|300px|Annual sales of plug-in passenger cars in the world's top markets between 2011 and 2023<ref name=EVOutlook2020/><ref name=Global2011_2015>{{cite web |url=http://energy.gov/eere/vehicles/fact-918-march-28-2016-global-plug-light-vehicle-sales-increased-about-80-2015 |title=Fact#918: March 28, 2016 – Global Plug-in Light Vehicles Sales Increased By About 80% in 2015 |publisher=[[Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy]] |author=[[Argonne National Laboratory]], [[United States Department of Energy]] |date=2016-03-28 |access-date=2016-03-29}}</ref><ref name=Outlook2018>{{cite web |url=https://webstore.iea.org/download/direct/1045?fileName=Global_EV_Outlook_2018.pdf |title=Global EV Outlook 2017: 3 million and counting |author=[[International Energy Agency]] (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=May 2018 |access-date=2018-10-23}} ''See pp. 9–10, 19–23, 29–28, and Statistical annex, pp. 107–113. The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars totaled 3,109,050 units, of which, 1,928,360 were battery electric cars.''.</ref><ref name=Europe2015_2016>{{cite web |url=http://www.acea.be/uploads/press_releases_files/20170201_AFV_Q4_2016_FINAL.PDF |title=New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2016 |author=European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) |publisher=ACEA |date=2017-02-01 |access-date=2018-10-23}} ''See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market In The EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2015.''</ref><ref name=Europe2016_2017>{{cite web |url=http://www.acea.be/uploads/press_releases_files/20180201_AFV_Q4_2017_FINAL.PDF |title=New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2017 |author=European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) |publisher=ACEA |date=2018-02-01 |access-date=2018-10-23}} ''See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market In The EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2017 and Q1-Q4 2016.''</ref><ref name=Outlook2019>{{cite web |url=https://webstore.iea.org/download/direct/2807?fileName=Global_EV_Outlook_2019.pdf |title=Global EV Outlook 2019: Scaling-up the transition to electric mobility |author=[[International Energy Agency]] (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=May 2019 |access-date=2020-05-11}} ''See Statistical annex, pp. 210–213. The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars totaled 5,122,460 units at the end of 2018, of which, 3,290,800 (64.2%) were battery electric cars (See Tables A.1 and A.2).''.</ref><ref name=Europe2018_2019>{{cite web |url=https://www.acea.be/uploads/press_releases_files/20200206_PRPC_fuel_Q4_2019_FINAL.pdf |title=New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2019 |author=European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) |publisher=ACEA |date=2020-02-06 |access-date=2020-05-11}} ''See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market In The EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2018 and 2019.''</ref><ref name=Global2020>{{cite web |url=http://www.ev-volumes.com/country/total-world-plug-in-vehicle-volumes/ |title=Global Plug-in Vehicle Sales Reached over 3,2 Million in 2020 |first=Roland |last=Irle |publisher=EV-volumes.com |date=2021-01-19 |access-date=2021-01-20}} ''Plug-in sales totaled 3.24 million in 2020, up from 2.26 million in 2019. Europe, with nearly 1.4 million untits surpassed China as the largest EV market for the first time since 2015.''</ref><ref>[https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer IEA 2014]</ref>]]
Light-duty plug-in electric vehicle sales in 2015 increased to more than 565,000 units in 2015, about 80% from 2014, driven mainly by China and Europe.<ref name=Global2011_2015/> Both markets passed in 2015 the U.S. as the largest plug-in electric car markets in terms of total annual sales, with China ranking as the world's best-selling plug-in electric passenger car country market in 2015.<ref name=TopSix2015/><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.plugincars.com/us-falls-behind-europe-and-china-global-plug-vehicle-market-131369.html |title=US Falls Behind Europe and China in Global Plug-in Vehicle Market |first=Brad |last=Berman |work=Plugincars.com |date=2016-02-13 |access-date=2016-02-16}}</ref> About 775,000 plug-in cars and vans were sold in 2016, and cumulative global sales passed the 2 million milestone by the end of 2016.<ref name=Global2mi>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/the-world-just-bought-its-two-millionth-plug-in-car/ |title=The World Just Bought Its Two-Millionth Plug-in Car |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2017-01-16 |access-date=2017-01-17}} ''An estimated 2,032,000 highway-legal plug-in passenger cars and vans have been sold worldwide at the end of 2016. The top selling markets are China (645,708 new energy cars, including imports), Europe (638,000 plug-in cars and vans), and the United States (570,187 plug-in cars). The top European country markets are Norway (135,276), the Netherlands (113,636), France (108,065), and the UK (91,000). Total Chinese sales of domestically produced new energy vehicles, including buses and truck, totaled 951,447 vehicles. China was the top selling plug-in car market in 2016, and also has the world's largest stock of plug-in electric cars.''</ref> The global market share of the light-duty plug-in vehicle segment achieved a record 0.86% of total new car sales in 2016, up from 0.62% in 2015 and 0.38% in 2014.<ref name=Global2016>{{ cite web |url=http://www.ev-volumes.com/news/global-plug-in-sales-for-2016/ |title=Global Plug-in Sales for 2016 |author=Staff |work=EV-Volumes.com |date=February 2017 |access-date=2017-02-05}}</ref>
Cumulative global light-duty plug-in vehicle sales passed the 3 million milestone in November 2017.<ref name=Global3mi>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/25/electric-and-plug-in-hybrid-cars-3m-worldwide |title=Electric and plug-in hybrid cars whiz past 3m mark worldwide |first=Adam |last=Vaughan |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=2017-12-25 |access-date=2018-01-20}} "The number of fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars on the world's roads passed the 3 million mark in November 2017."</ref> About 1.2 million plug-ins cars and vans were sold worldwide in 2017, with China accounting for about half of global sales. The plug-in car segment achieved a 1.3% market share.<ref name=China2017pax/><ref name=Global2017>{{cite web |url=http://www.ev-volumes.com/country/total-world-plug-in-vehicle-volumes/ |title=Global Plug-in Sales for 2017-Q4 and the Full Year (prelim.) |author=EVvolumes.com |publisher=EVvolumes.com |date=January 2018 |access-date=2018-02-17}} ''Global registrations totaled around 1.2 million units in 2017, 57 % higher than 2016. These include all global BEV and PHEV passenger cars sales, light trucks in USA/Canada and light commercial vehicle in Europe. The segment market share was 1.3%, and in December the global plug-in share touched the 2 % mark for the first time.''</ref> Plug-in passenger car sales totaled just over 2 million in 2018, with a market share of 2.1%.<ref name=Top20Global2018/> The global stock reached 5.3 million light-duty plug-in vehicles in December 2018.<ref name=5miGlobal>{{cite web |url=https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/electric-power/021119-december-global-electric-vehicle-sales-set-new-record-sampp-global-platts-data |title=December global electric vehicle sales set new record: S&P Global Platts data |first=Frank |last=Watson |work=[[S&P Global Platts]] |location=London |date=2019-02-11 |access-date=2019-02-11 |quote=At the end of 2018, some 5.3 million plug-in EVs were on the road}} ''A total of 1.45 million light-duty pure electric vehicles were sold in 2018.''</ref><ref name=Outlook2018/>
By the end of 2019 the stock of light-duty plug-in vehicles totaled 7.55 million units, consisting of 4.79 million all-electric cars, 2.38 million plug-in hybrid cars, and 377,970 electric light commercial vehicles. Plug-in passenger cars still represented less than 1% of the world's car fleet in use.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/> In addition, there were about half a million electric buses in circulation in 2019, most of them in China.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/> In 2020, global cumulative sales of light-duty plug-in vehicles passed the 10 million unit milestone.<ref name=Global10mi/>
Despite the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2018 (0.4%),<ref name=EVGlobal2018inuse>{{cite news |url=https://qz.com/1533976/automakers-may-overproduce-14-million-electric-cars-by-2030/ |title=E-nough? Automakers may have completely overestimated how many people want electric cars |first=Michael J. |last=Coren |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |date=2019-01-25 |access-date=2019-01-25 |quote=Despite exponential growth, with a record 2 million or so EVs sold worldwide last year, only one in 250 cars on the road is electric.}}</ref> rose to 1 out of every 200 [[motor vehicle]]s (0.48%) in 2019,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://evstatistics.com/2020/06/global-electric-vehicle-stock-reaches-7-2-million/ |title=Global Electric Vehicle Stock Reaches 7.2 Million |publisher=EV Statistics |date=2020-06-20 |access-date=2020-09-29}}</ref> and by the end of 2020, the stock share of plug-in cars on the world's roads was 1%.<ref name=GlobalEVOutlook2021 />
[[File:Ratio BEV to PHEV global annual sales since 2011.png|thumb|300px|Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2024<ref name=Top20Global2018>{{cite web |url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/01/global-top-20-december-2018.html |title=Global Top 20 - December 2018 |last=Jose |first=Pontes |publisher=EVSales.com |date=2019-01-31 |access-date=2019-01-31}} "Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, with a BEV:PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a market share of 2.1%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2018, followed by BYD."</ref><ref name=Top20Global2019>{{cite web |url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2020/01/global-top-20-december-2019.html |title=Global Top 20 - December 2019 |last=Jose |first=Pontes |publisher=EVSales.com |date=2020-01-31 |access-date=2020-05-10}} "Global sales totaled 2,209,831 plug-in passenger cars in 2019, with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 74:26, and a global market share of 2.5%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 300,075 units delivered, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2019 with 367,820 units, followed by BYD with 229,506."</ref><ref name=EVImckinsey2017/><ref name=GlobalRatio2021>{{cite web |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2022/01/30/world-ev-sales-tesla-model-3-wins-4th-consecutive-best-seller-title-in-record-year/ |title=World EV Sales — Tesla Model 3 Wins 4th Consecutive Best Seller Title In Record Year |last=Jose |first=Pontes |publisher=CleanTechnica |date=2022-01-30 |access-date=2022-02-02 |quote=That allowed them (BEVs) to end the year with 71% of plugin EV sales, up 2 percentage points from the 69% of 2020, but still below the 74% of 2019.}}</ref><ref name=Ratio2022>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ev-volumes.com/ |title=EV-Volumes - The Electric Vehicle World Sales Database |website=www.ev-volumes.com}}</ref><ref>[https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer IEA 2024]</ref><ref>[https://autovista24.autovistagroup.com/news/what-are-the-global-ev-markets-most-successful-brands/ Autovista Group]</ref>]]
All-electric cars have outsold plug-in hybrids for several years, and by the end of 2019, the shift towards [[battery electric car]]s continued. The global ratio between all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, increased to 66:34 in 2017, and rose to 69:31 in 2018, and reached 74:26 in 2019.<ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name=Top20Global2019/><ref name=EVImckinsey2017>{{cite web |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/the-global-electric-vehicle-market-is-amped-up-and-on-the-rise |title=The global electric-vehicle market is amped up and on the rise |first1=Patrick |last1=Hertzke |first2=Nicolai |last2=Müller |first3=Stephanie |last3=Schenk |first4=Ting |last4=Wu |work=[[McKinsey & Company]] |date=May 2018 |access-date=2019-01-27}} ''See Exhibit 1: Global electric-vehicle sales, 2010-17''.</ref> Out of the 7.2 million plug-in passenger cars in use at the end of 2019, two thirds were all-electric cars (4.8 million).<ref name=EVOutlook2020/>
Since 2016, China has the world's largest fleet of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, after having overtaken during 2016 both the U.S. and Europe in terms of cumulative sales.<ref name=Global2mi/><ref name=ChinaLeads2016/><ref name=ChinaLeads_2>{{cite web |url=http://www.autoblog.com/2016/12/29/china-far-ahead-of-us-europe-in-total-electric-vehicle-sales/ |title=China far ahead of US, Europe in total electric vehicle sales |first=Danny |last=King |publisher=Autoblog.com |date=2016-12-29 |access-date=2017-01-08 |quote=Last year, China overtook both the US and Europe in annual sales of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids. This year, it will move ahead of both the US and Europe in cumulative plug-in vehicle sales.}}</ref> The fleet of Chinese plug-in passenger cars represented 46.7% of the global stock of plug-in cars at the end of 2019. Europe listed next with 24.8%, followed by the U.S. with 20.2% of the global stock in use.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/>
{{As of|2017|12}}, 25 cities accounted for 44% of the world's stock of plug-in electric cars, while representing just 12% of world passenger vehicle sales. [[Shanghai]] led the world with cumulative sales of over 162,000 electric vehicles since 2011, followed by [[Beijing]] with 147,000 and [[Los Angeles metropolitan area|Los Angeles]] with 143,000. Among these cities, [[Bergen]] has the highest market share of the plug-in segment, with about 50% of new car sales in 2017, followed by [[Oslo]] with 40%.<ref name=ICCT102018>{{cite web |url=https://www.theicct.org/publications/ev-capitals-of-the-world-2018 |title=Electric vehicle capitals: Accelerating the global transition to electric drive |author=Dale Hall, Hongyang Cui, Nic Lutsey |publisher=The International Council on Clean Transportation |date=2018-10-30 |access-date=2018-11-01}} ''Click on "Download File" to get the full report, 15 pp.''</ref>
====China====
{{Further|New energy vehicles in China}} [[File:NEV cum sales China from 2011.png|thumb|275px|Cumulative sales of [[new energy vehicles]] in China between 2011 and 2021<ref name="ChinaLeads2016">{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/china-takes-lead-as-number-one-in-plug-in-vehicle-sales/ |title=China Takes Lead As Number One In Plug-in Vehicle Sales |last=Cobb |first=Jeff |date=2016-12-27 |work=HybridCars.com |access-date=2017-01-06}} ''{{As of|2016|11}}, cumulative sales of plug-in vehicles in China totaled 846,447 units, including passenger and commercial vehicles, making it the world's leader in overall plug-in vehicle sales. With cumulative sales of about 600,000 passenger plug-ins through November 2016, China is also the global leader in the passenger plug-in car segment, ahead of Europe and the U.S.''</ref><ref name=China2016>{{cite web |url=http://www.d1ev.com/48462.html |title=中汽协: 2016年新能源汽车产销量均超50万辆,同比增速约50% |language=zh |trans-title=China Auto Association: 2016 new energy vehicle production and sales were over 500,000, an increase of about 50% |author=Liu Wanxiang |publisher=D1EV.com |date=2017-01-12 |access-date=2017-01-12}} ''Chinese sales of new energy vehicles in 2016 totaled 507,000, consisting of 409,000 BEV vehicles and 98,000 PHEVs.''</ref><ref name=China2017>{{cite web |url=http://www.autonewschina.com/en/article.asp?id=17104 |title=Electrified vehicle sales surge 53% in 2017 |author=Automotive News China |publisher=Automotive News China |date=2018-01-16 |access-date=2018-01-19}} ''Chinese sales of domestically-built new energy vehicles in 2017 totaled 777,000, consisting of 652,000 all-electric vehicles and 125,000 plug-in hybrid vehicles. Sales of domestically-produced new energy passenger vehicles totalled 579,000 units, consisting of 468,000 all-electric cars and 111,000 plug-in hybrids. Only domestically built all-electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids and fuel cell vehicles qualify for government subsidies in China.''</ref><ref name=China2018>{{cite web |url=https://www.d1ev.com/news/shuju/85937 |title=中汽协: 2018年新能源汽车产销均超125万辆, 同比增长60% |language=zh |trans-title=Chia Automobile Association: In 2018, the production and sales of new energy vehicles exceeded 1.25 million units, a year-on-year increase of 60% |publisher=D1EV.com |date=2019-01-14 |access-date=2019-01-15}} ''Chinese sales of new energy vehicles in 2018 totaled 1.256 million, consisting of 984,000 all-electric vehicles and 271,000 plug-in hybrid vehicles.''</ref><ref name="NEVsChina2019"/><ref name=ChinaNEV2020>{{cite web |url=http://en.caam.org.cn/Index/show/catid/34/id/140.html |title=Sales of New Energy Vehicles in December 2020 |author=China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) |publisher=CAAM |date=2021-01-14 |access-date=2021-02-08}} ''NEV sales in China totaled 1.637 million in 2020, consisting of 1.246 million passenger cars and 121,000 commercial vehicles.''</ref><ref name="ChinaNEV2021">{{cite web |url=http://en.caam.org.cn/Index/show/catid/54/id/1656.html |title=Sales of New Energy Vehicles in December 2021 |author=China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) |publisher=CAAM |date=2022-01-12 |access-date=2022-01-13}} ''NEV sales in China totaled 3.521 million in 2021 (all classes), consisting of 3.334 million passenger cars and 186,000 commercial vehicles.''</ref>]]
{{As of|2021|12}}, China had the world's largest stock of highway legal plug-in cars with 7.84 million units, corresponding to about 46% of the global plug-in car fleet in use. Of these, all-electric cars accounted for 81.6% of the all new energy passenger cars in circulation.<ref name=China2021parc>{{cite news |url=https://autonews.gasgoo.com/china_news/70019540.html |title=China's car parc amounts to 302 million units by end of 2021 |author=Gasgoo News |date=2022-01-12 |access-date=2022-01-15 |quote=China's new energy vehicle (NEV) parc amounted to 7.84 million units by the end of 2021, 81.63% of which were full-electric vehicles. As of Dec. 2021, NEVs accounted for 2.6% of the country's total car parc.}}</ref> Plug-in passenger cars represent 2.6% of all cars on Chinese roads at the end of 2021.<ref name=China2021parc /> Domestically produced cars dominate new energy car sales in China, accounting for about 96% of sales in 2017.<ref name=China2017pax>{{cite web |url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.ca/2018/01/china-december-2017.html |title=China December 2017 |author=Jose Pontes |publisher=EV Sales |date=2018-01-18 |access-date=2018-01-19}} ''Sales of plug-in electric cars in China, including imports, totaled 600,174 units in 2017. The BAIC EC-Series was the top selling plug-in with 78,079 units sold in China, making the city car the world's top selling plug-in car in 2017. The top selling plug-in hybrid was the BYD Song PHEV with 30,920 units. BYD Auto was the top selling car manufacturer. Foreign brands captured only about 4% of plug-in sales in 2017, with about half by Tesla. The Chinese plug-in car market represented roughly half of the 1.2 million plug-ins sold worldwide in 2017.''</ref><ref name=China2030>{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeldunne/2016/12/14/chinas-automotive-2030-blueprint-no-1-globally-in-evs-autonomous-cars/2/#4cd597695e48 |title=China's Automotive 2030 Blueprint: No. 1 Globally In EVs, Autonomous Cars |first=Michael J. |last=Dune |work=[[Forbes]] |date=2016-12-14 |access-date=2016-12-14}}</ref> Another particular feature of the Chinese passenger plug-in market is the dominance of small entry level vehicles.<ref name=ChinaSmallcars>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/specials/auto-focus/china-faces-acid-test-in-vehicle-emissions/article9163602.ece |title=China faces acid test in vehicle emissions |first=Abdul |last=Majeed |work=[[Business Line]] |date=2016-09-29 |access-date=2016-09-29}}</ref>
China also dominates the plug-in [[light commercial vehicle]] and [[electric bus]] deployment, with its stock reaching over 500,000 buses in 2019, 98% of the global stock, and 247,500 electric light commercial vehicles, 65% of the global fleet. In addition, the country also leads sales of medium- and heavy duty electric trucks, with over 12,000 trucks sold, and nearly all battery electric.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/> Since 2011, combined sales of all classes of [[new energy vehicle]]s (NEV) totaled almost 5.5 million at the end of 2020.<ref name=ChinaNEV2020/><ref name="ChinaLeads2016"/><ref name=China2016/><ref name=China2017/><ref name=China2018/><ref name="NEVsChina2019">{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/news/396291/chinese-nevs-market-slightly-declined-2019/ |title=Chinese NEVs Market Slightly Declined In 2019: Full Report |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2020-02-04 |access-date=2020-05-30}} ''Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 1,206,000 units in 2019, down 4.0% from 2018, and includes 2,737 fuel cell vehicles. Battery electric vehicle sales totaled 972,000 units (down 1.2%) and plug-in hybrid sales totaled 232,000 vehicles (down 14.5%). Sales figures include passenger cars, buses and commercial vehicles.''.</ref>
The [[BAIC EC-Series]] all-electric [[city car]] was China's the top selling plug-in car in 2017 and 2018, and also the world's top selling plug-in car in 2017. [[BYD Auto]] was the world's top selling car manufacturer in 2016 and 2017.<ref name=China2018Top>{{cite web |url=http://autonews.gasgoo.com/new_energy/70015566.html |title=China's new energy PV wholesale volume in 2018 shoots up 83% year on year |work=Gasgoo |date=2019-01-11 |access-date=2019-01-21}} ''Sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 1,016,002 units in 2018.The BAIC EC series ranked as China's top selling plug-in car in 2018 with 90,637 units delivered.''</ref><ref name=BYD2017sales/><ref name=BYD2017Top/><ref name=China2017pax/><ref name=TopChina2017>{{cite web |url=http://autonews.gasgoo.com/70013142.html |title=Top 10 NEV Models by 2017 Sales |publisher=Gasgoo China Automotive News |date=2018-01-18 |access-date=2019-01-15}} ''Sales of the BAIC EC series totaled 78,079 cars in 2018 and ranked as China's top selling plug-in car.''</ref> In 2020, the [[Tesla Model 3]] listed as the best-selling plug-in car with 137,459 units.<ref name="TopNEVsChina2020">{{cite news |url=http://english.sdchina.com/show/4593846.html |title=Domestic EV makers rival Tesla in China, can they win? |work=SDchina.com |date=2021-02-05 |access-date=2021-02-19}} ''See table: Top 10 NEV sold in China in 2020.''</ref>
====Europe==== {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicles in Europe}}
{{For|more details of European and other countries|electric car use by country}} {{See also|Plug-in electric cars in Sweden}} [[File:Annual PEV registrations Europe from 2011 2019.png|thumb|275px|Evolution of annual registrations of plug-in electric passenger cars in Europe, 2011–2021]]
Europe had about 5.67 million plug-in electric passenger cars and light commercial vehicles in circulation at the end of 2021, consisting of 2.9 million fully electric passenger cars, 2.5 million plug-in hybrid cars, and about 220,000 light commercial all-electric vehicles.<ref name="EVOutlook2020" /><ref name="Europe2021ACEA">{{cite web |url=https://www.acea.auto/files/20220202_PRPC-fuel_Q4-2021_FINAL.pdf |title=ACEA Report: New Car Registrations by Fuel Type, European Union |author=European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) |publisher=ACEA |date=2022-02-02 |access-date=2022-02-02}} ''See tables in pp.3 and 4 - Figures include the European Union countries, + EFTA (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland) and the UK.''</ref><ref name="Europe2021ACEA_LCV">{{cite web |url=https://www.acea.auto/files/ACEA_vans_by_fuel_type_full-year_2021.pdf |title=ACEA Report: New Light Commercial Vehicle Registrations by Fuel Type, European Union |author=European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) |publisher=ACEA |date=2022-03-01 |access-date=2022-03-02}} ''See tables in pp.3 and 4 - Figures include the European Union countries, + EFTA (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland) and the UK. A total of 38,999 new plug-in electric vans were sold in 2020, and 69,416 in 2021.''</ref> The European stock of plug-in passenger is the world's second largest market after China, accounting for 30% of the global car stock in 2020.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/> Europe also has the second largest electric light commercial vehicle stock, 33% of the global stock in 2019.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/>
In 2020, and despite the strong decline in global car sales brought by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], annual sales of plug-in passenger cars in Europe surpassed the 1 million mark for the first time.<ref name=Europe1mi>{{cite web |url=https://www.schmidtmatthias.de/post/exclusive-western-europe-s-plug-in-electric-car-market-surpasses-1m-landmark |title=Exclusive: Western Europe's plug-in electric car market surpasses 1 million landmark |first=Matthias |last=Schmidt |work=Schmidt Automotive Research |date=2020-12-03 |access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref><ref name=EU2020/> In addition, Europe outsold China in 2020 as the world's largest plug-in passenger car market for the first time since 2015.<ref name=GlobalEV2020>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/19/global-sales-of-electric-cars-accelerate-fast-in-2020-despite-covid-pandemic |title=Global sales of electric cars accelerate fast in 2020 despite pandemic |first=Damian |last=Carrington |work=The Guardian |date=2021-01-19 |access-date=2021-01-19 |quote=The EV-volumes.com data showed the five highest national sales were in China (1.3m), Germany (0.4m), the US (0.3m), France and the UK (both 0.2m).}} ''Global sales of plug-ins cars totaled 3 million in 2020, 43% up from 2018. The market share of plug-in vehicles reached 4.2% of the global market, up from 2.5% in 2019. Tesla was the best selling brand with almost 500,000 units delivered. ''</ref><ref name=China2020>{{cite web |url=https://finance.sina.com.cn/tech/2021-02-08/doc-ikftssap4811940.shtml |title="罚出来的"爆发式增长 欧洲新能源车销量首次超越中国 |language=Chinese |trans-title="Punished" explosive growth, European new energy vehicle sales surpassed China for the first time |publisher=Sina Finance |date=2021-02-08 |access-date=2021-02-08}}</ref>
The plug-in car segment had a market share of 1.3% of new car registrations in 2016, rose to 3.6% in 2019, and achieved 11.4% in 2020.<ref name="MarketShareEUR2020">{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/news/489169/european-countries-plugin-market-share-q1q4-2020/ |title=European Countries Listed By Plug-In Electric Car Market Share In Q1-Q4 2020 |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2021-02-20 |access-date=2021-02-21 |quote=The average market share of new passenger plug-in electric cars in Europe more than tripled in 2020 to 11.4% (from less than 3.6% in 2019).}} Figures includes the European Union, EFTA (Norway, Switzerland, Iceland) and the UK, using available registration data from the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA).</ref><ref name=EU2016>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/renault-zoe-ekes-by-mitsubishi-outlander-in-2016-european-plug-in-sales/ |title=Renault Zoe Ekes By Mitsubishi Outlander in 2016 European Plug-in Sales |first=Jon |last=LeSage |work=HybridCars.com |date=2017-02-06 |access-date=2017-02-06}}</ref><ref name=Europe2019>{{cite web |url=http://www.avere-france.org/Site/Article/?article_id=7788 |title=En Europe, les ventes de voitures électriques en hausse de 80 % en 2019 |language=fr |trans-title=In Europe, sales of electric cars up 80% in 2019 |author=France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France |publisher=AVERE |date=2020-02-11 |access-date=2020-05-16 |archive-date=2020-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621172340/http://www.avere-france.org/Site/Article/?article_id=7788 }}</ref> The largest country markets in the European region in terms of EV stock and annual sales are Germany, Norway, France, the UK, the Netherlands, and Sweden.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/> Germany surpassed Norway in 2019 as the best selling plug-in market, leading both the all-electric and the plug-in hybrid segments in Europe.<ref name=Europe2019/> and in 2020 listed as the top selling European country market for the second consecutive year.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/><ref name=EU2020>{{cite news |url=https://www.fleeteurope.com/en/new-energies/europe/features/yes-2021-year-evs-go-mainstream?a=FJA05&t%5B0%5D=Electrification&t%5B1%5D=ICE&curl=1 |title=Yes, 2021 is the year EVs go mainstream |first=Frank |last=Jacobs |work=Fleet Europe |date=2021-01-07 |access-date=2021-01-12 |quote=Close to 1.25 million EVs were sold in Europe in 2020, around 10% of the total |archive-date=2021-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111103047/https://www.fleeteurope.com/en/new-energies/europe/features/yes-2021-year-evs-go-mainstream?a=FJA05&t%5B0%5D=Electrification&t%5B1%5D=ICE&curl=1 }}</ref>
=====Germany===== [[File:PEV Registrations Germany 2010 2014.png|thumb|275px|Annual registration of plug-in electric cars in Germany by type of powertrain between 2010 and 2021]] {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicles in Germany}}
The stock of plug-in electric cars in Germany is the largest in Europe, there were 1,184,416 plug-in cars in circulation on January 1, 2022, representing 2.5% of all passenger cars on German roads, up from 1.2% the previous year.<ref name="GERstock2021">{{cite web |url=https://www.kba.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/Fahrzeugbestand/2022/pm10_fz_bestand_pm_komplett.html?snn=3662144 |title=Pressemitteilung Nr. 10/2022 - Der Fahrzeugbestand am 1. Januar 2022 |language=de |trans-title=Press release No. 10/2021 - The vehicle stock on January 1, 2022 |author=Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) |publisher=KBA |date=2022-03-04 |access-date=2022-03-14}} ''There were 618,460 all-electric cars and 565,956 plug-in hybrids registered in Germany on January 1, 2022 (total 1,184,416 plug-in cars). The share of all-electric cars rose to 1.3% percent (+100.1%) and that of plug-in hybrids doubled to 1.2%, for a total of 2.5% of plug-in cars on German roads on January 1, 2022.''</ref><ref name=GermanyEVinUse2020>{{cite web |url=https://www.kba.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/Fahrzeugbestand/pm08_fz_bestand_pm_komplett.html |title=Pressemitteilung Nr. 8/2021 - Der Fahrzeugbestand am 1. Januar 2021 |language=de |trans-title=Press release No. 8/2021 - The number of vehicles on January 1st, 2021 |author=Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) |publisher=KBA |date=2021-03-02 |access-date=2021-03-02 |quote=The share of electric cars (BEV ) rose from 0.3 percent (136,617) on January 1, 2020 to 0.6 percent (309,083) and that of hybrid cars from 1.1 percent (539,383) to 2.1 percent (1.004.089). The number of plug-in hybrid vehicles grew from 102,175 to 279,861 (+ 173.9%). Their share tripled to 0.6 percent. ''(Translated from the original)'' |archive-date=2021-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309164155/https://www.kba.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/Fahrzeugbestand/pm08_fz_bestand_pm_komplett.html }}</ref> {{As of|2021|12}}, cumulative sales totaled 1.38 million plug-in passenger cars since 2010.<ref name="Germany2021">{{cite web |url=https://www.kba.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/Fahrzeugzulassungen/2022/pm01_2022_n_12_21_pm_komplett.html |title=Pressemitteilung Nr. 01/2022 - Fahrzeugzulassungen im Dezember 2021 - Jahresbilanz |language=de |trans-title=Press release No. 01/2022 - Vehicle registrations in December 2021 - Annual balance |author=Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) |publisher=KBA |date=2022-01-05 |access-date=2022-01-09}} ''A total of 681,410 plug-in electric passenger cars were registered in Germany in 2021, consisting of 325,449 plug-in hybrids (12.4% market share) and 355,961 all-electric cars (13.6% market share).''</ref><ref name=GERstock2020>{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/news/466566/germany-plugin-car-sales-december-2020/ |title=Germany: Plug-In Car Share At 26%: Records Everywhere In December 2020 |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2021-01-16 |access-date=2022-01-09 |quote=The cumulative number of plug-in electric cars sold in Germany over the past seven years is close to 700,000 (since 2013)}}</ref> Germany had a stock of 21,890 light-duty electric commercial vehicles in 2019, the second largest in Europe after France.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/>
Germany listed as the top selling plug-in car market in the European continent in 2019 and achieved a market share of 3.10%.<ref name=Europe2018_2019/><ref name=Germany2019>{{cite web |url=https://www.kba.de/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Neuzulassungen/MonatlicheNeuzulassungen/2019/201912_GImonatlich/201912_nzbarometer/201912_n_barometer.html?nn=2607426 |title=Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2019 |language=de |trans-title=New Registrations Barometer December 2019 |author=Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) |publisher=KBA |date=January 2020 |access-date=2019-05-14}} ''See the tab Kraftsoffarten: A total of 45,348 plug-in hybrids (market share 1.3%) and 63,321 all-electric cars (market share 1.8%) were registered in Germany in 2019.''</ref> Despite the global decline in car sales brought by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the segment market share achieved a record 13.6% in 2020.<ref name=Germany2020>{{cite web |url=https://www.kba.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/Fahrzeugzulassungen/pm02_2021_n_12_20_pm_komplett.html? |title=Pressemitteilung Nr. 02/2021 - Fahrzeugzulassungen im Dezember 2020 - Jahresbilanz |language=de |trans-title=Press release No. 02/2021 - Vehicle registrations in December 2020 - Annual balance sheet |author=Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) |publisher=KBA |date=2021-01-08 |access-date=2021-01-10 |archive-date=2021-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719055859/https://www.kba.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/Fahrzeugzulassungen/pm02_2021_n_12_20_pm_komplett.html }} ''A total of 394,632 plug-in electric passenger cars were registered in Germany in 2021, consisting of 200,469 plug-in hybrids (6.9% market share) and 194,163 all-electric cars (6.7% market share).''</ref> with a record volume of 394,632 plug-in passenger cars registered in 2020, up 263% from 2019, allowing Germany to be listed for a second year running as the best selling European plug-in market.<ref name=FRA2020/><ref name=Germany2020/> Both years, the German market led both the fully electric and plug-in hybrid segments.<ref name=FRA2020>{{cite web |url=http://www.avere-france.org/Site/Article/?article_id=7950&from_espace_adherent=0 |title=Baromètre des immatriculations - En décembre 2020, les véhicules électriques et hybrides rechargeables ont représenté plus de 16 % du marché français: du jamais vu ! |language=French |trans-title=Registrations barometer - In December 2020, electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles represented more than 16% of the French market: unprecedented! |author=France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France |publisher=AVERE France |date=2021-01-08 |access-date=2021-01-23 |archive-date=2021-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111201105/http://www.avere-france.org/Site/Article/?article_id=7950&from_espace_adherent=0 }} See infograh "Parc Roulant et Immatriculations Annuelles depuis Janvier 2010" - ''As of December 2020, there were 470,295 plug-in electric cars and utility vans, consisting of 337,986 all-electric cars and vans, and 132,309 plug-in hybrids registered since 2010.''</ref>
Despite to the continued global decline in car sales brought by the [[shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic]], and [[2020–2022 global chip shortage|computer chips]] in particular, a record 681,410 plug-in electric passenger cars were registered in Germany in 2021, consisting of 325,449 plug-in hybrids and 355,961 all-electric cars, allowing the segment's market share to surge to 26.0%.<ref name="Germany2021" />
===== France ===== {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicles in France}}
[[File:2018 Renault ZOE.jpg|thumb|The [[Renault Zoe]] is the country's all-time best selling plug-in electric car with over 100,000 units delivered since inception through June 2020.<ref name=ZoeFRA100K>{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/news/432216/renault-ev-sales-france-zoe-h1-2020/ |title=Renault EV Sales In France Is Booming: 17,650 ZOE Sold In H1 2020 |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2020-07-03 |access-date=2020-07-20}}</ref>]]
{{As of|2021|12}}, a total of 786,274 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in France since 2010, consisting of 512,178 all-electric passenger cars and commercial vans, and 274,096 plug-in hybrids.<ref name="France2021">{{cite web |url=https://www.avere-france.org/publication/barometre-204-de-parts-de-marche-en-decembre-2021-pour-les-vehicules-electriques-et-hybrides-rechargeables-et-15-sur-lensemble-de-2021/ |title=[Baromètre] 20,4 % de parts de marché en décembre 2021 pour les véhicules électriques et hybrides rechargeables... et 15 % sur l'ensemble de 2021 ! |language=French |trans-title=Barometer: 20.4% market share in December 2021 for electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles... and 15% for the whole of 2021! |author=France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France |publisher=AVERE France |date=2022-01-07 |access-date=2022-01-08}} See infograh "Barometre mensuel de la mobilité électrique Chiffres clés du mois de septembre 2021 - Evolution du Parc Roulant Automobiles Depuis Janvier 2010" - ''As of December 2021, a total of 786,274 plug-in electric passenger cars and vans have been registered in France, consisting of 512,178 all-electric cars and vans, and 274,096 plug-in hybrids in circulation. Registrations of all-electric cars and vans totaled 174,191 units in 2021, and plug-in hybrids totaled 141,787 units, for a total of 315,978 units. The light-duty plug-in vehicle segment achieved a market share of 15.1%''</ref> Of these, over 60,000 were all-electric light commercial vehicles.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/><ref name=France092021>{{cite web |url=http://www.avere-france.org/Site/Article/?article_id=8035&from_espace_adherent=0 |title=En septembre 2021, les véhicules électriques et hybrides rechargeables ont représenté près de 18 % du marché français |language=French |trans-title=Barometer In September 2021, electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles represented nearly 18% of the French market |author=France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France |publisher=AVERE France |date=2021-10-06 |access-date=2021-10-12 |archive-date=2021-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020164221/http://www.avere-france.org/Site/Article/?article_id=8035&from_espace_adherent=0 }} See infograh "Barometre mensuel de la mobilité électrique Chiffres clés du mois de septembre 2021 - Evolution du Parc Roulant Automobiles Depuis Janvier 2010" - ''As of September 2021, a total of 687,876 plug-in electric passenger cars and vans have been registered in France, consisting of 453,143 all-electric cars and vans, and 234,733 plug-in hybrids in circulation.''</ref>
The market share of all-electric passenger cars increased from 0.30% of new car registered in 2012, to 0.59% in 2014.<ref name=SalesFR2010_16>{{cite web |url=http://www.automobile-propre.com/dossiers/voitures-electriques/chiffres-vente-immatriculations-france/ |title=Chiffres de vente & immatriculations de voitures électriques en France |trans-title=Sales figures & electric car registrations in France |author=Autoactu.com |publisher=Automobile Propre |date=May 2016 |access-date=2016-05-14 |language=fr}} ''See "Ventes de voitures électriques en 2016/2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011 and 2010" It shows all electric car registrations between 2010 and 2016.''</ref><ref name=FRSales2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.automobile-propre.com/215-pour-les-ventes-de-voitures-electriques-en-france-pour-2012/ |title=+115% pour les ventes de voitures électriques en France pour 2012 |trans-title=Electric car sales in France increased 115% in 2011 |author=Yoann Nussbaumer |publisher=Automobile Propre |date=2013-01-16 |access-date=2015-02-03 |language=fr}}</ref> After the introduction of the super-bonus for the scrappage of old diesel-power cars in 2015, sales of both pure electric cars and plug-in hybrids surged, rising the market share to 1.17% in 2015,<ref name=Fra2015VHR>{{cite web |url=http://www.avem.fr/actualite-immatriculations-des-hybrides-rechargeables-la-barre-des-5-000-est-franchie-5924.html |title=Immatriculations des hybrides rechargeables: La barre des 5.000 est franchie ! |language=fr |trans-title=Plug-in hybrid registrations: The 5,000 barrier is achieved! |author=France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France |publisher=AVERE |date=2016-01-08 |access-date=2016-05-14}}'' A total of 5,006 plug-in hybrids were registered in France in 2015.''</ref><ref name=TopSix2015/> climbed to 2.11% in 2018, and achieved 2.8% in 2019.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/><ref name=France2018/>
Despite the global strong decline in car sales brought by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], and the related [[2020–2022 global chip shortage|global computer chip shortage]], plug-in electric car sales in France rose to a record of 315,978 light-duty plug-in vehicles in 2021, up 62% from 2020.<ref name="France2021" /> The plug-in electric passenger car market share rose to 11.2% in 2020 and achieved a record market share of 18.3% in 2021.<ref name=FRA2021>{{cite web |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2022/01/17/tesla-model-3-wins-france-in-record-month-32-share/ |title=32% Plugin Vehicle Share In France! Tesla Model 3 = #8 In Overall Market. |first=José |last=Pontes |publisher=CleanTechnica |date=2022-01-18 |access-date=2022-01-18 |quote=With December at 32% plugin share (19% BEV) and the full 2021 share ending at 18.3% (9.8% BEV)}}</ref> The combined light-duty plug-in vehicle segment (cars and utility vans) achieved a market share of 15.1% in 2021.<ref name="France2021" />
{{As of |2019|12}}, France ranked as the country with the world's second largest stock of light-duty electric commercial vehicles after China, with 49,340 utility vans in use.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/> The market share of all-electric utility vans reached a market share of 1.22% in 2014, and 1.77% in 2018.<ref name=France2018>{{cite web |url=http://www.avere-france.org/Site/Article/?article_id=7532&from_espace_adherent=0 |title=Baromètre annuel: près de 40 000 véhicules électriques immatriculés en France en 2018 ! |language=fr |trans-title=Annual barometer: nearly 40,000 electric vehicles registered in France in 2018! |author=France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France |publisher=AVERE |date=2019-01-09 |access-date=2019-01-18 |archive-date=2019-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117045430/http://www.avere-france.org/Site/Article/?article_id=7532&from_espace_adherent=0 }}'' A total of 53,745 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were registered in France in 2018 consisting of 31,055 all-electric cars plus 1,148 REx vehicles, 8,103 electric utility vans, and 13,439 plug-in hybrid cars. The plug-in car segment achieved a market share of 2.1% of new car registrations in the country in 2018. Includes revised figures for 2017''</ref><ref name=SalesFRvans2014_16>{{cite web |url=http://www.automobile-propre.com/dossiers/utilitaires-electriques/ventes-utilitaires-electriques-france/ |title=Chiffres de vente & immatriculations d'utilitaires électriques en France |trans-title=Sales figures & electric utility van registrations in France |author=Automobile Propre |publisher=Automobile Propre |date=August 2016 |access-date=2016-10-02 |language=fr}} ''See "Ventes d'utilitaires électriques en 2016/2015/2014 for all-electric utility van registrations. Light-duty electric vehicles reached a 1.22% market share of new van sales in the country in 2014, and rose to 1.30% in 2015.''</ref>
===== United Kingdom ===== [[File:PEV Registrations UK 2011 2014.png|thumb|275px|Registration of plug-in electric cars in the UK between 2011 and 2021]] {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicles in the United Kingdom}}
About 745,000 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles had been registered in the UK up until December 2021, consisting of 395,000 all-electric vehicles and 350,000 plug-in hybrids.<ref name="UK2021">{{cite web |url=https://www.nextgreencar.com/news/9286/2021-largest-ever-increase-plugin-sales/ |title=2021 sees largest-ever increase in plug-in sales |first=Olly |last=Goodall |publisher=Next Green Car |location=UK |date=2022-01-07 |access-date=2022-01-08 |quote=... the cumulative total of plug-in vehicles on UK roads – as of the end of December 2021 – to over 740,000. This total comprises around 395,000 BEVs and 350,000 PHEVs.}} ''Overall in 2021, there were more than 190,000 sales of BEVs in the UK, with over 114,000 sales of PHEVs. Plug-in vehicles represented 18.6% of market share in 2021.''</ref>
A surge of plug-in car sales took place in Britain beginning in 2014. Total registrations went from 3,586 in 2013, to 37,092 in 2016, and rose to 59,911 in 2018.<ref name=UK2013/><ref name=UK2017>{{cite web |url=https://www.smmt.co.uk/2018/01/december-ev-registrations/ |title=December – EV registrations |author=[[Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders]] (SMMT) |publisher=SMMT |date=2018-01-05 |access-date=2018-01-11}}''Registrations in 2017 totaled 47,263 plug-in electric vehicles consisting of 13,597 all-electric cars and 33,6663 plug-in hybrids. Of these, a total of 45,187 cars were eligible for the Plug-in Car Grant. Since its launch in 2011, a total of 127,509 cars eligible for the PICG have been registered through December 2017. A total of 2,540,617 new cars were registered in 2017, resulting in a plug-in electric car market share of 1.86% of new car sales.''</ref><ref name=UK2018/> Again sales surged to 175,339 units in 2020, despite the global strong decline in car sales brought by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], and achieved record sales of 305,281 units in 2021.<ref name=UK2021SMMT>{{Cite web |title=UK automotive looks to green recovery strategy after -29.4% fall in new car registrations in 2020 |url=https://media.smmt.co.uk/december-2021-new-car-registrations/ |date=2022-01-06 |access-date=2022-01-08 |author=[[Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders]] (SMMT) |publisher=SMMT |language=en-GB}} ''Download the file "December 2021" for detailed data for 2021 and revised 2020.''</ref>
The market share of the plug-in segment went from 0.16% in 2013 to 0.59% in 2014, and achieved 2.6% in 2018.<ref name=UK2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.smmt.co.uk/2014/01/december-2013-ev-registrations/ |title=December 2013 – EV registrations |author=[[Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders]](SMMT) |publisher=SMT |date=2014-01-07 |access-date=2014-01-12}} ''A total of 2,254 plug-in electric cars were registered in 2013''.</ref><ref name=UK2014>{{cite web |url=http://www.smmt.co.uk/2015/01/december-2014-ev-registrations/ |title=December 2014 – EV registrations |author=[[Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders]](SMMT) |publisher=SMT |date=2015-01-07 |access-date=2015-01-08}} ''A total of 14,518 plug-in electric cars were registered during 2014, consisting of 6,697 pure electrics and 7,821 plug-in hybrids, up from 3,586 plug-in electric cars were registered in 2013. A total of 2,476,435 new cars were registered in 2014''.</ref><ref name=UK2018>{{cite web |url=https://www.smmt.co.uk/2019/01/december-ev-registrations-2/ |title=December – EV registrations |author=[[Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders]] (SMMT) |publisher=SMMT |date=2019-01-07 |access-date=2019-01-17}}''Registrations in 2018 totaled 59,911 plug-in electric vehicles consisting of 15,474 all-electric cars and 44,437 plug-in hybrids. A total of 2,367,147 new cars were registered in 2018, resulting in a plug-in electric car market share of 2.53% of new car sales.''</ref> The segment market share was 3.1% in 2019, rose to 10.7% in 2020,<ref name=UK2020>{{Cite web |title=UK automotive looks to green recovery strategy after -29.4% fall in new car registrations in 2020 |url=http://www.smmt.co.uk/2021/01/uk-automotive-looks-to-green-recovery-strategy-after-29-4-fall-in-new-car-registrations-in-2020/ |date=2021-01-06 |access-date=2021-02-22 |author=[[Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders]] (SMMT) |publisher=SMMT |language=en-GB}}</ref> and achieved a record 18.6% in 2021.<ref name="UK2021" />
{{As of|2020|06}}, the [[Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV]] is the all-time top selling plug-in car in the UK over 46,400 units registered, followed by the [[Nissan Leaf]] more than 31,400 units.<ref name=UKStats>{{cite web |url=http://www.nextgreencar.com/electric-cars/statistics/ |title=Electric car market statistics |first=Ben |last=Lane |publisher=Next Green Car |location=UK |date=December 2020 |access-date=2021-03-01}}</ref>
===== Norway ===== [[File:Norway PEV market share since 2011.png|thumb|275px|Historical evolution of the Norwegian plug-in electric car segment market share of new car sales and monthly records, 2011–April 2025 (Source: OFV)]] {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway}}
{{As of|2021|12|31}}, the stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Norway totaled 647,000 units in use, consisting of 470,309 [[all-electric car|all-electric]] passenger cars and vans (including used imports), and 176,691 [[plug-in hybrid]]s.<ref name=NorskStock2021>{{cite web |url=https://elbil.no/elbilstatistikk/elbilbestand/ |title=Antall elbiler og ladbare hybrider i Norge |language=no |trans-title=Number of electric cars and rechargeable hybrids in Norway |author=Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) |publisher=Norsk Elbilforening |date=January 2022 |access-date=2022-01-07 |archive-date=2021-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127081913/https://elbil.no/elbilstatistikk/ |url-status=live}} ''Click on the tab "Elbil" for the stock of electric cars and "Ladbar hybrid" for the stock of plug-in hybrids. {{As of|2021|12|31}}, the stock of registered light-duty plug-in electric vehicles totaled 647,000 units, consisting of 470,309 battery electric vehicles and 176,691 plug-in hybrids.''</ref><!--As per the source, this figure is actual EVs in use, not to be confused with cumulative registrations--> Norway was the top selling plug-in country market in Europe for three consecutive years, from 2016 to 2018.<ref name=TopTen2016/><ref name=Global2018EVs>{{cite web |url=https://auto-institut.de/index_htm_files/Press_Release_E-Mobility_2018_2019.pdf |title=E-Mobility 2019: An International Comparison of Important Automotive Markets |first=Stefan |last=Bratzel |work=Center of Automotive Management |location=Bergisch Gladbach |date=2019-01-16 |access-date=2019-01-21 |archive-date=2019-01-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121121805/https://auto-institut.de/index_htm_files/Press_Release_E-Mobility_2018_2019.pdf }}</ref> Until 2019, Norway listed as the European country with the largest stock of plug-in cars and vans, and the third largest in the world.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/>
The Norwegian plug-in car segment [[market share]] has been the highest in the world for several years, reaching 39.2% in 2017, up from 29.1% in 2016,<ref name=OFV2017>{{cite web |url=http://www.ofvas.no/bilsalget-i-2017/category751.html |title=Bilsalget i 2017 |language=no |trans-title=Car sales in 2017 |author=Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken AS (OFV) |work=Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken AS |publisher=OFV |access-date=2017-01-10 |archive-date=2018-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180110215147/http://www.ofvas.no/bilsalget-i-2017/category751.html }}</ref><ref name=Norsk2016>{{cite web |url=http://elbil.no/elbilsalget-ned-i-fjor-venter-ny-vekst-i-ar/ |title=Elbilsalget: Ned i fjor – venter ny vekst i år |language=no |trans-title=EV Sales: Down from last year - awaiting new growth this year |author=Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) |publisher=Norsk Elbilforening |date=2017-01-05 |access-date=2017-01-18}}</ref> 49.1% in 2018,<ref name=OFV2018>{{cite web |url=http://www.ofvas.no/bilsalget-i-2018/bilsalget-i-2018-article866-788.html |title=Bilsalget i 2018 |language=no |trans-title=Car sales in 2018 |author=Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) |publisher=OFV |date=2019-01-02 |access-date=2019-01-09 |archive-date=2019-02-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207044529/http://www.ofvas.no/bilsalget-i-2018/bilsalget-i-2018-article866-788.html }}</ref> rose to 55.9% in 2019,<ref name="OFV2019">{{cite web |url=https://ofv.no/bilsalget/bilsalget-i-2019 |title=Bilsalget i 2019 |language=no |trans-title=Car sales in 2019 |author=Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) |publisher=OFV |date=January 2020 |access-date=2020-02-10}}</ref> and reached 74.7% in 2020, meaning that three out of every four new passenger car sold in Norway in 2020 was a plug-in electric.<ref name="OFV2020">{{cite web |url=https://ofv.no/bilsalget/bilsalget-i-desember-2020 |title=Bilsalget i desember og hele 2020 |language=no |trans-title=Car sales in December and throughout 2020 |author=Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) |publisher=OFV |date=2021-01-05 |access-date=2021-01-07}}</ref> In September 2021, the combined market share of the plug-in car segment achieved a new record of 91.5% of new passenger car registrations, 77.5% for all-electric cars and 13.9% for plug-in hybrids, becoming the world's highest-ever monthly plug-in car market share attained by any country.<ref name="OFV092021">{{cite web |url=https://ofv.no/bilsalget/bilsalget-i-september-2021 |title=Car sales in September 2021 |language=no |trans-title=Car sales in September 2021 |author=Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) |publisher=OFV |date=2021-10-01 |access-date=2021-10-07}}</ref><ref name=Norsk91%>{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/news/537973/norway-plugin-car-sales-september2021/ |title=Norway: All-Electric Car Sales Reach New Record In September 2021 |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2021-10-02 |access-date=2021-10-07}}</ref> The plug-in segment market share rose to 86.2% in 2021.<ref name=Norway2021>{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/news/558447/norway-plugin-car-sales-december2021/ |title=Norway Sets Plug-In Car Sales Record For The End Of The Year 2021 |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs |date=2022-01-03 |access-date=2022-01-09}}</ref>
In October 2018, Norway became the first country where 1 in every 10 passenger cars in use was a plug-in electric vehicle.<ref name="Norway10pct">{{cite web |last=Kane |first=Mark |date=2018-10-07 |title=10% Of Norway's Passenger Vehicles Are Plug Ins |url=https://insideevs.com/10-norways-passenger-vehicles-plug-ins/ |access-date=2018-11-07 |publisher=InsideEVs.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://interestingengineering.com/45-of-new-cars-sold-in-norway-in-september-were-all-electric-vehicles |title=45% of New Cars Sold in Norway in September were All-Electric Vehicles |first=Jessica |last=Miley |publisher=Interesting Engineering |date=2 October 2018 |access-date=10 November 2018 |quote=''Despite the huge increase in new electric cars on the road, EVs still only account for roughly 10% of all of Norway's vehicles.''}}</ref> and by the end of 2021, plug-in electric cars were 22.1% of all passenger cars on Norwegian roads.<ref name="Kjøretøybestanden2021">{{cite web |url=https://elbil.no/elbilstatistikk/elbilbestand/ |title=Personbilbestanden i Norge fordelt på drivstoff |language=no |trans-title=Passenger car stock in Norway by fuel |author=Norsk Elbilforening |publisher=Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) |date=January 2022 |access-date=2022-01-07}} See graph under "Personbilbestanden i Norge fordelt på drivstoff" - ''{{As of|2021|12|31}}, there were 15.95% all-electric cars and 6.18% plug-in hybrid cars in use on Norwegian roads. Combined plug-in electric passenger cars represented 22.13% of all passenger cars in circulation in the country''.</ref> The country's fleet of plug-in electric cars is one of the cleanest in the world because [[Renewable energy in Norway|98% of the electricity generated in the country]] comes from [[hydropower]].<ref name=TOI2016>{{cite web |url=https://www.toi.no/getfile.php?mmfileid=43161 |title=Learning from Norwegian Battery Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle users |first1=Erik |last1=Figenbaum |first2=Marika |last2=Kolbenstvedt |publisher=[[Institute of Transport Economics]] (TØI), Norwegian Centre for Transport Research |date=June 2016 |access-date=2016-08-17}} ''TØI report 1492/2016. See pp. 1.''</ref><ref name=Reuters032013>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cars-norway-idUSBRE92C0K020130313 |title=Norway shows the way with electric cars, but at what cost? |author1=Alister Doyle |author2=Nerijus Adomaitis |name-list-style=amp |work=[[Reuters]] |date=2013-03-13 |access-date=2013-03-15}}</ref> Norway is the country with the largest EV ownership per capita in the world.<ref name=NorwayNYT>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/17/business/international/norway-is-global-model-for-encouraging-sales-of-electric-cars.html?_r=0 |title=Norway is A Model For Encouraging Electric Car Sales |first=David |last=Joly |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2015-10-16 |access-date=2016-02-16}}</ref><ref name=NorwayLargest>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/motoring/electric-cars-take-off-in-norway-2284439.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517153515/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/motoring/electric-cars-take-off-in-norway-2284439.html |archive-date=May 17, 2011 |title=Electric cars take off in Norway |author=Agence France-Presse |work=[[The Independent]] |date=2011-05-15 |access-date=2011-10-09 |author-link=Agence France-Presse}}</ref><ref name=AVERE>{{cite web |url=http://www.avere.org/www/newsMgr.php?action=view&frmNewsId=611§ion=&type=&SGLSESSID=tqiice0pmjdclt7l4q0s3s1o27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024170630/http://www.avere.org/www/newsMgr.php?action=view&frmNewsId=611§ion=&type=&SGLSESSID=tqiice0pmjdclt7l4q0s3s1o27 |archive-date=2013-10-24 |title=Norwegian Parliament extends electric car initiatives until 2018 |author=AVERE |publisher=AVERE |date=2012-06-07 |access-date=2012-07-20}}</ref>
===== Netherlands ===== {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicles in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Volkswagen ID.3 IMG 3834.jpg|thumb|The [[Volkswagen ID.3]] was the best selling plug-in car in the Netherlands in 2020.<ref name=Netherlands2020>{{cite web |url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2021/01/netherlands-december-2020.html |title=Netherlands December 2020 |last=Jose |first=Pontes |publisher=EVSales.com |date=2021-01-07 |access-date=2021-03-02}}</ref>]]
{{As of|2021|12|31}}, there were 390,454 highway-legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in use in the Netherlands, consisting of 137,663 fully electric cars, 243,664 plug-in hybrid cars and 9,127 light duty plug-in commercial vehicles.<ref name=Nether2016_2021>{{cite web |url=https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2022/01/Statistics%20Electric%20Vehicles%20and%20Charging%20in%20The%20Netherlands%20up%20to%20and%20including%20December%202021.pdf |title=Electric Vehicles Statistics in the Netherlands (up to and including December 2021) |work=Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) - Netherlands Enrerprise Agency |publisher=RVO |date=2022-01-14 |access-date=2022-01-19}} ''{{As of|2021|12|31}}, there were 390,454 highway-legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in use in the Netherlands, consisting of 137,663 fully electric cars, 243,664 plug-in hybrid cars and 9,127 light duty plug-in commercial vehicles. Plug-in passenger cars represented 4.33% of all cars on Dutch roads at the end of 2021. The market share of the plug-in passenger car segment was 29.8% in 2021. Source includes figures from 2016 to 2021. Note: an improved methodology was introduced beginning January 2021. Some numbers in this new version are different than statistics published before in the old format.''</ref> Plug-in passenger cars represented 4.33% of all cars on Dutch roads at the end of 2021.<ref name=Nether2016_2021/>
{{As of|2016|07}}, the Netherlands had the second largest plug-in ownership [[per capita]] in the world after Norway.<ref name=GlobalPerCapita072016>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/americans-buy-their-half-millionth-plug-in-car/top-world-pev-concentration-per-1000-people-jul-2016/ |title=Americans Buy Their Half-Millionth Plug-in Car: Concentration of plug-in electrified car registrations per 1,000 people |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-09-01 |access-date=2016-09-04}} ''{{As of|2016|07}}, Norway had a concentration of registered plug-in cars per 1,000 people of 21.52, the Netherlands of 5.63, California of 5.83, and the United States national average was 1.52.''</ref> Plug-in sales fell sharply in 2016 due to changes in tax rules, and as a result of the change in government's incentives, the plug-in market share declined from 9.9% in 2015, to 6.7% in 2016, and fell to 2.6% in 2017.<ref name=Nether2015_18/><ref name=Norsk100K>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/norway-is-fourth-country-to-register-100000-plug-in-cars/ |title=Norway Is Fourth Country To Register 100,000 Plug-in Cars |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-05-09 |access-date=2016-05-09}} ''{{As of|2016|04}}, the United States is the leading country market with a stock of about 450,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles delivered since 2008. China ranks second with around 300,000 units sold since 2011, followed by Japan with about 150,000 plug-in units sold since 2009, both through March 2016. European sales are led by Norway with over 100,000 units registered by the end of April 2016.''</ref> The intake rate rose to 6.5% in 2018 in anticipation of another change in tax rules that went into effect in January 2019,<ref name=Nether2015_18>{{cite web |url=https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2019/01/Elektrisch%20Rijden%20%20Personenautos%20en%20laadpunten%20%20Analyse%20over%202018.pdf |title=Elektrisch Rijden – Personenauto's en laadpunten Analyse over 2018 |language=nl |trans-title=Electric Driving - Passenger cars and charging points - Analysis for 2018 |work=Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) - Dutch National Office for Enterprising - |publisher=RVO |date=January 2019 |access-date=2020-05-11}} ''{{As of|2018|12|31}}, there were 145,882 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered in the Netherlands, consisting of 97,702 plug-in hybrids, 44,984 pure electric cars, and 3,196 all-electric light utility vans. With a total of 24,273 Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEVs registered by the end of December 2018, the plug-in hybrid is the all-time top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the Netherlands. The Tesla Model S is the best selling all-electric car with 12,990 units registered.''</ref> and increased to 14.9% in 2019, and rose 24.6% in 2020, and achieved a record 29.8% in 2021.<ref name=Nether2016_2021/>
====United States==== {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States}}
{{See also|Plug-in electric vehicles in California}}
[[File:Comparison PEV market shares USA vs California.png|thumb|275px|Comparison of plug-in car market shares in California vs the American market (2011–2023)]]
{{As of|2023|12}}, cumulative sales of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars in the U.S. totaled 4,684,128 units since 2010.<ref name="SalesUSA2023">{{cite web |url=https://www.anl.gov/es/light-duty-electric-drive-vehicles-monthly-sales-updates |title=Light Duty Electric Drive Vehicles Monthly Sales Updates: Plug-In Vehicle Sales |author=[[Argonne National Laboratory]] |publisher=Argonne National Laboratory |date=January 2024 |access-date=2024-01-18 |quote=Cumulatively, 1,402,371 PHEVs and BEVs have been sold in 2023. In total, 4,684,128 PHEVs and BEVs have been sold since 2010.}} ''PEVs were 9.1% of all passenger vehicle sales in 2023, up from 6.8% in 2022.''</ref> The U.S. has the world's third largest stock of plug-in passenger cars, after having been overtaken by Europe in 2015 and China during 2016.<ref name=ChinaLeads2016/><ref name=ChinaLeads_2/> [[California]] is the largest plug-in regional market in the country, with 1 million plug-in cars sold in California by November 2021.<ref name="Cal1mi">{{Cite web |title=California Milestone, 1 Million EVs Sold: Tesla Played Huge Role |url=https://insideevs.com/news/548885/california-1million-evs-sold-tesla/ |access-date=2021-11-29 |date=2022-01-09 |website=InsideEVs |language=en}}</ref>
The [[Tesla Model 3]] [[electric car]] has been the best selling plug-in car in the U.S. for two consecutive years, 2018 and 2019.<ref name=TopUS2018>{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/us-plug-in-electric-car-sales-charted-december-2018/ |title=US Plug-In Electric Car Sales Charted: December 2018 |first=Mark |last=Kane |website=[[InsideEVs]] |date=2019-01-24 |access-date=2019-01-24}} ''See Graph: "Top 10 U.S. Plug-in cars (cumulative sales)" and "U.S. Plug-in Car Sales (cumulative)"''</ref><ref name="TopUS2019">{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/news/343998/monthly-plug-in-ev-sales-scorecard/ |title=FINAL UPDATE: Quarterly Plug-In EV Sales Scorecard |first=Steven |last=Loveday |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=17 January 2020 |access-date=8 May 2020}} ''See Chart: "2019 Monthly/Q4 Sales Chart : Annual" - Cumulative sales in the U.S. totaled 329,528 units in 2019, and the top selling models were the Tesla Model 3 with 158,925 units, the Toyota Prius Prime with 23,630, The Tesla Model X with 19,225, the Chevrolet Bolt EV with 16,418 and the Tesla Model S with 14,100 units.''</ref> Cumulative sales of the Model 3 surpassed in 2019 the discontinued [[Chevrolet Volt]] [[plug-in hybrid]] to become the all-time best selling plug-in car in the country, with an estimated 300,471 units delivered since inception, followed by the [[Tesla Model S]] [[all-electric car]] with about 157,992, and the Chevrolet Volt with 157,054.<ref name="AlltimeUS2019">{{cite web |last=Kane |first=Mark |date=2020-01-11 |title=The Top 10 Plug-In Electric Cars In U.S. - 2019 Edition |url=https://insideevs.com/news/392375/top-10-electric-cars-sales-us-2019/ |access-date=2020-05-19 |publisher=InsideEVs.com}} ''At the end of 2019, the all-time top selling plug-in cars in the U.S. were the Tesla Model 3 with 300,471 units, Tesla Model S with 157,992, Chevrolet Volt with 157,054 units, Nissan Leaf with 141,907 and the Toyota Prius PHV with 109,003 (by September 2019).''</ref> {{Clear}}
==== Japan ==== {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicles in Japan}}
[[File:Nissan LEAF (ZE0) front.JPG|thumb| {{As of|2018|04}}, the [[Nissan Leaf]] was listed as the all-time top selling plug-in car in Japan, with 100,000 units delivered.<ref name=LeafJap100K>{{cite press release |title=Nissan LEAF sales surpass 100,000 in Japan |url=https://newsroom.nissan-global.com/releases/release-36a71146ed04eaba0f0dff94b50c8dfe |publisher=[[Nissan]] |location=Yokohama |date=2018-04-20 |access-date=2018-12-02}}</ref>]]
{{As of|2020|12}}, Japan had a stock of plug-in passenger cars of 293,081 units on the road, consisting of 156,381 all-electric cars and 136,700 plug-in hybrids.<ref name=EVtoolIEA2021_JAP/> The fleet of electric light commercial vehicles in use totaled 9,904 units in 2019.<ref name=EVtoolIEA2021_JAP>{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/articles/global-ev-data-explorer |title=IEA Global EV Data Explorer |author=International Energy Agency (IEA) |publisher=[[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) |date=2021-04-29 |access-date=2022-01-22}} Select Historical: "EV stock" and "EV stock share" + Transport mode: "Cars" and "Vans" + Region" "Japan"</ref>
Plug-in sales totaled 24,660 units in 2015 and 24,851 units in 2016.<ref name=EVOutlook2020/> The rate of growth of the Japanese plug-in segment slowed down from 2013, with annual sales falling behind Europe, the U.S. and China during 2014 and 2015.<ref name=TopSix2015>{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/top-six-plug-in-vehicle-adopting-countries-2015/ |title=Top Six Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries – 2015 |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-01-18 |access-date=2016-02-12}} ''About 520,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were sold worldwide in 2015, with cumulative global sales reaching 1,235,000. The United States was the leading market with 411,120 units sold since 2008, followed by China with 258,328 units sold since 2011. Japan ranks third, followed by the Netherlands (88,991), Norway (77,897), France (74,291), and the UK (53,254). Over 21,000 units were sold in Japan in 2015.''</ref><ref name=Global2011_15>{{cite web |url=http://insideevs.com/plug-in-electric-car-sales-visualized-from-2011-to-2015/ |title=Plug-In Electric Car Sales Visualized From 2011 to 2015 |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2016-04-02 |access-date=2016-06-19}}</ref> The segment market share fell from 0.68% in 2014 to 0.59% in 2016.<ref name=Outlook2017>{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/GlobalEVOutlook2017.pdf |title=Global EV Outlook 2017: Two million and counting |author=[[International Energy Agency]] (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=June 2017 |access-date=2018-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607142215/https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/GlobalEVOutlook2017.pdf |archive-date=2017-06-07 }} ''See pp. 5–7, 12–22, 27–28, and Statistical annex, pp. 49–51''.</ref> Sales recovered in 2017, with almost 56,000 plug-in cars sold, and the segment's market share reached 1.1%.<ref name=Japan2017>{{cite web |url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.ca/2018/02/japan-december-2018.html |title=Japan December 2017 |author=Jose Pontes |publisher=EV Sales |date=2018-02-02 |access-date=2018-02-17}} ''About 56,000 plug-in electric cars were sold in Japan in 2017.''</ref> Sales fell slightly in 2018 to 52,000 units with a market share of 1.0%.<ref name=Japan2018>{{cite web |url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/01/japan-december-2018.html |title=Japan December 2018 |last=Pontes |first=Jose |publisher=EVSales.com |date=2019-01-29 |access-date=2019-02-01}} ''A total of 52,013 plug-in cars were sold in Japan in 2018, with a market share of 1.0%. The Nissan Leaf was the top selling plug-in model with 25,722 units, followed by the Prius PHEV with 12,401 units.''</ref> The market share continued declining to 0.7% in 2019 and 0.6% in 2020.<ref name=EVtoolIEA2021_JAP/>
The decline in plug-in car sales reflects the Japanese government and the major domestic carmakers decision to adopt and promote [[hydrogen vehicle|hydrogen]] [[fuel cell vehicle]]s instead of plug-in electric vehicles.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autoshow-japan-electric-insight-idUSKCN0SM04F20151028 |title=Auto power play: Japan's hydrogen car vs China's battery drive |first1=Norihiko |last1=Shirouzu |first2=Paul |last2=Lienert |work=[[Reuters]] |date=2015-10-28 |access-date=2016-06-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/japans-big-bet-on-hydrogen |title=Japan Makes a Big Bet on the Hydrogen Economy |first=Jason |last=Deign |publisher=Green Tech Media |date=2015-02-10 |access-date=2016-06-19}}</ref>
==See also== * [[Electric car]] * [[Electric car use by country]] * [[Electric vehicle battery]] * [[Electric vehicle warning sounds]] * [[Hybrid tax credit]] (U.S.) * [[List of electric cars currently available]] * [[List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles]] * [[Plug In America]] * [[RechargeIT]] ([[Google.org]] PHEV program) * [[Renewable energy by country]]
==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100402101613/http://energycenter.org/index.php/incentive-programs/clean-vehicle-rebate-project Clean Vehicle Rebate Project website] * [https://www.toi.no/getfile.php?mmfileid=41196 Competitive Electric Town Transport], [[Institute of Transport Economics]] (TØI), Oslo, August 2015. * [https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-c2g-2016-report Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways: A Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment of Current (2015) and Future (2025–2030) Technologies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812172041/https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-c2g-2016-report |date=2020-08-12 }} (includes BEVs and PHEVs), [[Argonne National Laboratory]], June 2016. * [http://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_EV-fiscal-incentives_20140506.pdf Driving Electrification – A Global Comparison of Fiscal Incentive Policy for Electric Vehicles], International Council on Clean Transportation, May 2014. * [http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/02/20150218-michalek.html Effects of Regional Temperature on Electric Vehicle Efficiency, Range, and Emissions in the United States], Tugce Yuksel and Jeremy Michalek, [[Carnegie Mellon University]]. 2015 * [https://www.energy.gov/articles/egallon-what-it-and-why-its-important eGallon Calculator: Compare the costs of driving with electricity], [[U.S. Department of Energy]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151121091152/http://valencianews.es/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/JATO-White-Paper_From-Fiction-To-Reality-The-Evolution-of-EVs-.pdf From Fiction to Reality: The Evolution of Electric Vehicles 2013 – 2015], [[JATO Dynamics]], November 2015. * [http://www.cmu.edu/me/ddl/publications/2013-JEPO-Karabasoglu-Michalek-PEV-Driving-Patterns.pdf Influence of driving patterns on life cycle cost and emissions of hybrid and plug-in electric vehicle powertrains], [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie MellonVehicle Electrification Group]] * [https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ZEV_Regulation_Briefing_20181017.pdf Modernizing vehicle regulations for electrification], International Council on Clean Transportation, October 2018. * [http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/pdf/InterimGuide_Consumers_011912_v2a.pdf NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Vehicle Owner/General Public] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209221917/http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/pdf/InterimGuide_Consumers_011912_v2a.pdf |date=2013-12-09 }} * [http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/pdf/InterimGuide_EmergencyResponse_012012_v3.pdf NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Law Enforcement/Emergency Medical Services/Fire Department] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209222354/http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/pdf/InterimGuide_EmergencyResponse_012012_v3.pdf |date=2013-12-09 }} * [https://www.fueleconomy.gov/FEG/taxevb.shtml New Energy Tax Credits for Electric Vehicles purchased in 2009] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110611201348/http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20100420_EV_tax_overview.pdf Overview of Tax Incentives for Electrically Chargeable Vehicles in the E.U.] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120327101552/http://www.duke-energy.com/plugin/pev-faqs.asp PEVs Frequently Asked Questions] * [http://www.aceee.org/sites/default/files/publications/researchreports/t133.pdf Plug-in Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities], [[American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy]], June 2013 * [http://www.racfoundation.org/assets/rac_foundation/content/downloadables/powering_ahead-kay_et_al-apr2013.pdf Powering Ahead – The future of low-carbon cars and fuels], the [[RAC Foundation]] and UK Petroleum Industry Association, April 2013. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110516165418/http://www.plugmyride.org/PDF/EPRI's_EV_consumer-guide_Apr2011.pdf Plugging In: A Consumer's Guide to the Electric Vehicle] [[Electric Power Research Institute]] * [https://pluginamerica.org/ Plug-in America website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121002161441/http://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/TCI-EV-Lit-Review_0.pdf Plug-in Electric Vehicle Deployment in the Northeast] Georgetown Climate Center * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110930164238/http://www.plug-in.com/charging-stations/ Plug-in List of Registered Charging Stations in the USA] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101209082125/http://www.google.org/recharge/ RechargeIT plug-in driving experiment (Google.org)] * [https://shrinkthatfootprint.com/electric-car-emissions/ Shades of Green – Electric Car's Carbon Emissions Around the Globe], Shrink that Footprint, February 2013. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160128212045/http://electrificationcoalition.org/sites/default/files/EC_State_of_PEV_Market_Final.pdf State of the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market], Electrification Coalition, July 2013. * [https://www.thestreet.com/technology/the-great-debate-all-electric-cars-vs-plug-in-hybrids-12682853 The Great Debate – All-Electric Cars vs. Plug-In Hybrids], April 2014 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716232238/http://www.dft.gov.uk/topics/sustainable/olev/plug-in-car-grant UK Plug-in Car Grant website] * [https://afdc.energy.gov/laws/ U.S. Federal & State Incentives & Laws] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100311193109/http://www.hybridcars.com/incentives-laws/us-tax-incentives-plug-hybrids-and-electric-cars.html US Tax Incentives for Plug-in Hybrids and Electric Cars]
==Books== * {{cite book |title=Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? |editor=[[David B. Sandalow]] |year=2009 |publisher=[[The Brookings Institution]] |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |edition=1st. |url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx}} * {{cite book |title=Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century |last1=Mitchell |first1=William J. |last2=Borroni-Bird |first2=Christopher |last3=Burns |first3=Lawrence D. |year=2010 |publisher=[[The MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-01382-6 |edition=1st. |url=http://ilp.mit.edu/webpubdetail.jsp?id=40 |access-date=2010-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609164241/http://ilp.mit.edu/webpubdetail.jsp?id=40 |archive-date=2010-06-09 }} {{Alternative propulsion}} {{Electric vehicles}} {{Renewable energy by country}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Plug-In Electric Vehicle}} [[Category:Electric vehicles]] [[Category:Plug-in hybrid vehicles]] [[Category:Electric vehicle conversion]]