List of monarchs of Iran

{{Short description|none}}  {{Redirect|Persian King|the racehorse|Persian King (horse)}} {{Use British English|date=November 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}} {{Infobox former monarchy | royal_title = King of Kings | native_name = {{nobold|{{langx|fa|{{Nastaliq|شاهنشاه ایران}}|rtl=yes|label=none}} (Persian)}} | coatofarms = Imperial Coat of Arms of Iran.svg | coatofarmscaption = Coat of arms of the Pahlavi dynasty (1932–1979) | realm = Iran | border = imperial | image = Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, 1973.jpg | image_size = | alt = | caption = '''Last to reign:''' Mohammad Reza 16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979 | style = ''Shah'', ''Shahanshah'', ''Aryamehr'', ''Shadow of God'', ''Bozorg Arteshtaran'' and various others<ref>{{cite book|last1=Inlow|first1=Edgar Burke|title=Shahanshah: A Study of the Monarchy of Iran|year=1979|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFONAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> | first_monarch = Deioces{{Efn|First monarch of the Media-based Median kingdom.}} or Cyrus{{Efn|First monarch of the Persis-based Achaemenid Empire.}} | last_monarch = Mohammad Reza | began = {{circa|727 BC}} (Median dynasty) or 550 BC (Achaemenid dynasty) | ended = 11 February 1979 (Iranian Revolution) | pretender = Reza Pahlavi }} [[File:Head of a king MET 65.126.jpg|thumb|Bust of Shapur II ({{reign|309|379}}) of the Sasanian Empire, the longest-reigning monarch in Iranian history|260px]] The '''monarchs of Iran'''{{Efn|With regard to the name of Iran: "Persia" was an exonym used by the ancient Greeks to refer to the Achaemenid Empire, derived from the Persians (the Iranian ethnic group to which the Achaemenid dynasty belonged). Consequently, "Persia" was the word commonly used in the Western world to refer to Iran and its people, regardless of their ethnicity. "Iran" ({{langx|fa|ایران|rtl=yes}}) is the country's endonym, first attested under the Sasanian Empire, though earlier forms of the name (see ''Aryan'' and ''Arya'') date back to the Proto-Indo-Iranian people{{Sfn|Anthony|2007|p=408}}{{Sfn|Kuzmina|2007|p=451}}<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aryan "Aryan"]. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.''</ref> and had been used ever since. In 1935, the Iranian king Reza Shah requested that foreign delegates begin using "Iran" rather than "Persia" in formal correspondence, whereafter "Iran" has also become the common name used in the Western world and internationally.}} ruled for over two and a half millennia, beginning as early as the 8th century BC and enduring until the 20th century AD. The earliest Iranian monarch is generally considered to have been either Deioces of the Median dynasty ({{Circa|727–550 BC}}) or Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty (550–330 BC). The last Iranian monarch was Mohammad Reza Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979), who was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution. Since then, Iran has been governed by theocratic supreme leaders.

In classical antiquity, Iran reached the peak of its power and prestige under the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Egypt and parts of Southeast Europe in the west to the Indus Valley and parts of Central Asia in the east. By 323 BC, the Achaemenid Empire's territories had been conquered by the Macedonian Empire during the Wars of Alexander the Great, bringing Iran into the Hellenistic sphere. In the Wars of the Diadochi, the Seleucid Empire (305–129 BC) assumed control of Iran. Native Iranian rule was revived with the expansion of Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD) in the Seleucid–Parthian Wars. The Parthians were succeeded by the Sasanian Empire (224–651), which oversaw a golden age in the history of Iranian civilization and existed until the Arab conquest of Iran.

Medieval Iran alternated between being ruled by large foreign empires and being divided into several smaller kingdoms. Most of the Sasanian lands were annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate (638–661), which was succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and then by the Abbasid Caliphate (749–861). Under the Abbasids, many Iranian figures took part in shaping the Islamic Golden Age, while also leveraging the decline of Arab power to establish independent dynasties and kingdoms – those including the Saffarids (867–1002), Samanids (875–999), Ziyarids (927–1090/1091) and Buyids (934–1062) – thus allowing their native languages to flourish and reviving Sasanian royal iconography and ideology in what became known as the Iranian Intermezzo. In the 11th century, Iran was conquered by the Seljuk Empire (1038–1194), which was Turkic in origin, but culturally Persianate. Further conquests by entities coming from Central Asia occurred over the course of the next five centuries, most notably including the Turkic Khwarazmian Empire (1097–1220/1221), the Mongol Empire (1220–1259), the post-Mongol Ilkhanate (1256–1335), and the Turco-Mongol Timurid Empire (1370–1458). Most of the Timurid territory in Iran was later conquered by the Qara Qoyunlu (1452–1469), followed by the Aq Qoyunlu (1465–1508), both are Turkic tribal confederations.

The year 1501 is considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, as the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) rose to power and oversaw the conversion of Iran to Shia Islam, marking the region's largest religious shift since the Arab conquests. The collapse of the Safavids led to an intermediate period of turmoil, with rule of Iran contested between Safavid dynasts as well as the Afghan-origin Hotak dynasty (1722–1729). Nader Shah replaced these with the Afsharid Empire (1736–1796), but after his assassination in 1747, the Afsharids competed with the Zand dynasty (1751–1794) under Karim Khan Zand and his successors for supremacy. Iran was eventually reunified by the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925), which was succeeded by the Pahlavi dynasty of Reza Shah. The Pahlavi dynasty was the last to reign before the Iranian monarchy was abolished in 1979.

== Ancient Iran ({{Circa}} 727 BC–AD 651) ==

=== Medes ({{Circa}} 727–550 BC) === {{See also|Median kingdom|Medes}} [[File:Median (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Median Empire according to Herodotus|190px]] The Median dynasty is traditionally considered to have ruled the earliest Iranian state.{{Sfn|Dandamayev|2021|p=1630}}{{Sfn|Katouzian|2013|p=xii}}{{Sfn|Gaube|2008|p=161}} Whether the Medes ruled an imperial state or merely a loose tribal confederation is disputed among historians.{{Sfn|Shenkar|2014|p=5}} Median history is reconstructed almost solely through ancient Greek sources (particularly Herodotus) and disregards Near Eastern sources, which are fragmentary and do not support the existence of a unified Median Empire.{{Sfn|Rollinger|2021|pp=337–338}} There is also no material or textual evidence left behind by the supposed empire itself.{{Sfn|Rollinger|2021|p=344}}{{efn|There is no archaeological evidence of any Median imperial centers, no documentary archives from Median administrations, and no contemporary correspondence between foreign kings and Median rulers.{{Sfn|Rollinger|2021|p=344}}}} The chronology and names of the Median kings mainly derives from the work of Herodotus.{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=112}}{{efn|Ctesias, another ancient Greek historian, also wrote a list of Median rulers though it differs entirely from that of Herodotus except for the name of the last king (Astyages).{{Sfn|Rollinger|2021|p=344}}}}

No ruling title is securely attested for the Median rulers. They might have used ''xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām'' ("King of Kings"), later used by the Achaemenids.{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=78}} Ecbatana was the Median capital.{{Sfn|Kuhrt|2021|p=404}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |{{Centre|—}} |'''Deioces''' |{{Circa}} 727–675 BC{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}} ({{Circa}} 52 years) |First king of the Medes according to Herodotus. Perhaps elected by popular assembly.{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=109}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |'''Phraortes''' |{{Circa}} 674–653 BC{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}} ({{Circa}} 21 years) |Son of Deioces{{Sfn|Dandamayev|Medvedskaya|2006}} |- |colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|Interregnum {{Circa}} 652 – 625 BC.{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}} The Medes were invaded by Scythians, perhaps under a ruler named Madyes, who established some form of hegemony.{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=118}} The Scythian rulers were defeated by Cyaxares after about three decades, restoring the Medes to their previous power.{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Cyaxares''' |{{Circa}} 624–585 BC{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}} ({{Circa}} 39 years) |Son of Phraortes{{Sfn|Dandamayev|Medvedskaya|2006}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |'''Astyages''' |{{Circa}} 584{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}}–550 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=32}} ({{Circa}} 34 years) |Son of Cyaxares{{Sfn|Dandamayev|Medvedskaya|2006}} |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Later pretenders (521 BC) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Tenure ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Phraortes II |521 BC{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=48, 53–54}} (less than a year) |Rebel in Media against Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire. Claimed kinship with Cyaxares.{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=48, 53–54}} |- |65px |Tritantaechmes |521 BC{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=48, 53–54}} (less than a year) |Rebel in Sagartia against Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire. Claimed kinship with Cyaxares.{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=48, 53–54}} |}

=== Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) === {{See also|Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid Empire|List of Achaemenid emperors}} [[File:Achaemenid (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Achaemenid Empire under Darius the Great|190px]] The Achaemenid dynasty originated as local rulers of Anshan under Median suzerainty. They are attributed various ancestors in later legends, including an eponymous figure called "Achaemenes". The earliest securely historical Achaemenid ruler is Cyrus I, king of Anshan in the second half of the seventh century BC. The Achaemenids united all Persian tribes under Cyrus I's son Cambyses I. Under Cambyses I's son, Cyrus II, the Achaemenids defeated the Medes and established the Achaemenid Empire,{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}} the largest ever Iranian state.{{Sfn|Shenkar|2014|p=5}}

The standard title used by Achaemenid rulers in Iran from Cyrus II onwards was ''xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām'', ''xšāyaθiya dahyūnām'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings, King of the Lands}}).{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=55}} The royal title varied in other parts of the empire.{{efn|In Babylonia, the standard title up until the reign of Xerxes I was 'King of Babylon, King of the Lands'.{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=55}} In more elaborate contexts, the royal style could be augmented with additional titles, such as "the Great King" and "King in Persia".{{Sfn|Waters|2016|p=99}} The Achaemenid king was referred to as "the Great King" by the Greeks and as the "Lord of Kings" by the Phoenicians.{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=55}}}} The Achaemenids had several royal cities, including Pasargadae, Susa, Ecbatana, Babylon, Bactra, and Persepolis.{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=67–68}}

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Early local rulers in Anshan ({{Circa}} 620–550 BC) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Cyrus I |{{Circa}} 620–590 BC{{Sfn|Bryce|2009|p=800}} ({{Circa}} 30 years) |Earliest historical Achaemenid ruler{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Cambyses I |{{Circa}} 590–559 BC{{Sfn|Bryce|2009|p=800}} ({{Circa}} 31 years) |Son of Cyrus I{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}} |- |87x87px |Cyrus II |{{Circa}} 559{{Sfn|Bryce|2009|p=800}}–550 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=32}} ({{Circa}} 9 years) |Son of Cambyses I{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}} |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"

! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Cyrus II''' ''the Great'' |{{Circa}} 550{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=32}} – November (?) 530 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}} ({{Circa}} 20 years) |Defeated Astyages and captured Ecbatana {{Circa}} 550 BC.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=32}} Married Amytis, daughter of Astyages, according to ancient Greek historians.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=33}} |- |65px |'''Cambyses II''' |August 530 – July 522 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}} ({{Age in years, months and days|-530|8||-522|7|}}) |Son of Cyrus II{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}} |- |65px |'''Bardiya''' |1 July – 29 September 522 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}} ({{Age in years, months and days|-522|7|1|-522|9|29}}) |Son of Cyrus II (possibly an impostor).{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=107}} Revolted against Cambyses on 11 March 522 BC and proclaimed himself ruler on 1 July.{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}} |- |65px |'''Darius I''' ''the Great'' |29 September 522{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}} – October 486 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=178}} ({{Age in years, months and days|-522|9|29|-486|10|}}) |Claimed descent from Teispes (supposed father of Cyrus I). Seized the throne from Bardiya.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=110}} |- |65px |'''Xerxes I''' ''the Great'' |October 486{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=178}} – August 465 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=353}} ({{Age in years, months and days|-486|10||-465|8|}}) |Son of Darius I{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=524}} and Atossa (daughter of Cyrus II){{Sfn|Llewellyn-Jones|2017|p=74}} |- |65px |'''Artaxerxes I''' ''Longimanus'' |August 465{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=353}} – {{Circa}} December 424 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}} (41 years and {{Circa}} 4 months) |Son of Xerxes I{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=570}} |- |65px |'''Xerxes II''' |{{Circa}} December 424 – {{Circa}} January 423 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}} (45 days){{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}} |Son of Artaxerxes I{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}} |- |65px |'''Sogdianus''' |{{Circa}} January – February 423 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}} ({{Circa}} 1 month) |Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}} Seized the throne from Xerxes II.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=772}} |- |65px |'''Darius II''' (Ochus) |February 423 – March 404 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=353}} ({{Age in years, months and days|-423|2||-404|3|}}) |Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}} Seized the throne from Sogdianus.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=772}} |- |65px |'''Artaxerxes II''' (Arsakes) |March 404{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=353}} – spring (?) 358 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=160}} (46 years) |Son of Darius II{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=521}} |- |65px |'''Artaxerxes III''' (Ochus) |Spring (?) 358 – September (?) 338 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=161}} (20 years) |Son of Artaxerxes II{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=681}} |- |65px |'''Artaxerxes IV''' (Arses) |September (?) 338 – June 336 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=161}} (2 years) |Son of Artaxerxes III{{Sfn|Sparkes|2010|p=495}} |- |65px |'''Darius III''' (Artashata) |June 336{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=161}} – July 330 BC{{Sfn|Binder|2021|p=469}} (6 years) |Grandson of Artaxerxes II{{Sfn|Sparkes|2010|p=495}} |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Later pretenders (330–329 BC) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Tenure ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Artaxerxes V (Bessus) |July 330{{Sfn|Binder|2021|p=469}} – spring 329 BC{{Sfn|Stark|2021|pp=701–702}} (less than a year) |Satrap of Bactria,{{Sfn|Stark|2021|pp=701–702}} part of the Achaemenid dynasty. Murdered Darius III and proclaimed himself as his successor, ruling several eastern satrapies in opposition to Alexander the Great.{{Sfn|Binder|2021|p=469}} |}

=== Hellenistic rule (331–129 BC) === {{See also|Hellenistic period}}

==== Alexander's empire (331–305 BC) ==== {{See also|Argead dynasty}} [[File:Macedonia (ancient kingdom, greatest extent).svg|thumb|Alexander the Great's empire|190px]] The Achaemenid Empire was defeated and conquered by Alexander the Great, king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia, in 331{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=412}}–329 BC.{{Sfn|Stark|2021|pp=701–702}} After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Wars of the Diadochi broke out between his successors, leading to the rapid disintegration of the empire.{{Sfn|Shenkar|2014|p=5}}

Alexander did not assume the former Achaemenid royal title of 'King of Kings'.{{Sfn|Worthington|2003|p=139}}{{Sfn|Hammond|1993|p=13}} His main royal title, appearing on coins intended for his Asian territories, was instead ''basileus'' ({{Literal translation|king}}). To mark his rule over the Achaemenid territories he also sometimes used the new title "Lord of Asia" (sometimes "King of Asia").{{Sfn|Worthington|2003|p=139}} The only royal title recorded for Alexander's two immediate heirs is ''basileus''.{{Sfn|Carney|1991|p=157}} Alexander ruled his empire from Babylon{{Sfn|Sykes|2011|p=40}} and planned to establish Babylon and Alexandria in Egypt as the twin imperial capitals.{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=412}} From 319 BC onwards, Alexander's heirs resided in Macedonia while the regency in Asia was contested by several generals.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=113}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Alexander'''{{Efn|Enumerated as Alexander III as king of Macedon (after Alexander I and Alexander II).}} ''the Great'' |1 October 331{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=412}}{{efn|The date of Alexander's victory at the Battle of Gaugamela, which opened the way for his conquest of Babylonia and Persia.{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=412}}}} – 10/11 June 323 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=112}} (7 years, 8 months and 10/11 days) |Conquered the Achaemenid Empire{{Sfn|Shenkar|2014|p=5}} |- |65px |'''Philip''' Arrhidaeus{{Efn|Enumerated as Philip III as king of Macedon (after Philip I and Philip II).}} |June 323 – late 317 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=112}} (6 years) |Brother of Alexander the Great{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=149}} |- |65px |'''Alexander''' Aegus{{Efn|Enumerated as Alexander IV as king of Macedon (after Alexander I, Alexander II, and Alexander the Great).}} |August 323{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=112}} – 309 BC{{Sfn|Mørkholm|2001|p=187}} (305 BC){{efn|Alexander IV's murder by his regent Cassander in 309 BC was not made public knowledge until 306/305 BC and he thus continued to be recognized as king posthumously for an additional 3–4 years.{{Sfn|Mørkholm|2001|p=187}}}} (14 years, recognized for 18 years) |Son of Alexander the Great{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=149}} |}

==== Seleucid Empire (305–129 BC) ==== {{See also|Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid Empire}} [[File:Seleucid Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Seleucid Empire under Seleucus I Nicator|190px]] The main Hellenistic successors of Alexander's empire in Iran were the Seleucids, descendants of the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator and the Iranian noblewoman Apama.{{Sfn|Bickerman|2003|p=3}} Seleucus seized most of the east, including Babylonia, in the Wars of the Diadochi and was firmly in control in the region from 312 BC onwards.{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=413}} After Alexander IV's death became public knowledge in 305 BC, Seleucus proclaimed himself king.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}

The main royal title used by the Seleucids was ''basileus'', as was the case for the other Macedonian successor kingdoms (such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom).{{Sfn|Watson|2009|p=54}} Only two Seleucid rulers (Antiochus III, 223–187 BC, and Antiochus VII, 139–129 BC) used the greater ''megas basileus'' ('Great King'),{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=147}} the style applied to Achaemenid kings in ancient Greek sources.{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=55}} The Seleucids at first ruled from Seleucia in Mesopotamia, though Antioch was soon made the main capital.{{Sfn|Kia|2016|p=287}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Seleucus I''' ''Nicator'' |305{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}} – September 280 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (25 years) |Former general under Alexander the Great. Held most of the east of his empire from 312 BC onwards{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=413}} and proclaimed king in 305 BC.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}} |- |65px |'''Antiochus I''' ''Soter'' |September 280 – 261 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (19 years) |Son of Seleucus I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Antiochus II''' ''Theos'' |261–246 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (15 years) |Son of Antiochus I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Seleucus II''' ''Callinicus'' |246–226 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (20 years) |Son of Antiochus II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Seleucus III''' ''Ceraunus'' |226–223 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (3 years) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Seleucus II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Antiochus III''' ''the Great'' |223–187 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (36 years) |- |65px |'''Seleucus IV''' ''Philopator'' |187–175 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (12 years) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Antiochus III{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Antiochus IV''' ''Epiphanes'' |175 – late 164 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (11 years) |- |65px |'''Antiochus V''' ''Eupator'' |Late 164 – 162 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (2 years) |Son of Antiochus IV{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Demetrius I''' ''Soter'' |162–150 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (12 years) |Son of Seleucus IV. Overthrew Antiochus IV.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Alexander''' ''Balas'' |152–145 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (7 years) |Alleged son of Antiochus IV. Rival king against Demetrius I, supported by the Roman Empire.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Antiochus VI''' ''Dionysus'' |145–142 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (3 years) |Son of Alexander Balas{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Demetrius II''' ''Nicator'' |147–139 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (8 years) |Son of Demetrius I. Revolted against Alexander Balas with support from the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Sole king after Antiochus VI's death.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |- |65px |'''Antiochus VII''' ''Sidetes'' |139–129 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} (10 years) |Son of Demetrius I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}} |}

=== Parthian Empire ({{Circa}} 250/247 BC–224 AD) === {{See also|Parthian Empire|List of monarchs of Parthia}} [[File:Parthian Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Parthian Empire under Mithridates II|190px]] The Arsacids of Parthia,{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}} initially Seleucid vassals,{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=151}} originated as leaders of the eastern Iranian{{sfn|Lecoq|2011|p=151}}{{efn| * {{harvnb|Yarshater|2004|pp=212–224}}: "The Arsacids (q.v.) came from a Saka tribe, the Aparni (see APARNA), who penetrated Parthia, adopted its language, and eventually challenged the Seleucids when the Arsacid eponymous king Arsaces (Aršak) challenged the Seleucids’ power in Parthia in 247 B.C.E." * {{harvnb|Katouzian|2009|p=41}}: "In 247 BC two brothers of Iranian Scythian origin dislodged the Seleucids in the north-east of their empire shortly after the Bactrian Greeks had declared independence from them. Arsaces (Arshak; Ashk) was a chief of the Parni tribe, one of the great Scythian (Saka) Dahae nomads from the region between the Caspian and Aral Seas." }} Parni tribe in the northeastern steppes.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=162}} The Parthians gradually challenged Seleucid rule over Iran.{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} Parthian control of Iran was secured through the {{Circa}} 142 BC conquest of Babylonia.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} Although fighting continued for years, the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes in 129 BC effectively marked the collapse of the Seleucid Empire,{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} which then lingered on as a rump state in Syria until conquered by the Roman Empire in the 60s BC.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}

The Parthians presented themselves as heirs of the Achaemenids, though ruled a much more decentralized state.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=162}} Greek inscriptions were used on Parthian coins until the time of Vologases I (AD 51–78). Early Parthian rulers used the name of their dynastic founder (Arsaces) as a title. Their coins also have the legend ''krny'' (probably short for ''autokrator'', i.e. autocrat or sole ruler).{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=172}} From the conquest of Babylonia onwards, rulers used ''basileus megas'' ({{literal translation|Great King}}).{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} Mithridates II (123–91 BC) adopted the Achaemenid 'King of Kings' (rendered in Greek as ''basileus basileon''). After him, this title was used only by Mithridates IV (57–54 BC) and Orodes II (57–37 BC) before becoming a standard part of the Parthian title from the time of Phraates IV (26–2 BC) onwards.{{Sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=228}} The title was used in its Persian form (''šāhān šāh'') after Greek ceased being used.{{Sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=211}} The first Parthian capital was at Nisa in Parthia. In 217 BC, the capital was moved to Qumis and in 50 BC a multi-capital system was established, with royal residences at Ctesiphon, Ecbatana, and Ray.{{Sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2007|pp=96–97}}

This list omits rival kings and claimants. Because of poor source material there are alternate chronologies, genealogies, and enumerations of Parthian rulers, with some differences. See the list of monarchs of Parthia.

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Early local rulers in Parthia ({{Circa}} 250/247–142 BC) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Arsaces I |{{Circa}} 250/247–217 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (30–33 years) |Conquered Parthia from the Seleucid satrap Andragoras{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=162}} |- |65px |Arsaces II |{{Circa}} 217–191 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (26 years) |Son of Arsaces I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |Priapatius |{{Circa}} 191–176 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (15 years) |Grandson of a brother of Arsaces I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |Phraates I |{{Circa}} 176–171 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (5 years) | rowspan="2" |Son of Priapatius{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |Mithridates I |{{Circa}} 171{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}–142 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}{{Efn|The Parthian conquest of Babylonia, whereafter Mithridates I assumed the style 'Great King' and firmly established his empire.|name=Mithribab}} (29 years) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Mithridates I''' ''the Great'' |{{Circa}} 142{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}{{Efn|name=Mithribab}}–132 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} ({{Circa}} 10 years) |Established Parthia as an empire.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=29}} Conquered the Iranian plateau in the 160s BC,{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=162}} followed by conquests of Babylonia (142 BC),{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}} Media (141 BC), and Persis (139 BC).{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Phraates II''' |{{Circa}} 132–127 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (5 years) |Son of Mithridates I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Artabanus I'''{{efn|Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus II since some historians consider the early Arsacid ruler Arsaces II to also be Artabanus I.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=59}}}} |{{Circa}} 127–124/123 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (3–4 years) |Son of Priapatius (and brother of Mithridates I){{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Mithridates II''' ''the Great'' |{{Circa}} 123–91 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} ({{Circa}} 32 years) |Son of Artabanus I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Gotarzes I''' |91–87(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} ({{Circa}} 4 years) |Son of Priapatius (and brother of Mithridates I and Artabanus I){{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Orodes I''' |87–79(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} ({{Circa}} 8 years) |Son of Gotarzes I or Mithridates II (?){{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=36}} |- |65px |'''Sinatruces''' |{{Circa}} 78–70 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} ({{Circa}} 8 years) |Son of Mithridates I, previously a rival claimant c. 91–88 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Phraates III''' |70–57 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (13 years) |Son of Sinatruces{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Mithridates III'''{{efn|Sometimes enumerated as Mithridates IV, after another supposed Parthian king named Mithridates (based on numismatics) dated by some historians to 87–80 BC.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=41}}}} |57–54 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (3 years) |Son of Phraates III. Co-ruler with his brother Orodes II until killed in 54 BC.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Orodes II''' |57–37 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (20 years) |Son of Phraates III{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Phraates IV''' |37–32(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (''1st reign'') (5 years?) |Son of Orodes II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Tiridates'''{{efn|name=tird|Often enumerated as Tiridates II, after Tiridates I, a supposed Parthian king now believed to be unhistorical.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}}} |32–31(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (''1st reign'') (1 year?) |Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=|pp=47–48}} |- |65px |'''Phraates IV''' |31–28(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (''2nd reign'') (3 years?) | rowspan="3" |Retook the throne{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} |- |65px |'''Tiridates'''{{efn|name=tird}} |28–26(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (''2nd reign'') (2 years?) |- |65px |'''Phraates IV''' |26(?)–2 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} (''3rd reign'') (24 years?) |- |65px |'''Phraates V''' | rowspan="2" |2 BC – AD 4(?){{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (6 years?) |Son of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Musa{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} |- |65px |'''Musa''' |Widow of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Phraates V.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} First of only four women to rule in Iranian history.{{efn|The other three were Boran (630), Azarmidokht (630–631), and Sati Beg (1338/1339–1339/1340).}} |- |65px |'''Orodes III''' |4(?)–6/7{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (2/3 years?) |Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=48}} |- |65px |'''Vonones I''' |6/7–11/12{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (4–6 years) |Son of Phraates IV, nominated as king by the Roman Empire{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} |- |65px |'''Artabanus II'''{{efn|Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus III, if Artabanus I is considered to be Artabanus II. He is also sometimes referred to as Artabanus IV if another supposed Parthian king named Artabanus (based on numismatics), dated by some historians to 126–122 BC, is accepted.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=59}}}} |11/12–38{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (26/27 years) |Cousin of Vonones{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} |- |65px |'''Gotarzes II''' |38–51{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (13 years) |Son of Artabanus (?){{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} |- |65px |'''Vardanes''' |39–45/46{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (6/7 years) |Son of Artabanus (?).{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} Rival and later co-ruler of the empire with Gotarzes.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=49}} |- |65px |'''Vonones II''' |51{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=52}} (briefly) |Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=52}} |- |65px |'''Vologases I''' |51–78{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (27 years) |Son of Vardanes{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} |- |65px |'''Pacorus'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Pacorus II, after Pacorus I, a Parthian prince who never ruled in his own right.|name=pacorus}} |78–79{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (''1st reign'') (1 year) |Son of Vologases I{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=58}} |- |65px |'''Artabanus III'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus IV or Artabanus V (see note on Artabanus II).}} |79–81{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (2 years) |Son or brother of Vologases I{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=59–60}} |- |65px |'''Pacorus'''{{Efn|name=pacorus}} |81–115{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (''2nd reign'') (34 years) |Retook the throne{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} |- |65px |'''Vologases II'''{{efn|Sometimes enumerated as Vologases III, after another supposed Parthian king named Vologases (based on numismatics) dated by some historians to 77–80.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=58}}}} |115–116{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (1 year) |Son of Pacorus{{sfn|Dąbrowa|2012|p=176}} |- |65px |'''Parthamaspates''' |116–117{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (1 year) |Grandson of Pacorus, installed as king by the Roman Empire{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=61}} |- |65px |'''Osroes''' |117–128{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (11 years) |Son of Pacorus and father of Parthamaspates{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|pp=60–61}} |- |65px |'''Mithridates IV'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Mithridates V (see note on Mithridates III).}} |128–148{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (20 years) |Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=61}} |- |65px |'''Vologases III'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Vologases IV (see note on Vologases II).}} |148–191{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (43 years) |Son of Mithridates IV{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=61}} |- |65px |'''Vologases IV'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Vologases V (see note on Vologases II).}} |191–207{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (16 years) |Son of Vologases III{{sfn|Patterson|2013|pp=180–181}} |- |65px |'''Vologases V'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Vologases VI (see note on Vologases II).}} |207–213{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} (6 years) |Son of Vologases IV.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} Possibly still in control of some parts of the empire by 228.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=63}} |- |65px |'''Artabanus IV'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus V or Artabanus VI (see note on Artabanus II).}} |213{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}–224{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=|pp=63–64}} (11 years) |Son of Vologases IV. Fought with Vologases V over control of the empire.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=|pp=63–64}} |}

=== Sasanian Empire (224 AD–651 AD) === {{See also|Sasanian dynasty|Sasanian Empire|List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire}} [[File:Sasanian Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Sasanian Empire under Khosrow II|190px]] The Sasanian dynasty originated as kings of Persis, a Parthian vassal kingdom, and claimed Achaemenid descent. In 224–226, the Sasanian dynast Ardashir I led a revolt against the Parthians, weakened in a recent civil war, and took control of the empire. Ardashir presented himself as a restorer of both regional unity and Achaemenid glory.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=166}} The Sasanian Empire was a significantly more militarily powerful, centralized, and aggressive state than the Parthian Empire and was also marked by a state-backed and less heterodox form of the Zoroastrian religion.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=167}}

Sasanian kings continued to use the title ''šāhān šāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}).{{Sfn|Gnoli|1989|p=103}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2025}} The title was extended by Ardashir to ''šāhān šāh ērān'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings of Iran}}) and extended again by his son Shapur I (240–270) to ''šāhān šāh ērān ud anērān'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran}}).{{sfn|MacKenzie|1998}}{{sfn|Yücel|2017|pp=331–344}} Sasanian queens ruled with the title ''bānbišnān bānbišn ērān ud anērān'' ({{Literal translation|Queen of Queens of Iran and non-Iran}}).''{{sfn|Sundermann|1988|pp=678–679}}'' Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sasanian Empire.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Ardashir I''' ''the Unifier'' |224 – May 240{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}}{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} (16 years) |Defeated Artabanus IV and took control of the empire{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=166}} |- |65px |'''Shapur I''' |May 240 – May 270{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}} (30 years) |Son of Ardashir I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}} |- |65px |'''Hormizd I''' |May 270 – June 271{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}} (1 year and 1 month) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Shapur I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}} |- |65px |'''Bahram I''' |June 271 – 274{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}} (3 years) |- |65px |'''Bahram II''' |274–293{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (19 years) |Son of Bahram I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Bahram III''' |293{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (4 months) |Son or cousin of Bahram II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Narseh''' |293–302{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (9 years) |Son of Shapur I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Hormizd II''' |303–309/310{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (6/7 years) |Son of Narseh{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |'''Adur Narseh''' (Narseh II) |309/310{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} (briefly) |Son of Hormizd II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} |- |65px |'''Shapur II''' ''the Great'' |310–379{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (69 years) |Son of Hormizd II, acclaimed ruler at birth.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} The longest-reigning Iranian monarch. |- |65px |'''Ardashir II''' ''the Beneficent'' |379–383{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (4 years) |Son of Hormizd II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Shapur III''' |383–388{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (5 years) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Shapur II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Bahram IV''' |388–399{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (11 years) |- |65px |'''Yazdegerd I''' ''the Sinner'' |399–420{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (21 years) |Son of Shapur III{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Shapur IV''' |420{{sfn|Klíma|2016|pp=514–522}} (briefly) |Son of Yazdegerd I{{sfn|Klíma|2016|pp=514–522}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |'''Khosrow''' ('''I'''){{Efn|Khosrow's rule was brief and ephemeral and he is not counted in the numbering of later kings of this name.}} |420{{sfn|Klíma|2016|pp=514–522}} (briefly) |Son of Bahram IV{{sfn|Klíma|2016|pp=514–522}} |- |65px |'''Bahram V''' ''the Onager'' |420–438{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (18 years) |Son of Yazdegerd I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Yazdegerd II''' |438–457{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (19 years) |Son of Bahram V{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Hormizd III''' |457{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (briefly) | rowspan="3" |Sons of Yazdegerd II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Peroz I''' |457–484{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (27 years) |- |65px |'''Balash''' |484–488{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (4 years) |- |65px |'''Kavad I''' |488–497{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (''1st reign'') (9 years) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Peroz{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Jamasp''' |497–499{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (2 years) |- |65px |'''Kavad I''' |499–531{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (''2nd reign'') (32 years) |Restored to the throne with Hepthalite support{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Khosrow I''' ''Anushirvan'' ({{Literal translation|the Immortal Soul}}) |531–579{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (48 years) |Son of Kavad I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Hormizd IV''' |579–590{{Sfn|Chegini|Nikitin|p=77|1996}} (11 years) |Son of Khosrow I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Bahram VI''' Chobin |590–591{{Sfn|Chegini|Nikitin|p=77|1996}} (1 year) |General of Parthian descent (House of Mihran){{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=103}} |- |65px |'''Khosrow II''' ''Parviz'' ({{Literal translation|the Victorious}}) |June 590 – 28 February 628{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} ({{Age in years, months and days|590|6||628|2|28}}) |Son of Hormizd IV{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} |- |65px |'''Vistahm''' |591–597{{Sfn|Chegini|Nikitin|p=77|1996}} (6 years, usurper in the east) |General of Parthian descent (House of Ispahbudhan) and maternal uncle of Khosrow II. Rival king.{{Sfn|Shahbazi|1989}} |- |65px |'''Kavad II''' |28 February 628 – 628{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} (less than a year) |Son of Khosrow II, overthrew his father{{Sfn|Venning|2023|pp=169–170}} |- |65px |'''Ardashir III''' |628–630{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} (2 years) |Cousin{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} or son{{sfn|Shahbazi|1986|pp=381–382}} of Kavad II |- |65px |'''Shahrbaraz''' |630{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} (less than a year) |General of Parthian descent (House of Mihran){{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=181}} |- |65px |'''Khosrow III''' |630{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} (less than a year) |Nephew of Khosrow II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} |- |65px |'''Boran''' |630{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=185, 204–205}} (less than a year) |Daughter of Khosrow II.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} Second of only four women to rule in Iranian history.{{efn|The other three were Musa (2 BC–AD 4), Azarmidokht (630–631), and Sati Beg (1338/1339–1339/1340).}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |'''Shapur V''' |630{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=204–205}} (less than a year) |Son of Shahrbaraz{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=204–205}} |- |65px |'''Azarmidokht''' |630–631{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=204–210}} (1 year) |Daughter of Khosrow II.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} Third of only four women to rule in Iranian history.{{efn|The other three were Musa (2 BC–AD 4), Boran (630), and Sati Beg (1338/1339–1339/1340).}} |- |65px |Farrukh '''Hormizd V''' |631–632{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} (1 year) |General of Parthian descent (House of Ispahbudhan). Attempted to seize the throne after Azarmidokht declined his marriage proposal.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=204–210}} |- |65px |'''Hormizd VI''' |630–632{{Sfn|Shahbazi|2004}} (2 years, usurper in Nisibis) |Grandson of Khosow II. Proclaimed ruler by the Sasanian troops stationed at Nisibis.{{Sfn|Shahbazi|2004}} |- |65px |'''Khosrow IV''' |632{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} (less than a year) |Great-nephew of Hormizd IV{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |'''Peroz II''' |632–632/633{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} (1 year?) |Brother of Khosrow IV{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} |- |65px |Farrukhzad '''Khosrow V''' |632/633–{{Circa}} 633{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} (1 year?) |Brother of Hormizd V{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} |- |65px |'''Yazdegerd III''' |{{Circa}} 633–651{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} ({{Circa}} 18 years) |Grandson of Khosrow II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Later pretenders (651–731) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Tenure ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Peroz III |651–678/679{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=147}} (27/28 years) |Son of Yazdegerd III, lived in exile in China (Tang dynasty) and led Iranian resistance against the Arabs. Recognized by the Tang dynasty as "king of Persia".{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|pp=144, 147}} Ruled a Tang-supported Iranian kingdom in Sistan or Tokharistan{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|pp=144, 146}} 661–674.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=144}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Narsieh (Narseh III) |678/679{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=147}}–after 708/709{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=148}} (over 20 years) |Son and successor of Peroz III.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=147}} Crowned by the Chinese general Pei Xingjian and placed in charge of Tokharistan. Narsieh defended the region for twenty years until defeated by the Arabs in 708/709, whereafter he returned to China.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=148}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Bó Qiāng Huó{{Efn|Name in Chinese sources. His original name in Persian may have been ''Pušang''.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}}}} |{{Floruit}} 723{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}} |Son of Narsieh. Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 723.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Mù Shānuò{{Efn|Name in Chinese sources.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}} The original Persian name is unknown.}} |{{Floruit}} 726–731{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}} |Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 726 and 731. Names of Sasanian claimants disappear from Chinese sources after 731.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}} |}

=== Minor kingdoms and dynasties === * The Fratarakas (3rd–mid-2nd century BC), rulers/governors in Persis under the Seleucid Empire * Vahshuvar as Frataraka/Satrap of Parthia minted gold coins which is evidence of being independent * Andragoras as Satrap of Parthia minted gold coins which is evidence of being independent * Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms (2nd century BC–5th century AD), various local vassal dynasties of the Parthian Empire ** The kings of Persis (2nd century BC–3rd century AD), vassal kings in Persis under the Parthian Empire

== Medieval Iran (651–1501) == {{See also|Islamic dynasties of Iran}} The fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 was followed by nearly a millennium without Iranian political unity, until the rise of the Safavid Empire in 1501.{{Sfn|Litvak|2017}}{{Sfn|Spooner|2012|p=108}} In the intervening period, the territories formerly part of the ancient Iranian empires were variously subjected to larger foreign empires or divided into several smaller political units. Although no unified Iranian state existed, shared Iranian identity, culture, and language continued to survive and develop throughout the Middle Ages.{{Sfn|Litvak|2017}}{{Sfn|Spooner|2012|p=108}}

The medieval dynasties and kingdoms featured in this list follow a 2012 list of Iranian ruling dynasties by the Iranologist Touraj Daryaee.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=392–396}}

=== Arab (caliphal) rule (638–861) === {{See also|Iran during the Caliphate|List of caliphs}}

==== Rashidun Caliphate (638–661) ==== {{See also|Rashidun Caliphate}} [[File:Rashidun Caliphate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Rashidun Caliphate under Uthman|190px]] The Muslim conquest of Persia began when the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate attacked parts of Sasanian Asoristan in 633.{{Sfn|Stephen Humphreys|1999|p=180}} In 637/638, the Sasanians lost Mesopotamia. The empire itself was conquered in 640–651.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=140}} By the time of Yazdegerd III's death in 651, the Sasanians only retained Bactria.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} Following the Muslim victory, the Sasanian Empire was dissolved and Iran came under the direct rule of the Rashid caliphs.{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxvii}} Although the caliphs implemented forms of ethnic stratification that discriminated against Iranians and their culture, particularly during the later Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), they also adopted much of the old Sasanian administrative model to govern their empire.{{Sfn|Farrokh|2011|loc=Chapter 1: The Rise of the Safavids}}

The style of the caliphs was ''amīr al-mu'minīn'' ({{Literal translation|commander of the faithful}}).''{{Sfn|Montgomery Watt|2007|p=34}}'' An additional title, ''khalīfat Allāh'' ({{Literal translation|deputy of God}}), was also introduced beginning with Uthman (644–656).''{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|2003|pp=5–6}}'' The caliphate was initially ruled from Medina. Under Ali, the capital was transferred to Kufa in Iraq.{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=61}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Umar |637/638{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} – 3 November 644{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=xv}} (6/7 years) |Second Rashid caliph.{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} Oversaw the initial Muslim conquest of Persia.{{Sfn|Stephen Humphreys|1999|p=180}} |- |65px |Uthman |3 November 644 – 17 June 656{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=xv–xvi}} ({{Age in years, months and days|644|11|3|656|6|17}}) |Chosen by tribal acclamation. Challenged by Ali.{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} |- |65px |Ali |18 June 656 – 28 January 661{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=xvi}} ({{Age in years, months and days|656|6|18|661|1|28}}) |Caliph after Uthman's assassination. Challenged by Mu'awiya.{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} |- |colspan=4 style="background:#E6E6E6;" | |- |65px |Hasan |28 January – August 661{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=xvi}} ({{Age in years, months and days|661|1|28|661|8|}}) |Son of Ali and grandson of Muhammad.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=311}} Challenged by Mu'awiya.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=317}} |}

==== Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) ==== {{See also|Umayyad Caliphate}} [[File:Umayyad Caliphate 720 AD (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|The Umayyad Caliphate under Umar II|190px]] The Umayyad Caliphate was established by Mu'awiya I, governor of Syria under the Rashidun caliphs. Mu'awiya opposed the acclamations of Ali and Hasan as caliphs,{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=61}} leading to the civil war known as the First Fitna (656–661).{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} Mu'awiya was victorious and became undisputed caliph after Hasan relinquished his claims.{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=61}}

Umayyad caliphs continued to use the styles ''amīr al-mu'minīn'' and ''khalīfat Allāh''.''{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|2003|pp=4–16}}'' The Umayyad Caliphate was ruled from Damascus, though the capital was briefly transferred to Harran under the last caliph, Marwan II.''{{Sfn|Daiber|2012|p=49}}'' {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Mu'awiya I |July/August 661 – April/May 680{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} (18 years and 9 months) |Seized power in the First Fitna{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} |- |65px |Yazid I |April/May 680 – 11 November 683{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} (3 years and 6 or 7 months) |Son of Mu'awiya I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} |- |65px |Mu'awiya II |11 November 683 – 22 June 684{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|683|11|11|684|6|22}}) |Son of Yazid I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} |- |65px |Marwan I |22 June 684 – 7 May 685{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|684|6|22|685|5|7}}) |Cousin of Mu'awiya I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} |- |65px |Abd al-Malik |7 May 685 – 8 October 705{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|685|5|7|705|10|8}}) |Son of Marwan I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |al-Walid I |8 October 705 – 25 February 715{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|705|10|8|715|2|25}}) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |Sulayman |25 February 715 – 22 September 717{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|715|2|25|717|9|22}}) |- |65px |Umar II |22 September 717 – 5 February 720{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|717|9|22|720|2|5}}) |Grandson of Marwan I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |Yazid II |5 February 720 – 28 January 724{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|720|2|5|724|1|28}}) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |Hisham |28 January 724 – 6 February 743{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|724|1|28|743|2|6}}) |- |65px |al-Walid II |6 February 743 – 16 April 744{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|743|2|6|744|4|16}}) |Son of Yazid II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |Yazid III |16 April – 20 September 744{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|744|4|16|744|9|20}}) | rowspan="2" |Sons of al-Walid I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |Ibrahim |20 September – 25 November 744{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{Age in years, months and days|744|9|20|744|11|25}}) |- |65px |Marwan II |25 November 744 – 750{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}} ({{circa}} 6 years) |Grandson of Marwan I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |}

==== Abbasid Caliphate (749–861) ==== {{See also|Abbasid Caliphate}} [[File:Abbasid Caliphate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Abbasid Caliphate under al-Mutawakkil|190px]] Because Mu'awiya took power in civil war, the rights of his and his descendants to the caliphate was long questioned. Anti-Umayyad insurrections were to a large degree supported by non-Arab converts to Islam (especially Iranians) who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the Abbasid revolution, in which the Umayyads were replaced with the Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.{{Sfn|Osman|2014|pp=62–63}}

Abbasid caliphs continued to use the styles ''amīr al-mu'minīn'' and ''khalīfat Allāh''.''{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|2003|pp=4–16}}'' The Abbasid Caliphate was ruled from Kufa, until the capital was transferred to the newly founded Baghdad in 762.''{{Sfn|Starkey|2013|p=359}}'' {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |al-Saffah |6 November 749 – 9 June 754{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}} ({{Age in years, months and days|749|11|6|754|6|9}}) |Seized power in the Abbasid revolution{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} |- |65px |al-Mansur |9 June 754 – 7 October 775{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}} ({{Age in years, months and days|754|6|9|775|10|7}}) |Brother of al-Saffrah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |al-Mahdi |7 October 775 – 4 August 785{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}} ({{Age in years, months and days|775|10|7|785|8|4}}) |Son of al-Mansur{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |al-Hadi |4 August 785 – 15 September 786{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}} ({{Age in years, months and days|785|8|4|786|9|15}}) | rowspan="2" |Sons of al-Mahdi{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |Harun al-Rashid |15 September 786 – 24 March 809{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}} ({{Age in years, months and days|786|9|15|809|3|24}}) |- |65px |al-Amin |24 March 809 – 27 September 813{{Sfn|Ross|1977|pp=1–2}} ({{Age in years, months and days|809|3|24|813|9|27}}) | rowspan="3" |Sons of Harun al-Rashid{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |al-Ma'mun |27 September 813 – 7 August 833{{Sfn|Ross|1977|pp=1–2}} ({{Age in years, months and days|813|9|27|833|8|7}}) |- |65px |al-Mu'tasim |7 August 833 – 5 January 842{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=2}} ({{Age in years, months and days|833|8|7|842|1|5}}) |- |65px |al-Wathiq |5 January 842 – 10 August 847{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=2}} ({{Age in years, months and days|842|1|5|847|8|10}}) |Son of al-Mu'tasim{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |65px |al-Mutawakkil |10 August 847 – 11 December 861{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=2}} ({{Age in years, months and days|847|8|10|861|12|11}}) |Son of al-Mu'tasim.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} Regarded as the last Abbasid caliph wielding major political power.{{Sfn|Gillespie|2013|p=227}} |}

=== Iranian Intermezzo (821–1090) === {{See also|Iranian Intermezzo}} The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries. In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties,{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} the ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance. The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo".{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}}

The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} This list only includes major dynasties. Both Daryaee (2012){{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=392–396}} and Mahendrarajah (2019){{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} list the major dynasties of the period as the Tahirids, Saffarids, Ziyarids, Buyids, and Samanids. Daryaee also includes the Ghaznavids, omitted by Mahendrarajah.

==== Tahirids (821–873) ==== {{See also|Tahirid dynasty}} [[File:Tahirid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Tahirids at their greatest extent|190px]] The Tahirids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who governed Khorasan and much of the rest of Iran under the Abbasid caliphs. The Tahirids enjoyed considerable autonomy in practice but were not ''de jure'' independent;{{sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=139}}{{sfn|Esposito|2000|p=38}}{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} Tahirid rulers fully acknowledged that they were subordinate viceroys, were always deferential to the caliphs, and regularly forwarded tribute to Baghdad.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} The Tahirids were Arabized, but they were nevertheless Persians.<ref> * {{Harvnb|Bosworth|1975|p=90}}: "The Ṭāhirids were culturally highly Arabicized, but they were nevertheless Persians. The firm and generally just rule which they gave to the eastern Iranian world favoured a material and cultural progress, whereas earlier, the indigenous, older Iranian culture had been weakened by the dynamic impact of Islamic religion and Arab political dominance." * {{harvnb|Yarshater|2004a}}: "The Taherids were thoroughly Arabicized and remained loyal to the caliphate, but the fact that they were of Persian extraction and were ruling in Persian territory made a start for dynasties in Persia enjoying local autonomy."</ref> The Tahirids claimed descent from the Iranian mythological hero Rostam.{{sfn|Tor|2012|p=152}}

As vassals of the Caliphate, the Tahirid rulers used the title ''amir''.{{sfn|El-Hibri|2021|p=147}} The Tahirids initially ruled from Merv. The capital was transferred to Nishapur under Abdallah.{{sfn|Daniel|2000}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Tahir I |821–822{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (1 year) |Granted governorship of Khorasan by Caliph al-Ma'mun for his service in the Fourth Fitna{{sfn|Daniel|2000}} |- |65px |Talha |822–828{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (6 years) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Tahir I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Abdallah |828–845{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (17 years) |- |{{Centre|—}} |Tahir II |845–862{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (17 years) |Son of Abdallah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Muhammad |862–873{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (11 years) |Son of Tahir II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |}

==== Saffarids (867–1002) ==== {{See also|Saffarid dynasty}} [[File:Saffarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Saffarids at their greatest extent|190px]] The Saffarids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who at their height ruled much of Iran, and at times even reached into modern-day Iraq, from their base of power in Sistan.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} Although the dynastic founder Ya'qub (867–879) claimed Sasanian descent,{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}} the Saffarid dynasty originated as local ruffians{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} and their power was attained solely through military might. The Saffarid state expanded aggressively under the rule of Ya'qub and Amr I (879–901), under which the Tahirids were defeated and the Abbasid Caliphate was forced to confirm Saffarid control over various Iranian territories.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}}

Since they were nominally Abbasid subordinates, Saffarid rulers used the title ''amir''. Zaranj served as the Saffarid capital.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Ya'qub |867–879{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (12 years) |Local ruffian{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} who established control over Sistan, Khorasan, and beyond{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} |- |65px |Amr I |879–901{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (22 years) |Brother of Ya'qub{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Tahir |901–909{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (8 years) |Grandson of Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |al-Layth |909–910{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (1 year) |Nephew of Ya'qub and Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Muhammad |910–911{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (1 year) |Brother of al-Layth{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |al-Mu'addal |911{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} (less than a year) |Brother of al-Layth{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Amr II |912–913{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (1 year) |Great-grandson of Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|Interregnum 913–923: occupation by the Samanids.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} |- |65px |Ahmad |923–963{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (40 years) |Married to a granddaughter of Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |65px |Khalaf |963–1002{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (39 years) |Son of Ahmad{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |}

==== Samanids (875–999) ==== {{See also|Samanid Empire}} [[File:Samanid Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Samanids at their greatest extent|190px]] The Samanids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by four brothers in 819, when they were granted four important cities and regions by the Abbasid Caliphate due to helping against the revolt of Rafi ibn al-Layth. In 875, the Samanids increased dramatically in power through investment as governors of Transoxiana{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}}{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} and in 892, all Samanid-held territories were united under a single ruler (Ismail). Under Ismail, the Samanids became autonomous of the Abbasids.{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} The Samanids claimed descent from Bahram VI Chobin (589–590).{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}

Like other dynasties of their time, Samanid rulers used the title ''amir''.{{sfn|Haug|2022}} Mansur I (961/962–976/977) assumed the style ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) as a response to the use of that title by the Buyids.{{sfn|Madelung|Daftary|Meri|2003|p=330}} Mansur I's son, Nuh II (976/977–997), also used ''šāhānšāh''.{{sfn|al-Mulk|2002|p=156}} The Samanid capital was at Samarkand (875–892) and then at Bukhara.{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |{{Centre|—}} |Nasr I |875{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} – August/September 892{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} (17 years) |Appointed governor of Transoxiana by the Abbasid Caliphate in 875{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |65px |Ismail |August/September 892 – 24 November 907{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} (15 years and 2–3 months) |Brother of Nasr I{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |65px |Ahmad ''the Martyred Amir'' |November/December 907 – 24 January 914{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} (6 years and 2–3 months) |Son of Ismail{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |65px |Nasr II ''the Fortunate'' |January 914 – March/April 943{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} (29 years and 2–3 months) |Son of Ahmad{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |65px |Nuh I |April/May 943 – 954/955{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} (11–12 years) |Son of Nasr II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} |- |65px |Abd al-Malik I |954/955–961/962{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} (8 years) |Son of Nuh I{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |65px |Mansur I ''the Righteous Amir'' |961/962–976/977{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} (15 years) |Son of Nuh I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} |- |65px |Nuh II |976/977 – 22 July 997{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} (10–11 years) |Son of Mansur I{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |65px |Mansur II |July/August 997 – 1 February 999{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} (1 year and 6–7 months) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Nuh II{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Abd al-Malik II |February 999{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} – 999{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} (less than a year) |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Later pretenders (999–1005) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Tenure ! width="34%" |Succession |- |{{Centre|—}} |Ismail II ''Muntasir'' ({{Literal translation|the Victorious}}) |999{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}}–1005{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} (6 years) |Son of Nuh II.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} Fought against the Kara-Khanid Khanate, which conquered Bukhara, for several years in an effort to restore the Samanids.{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} |}

==== Ziyarids (927–1090/1091) ==== {{See also|Ziyarid dynasty}} [[File:Ziyarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Ziyarids at their greatest extent|190px]] The Ziyarids were a dynasty of Iranian rulers established in northern Iran by Mardavij, a local mountain chief and mercenary who created an extensive kingdom in the late 920s and early 930s. Mardavij claimed descent from local pre-Islamic nobility and aspired to capture Baghdad, overthrow the Abbasids, and restore both the pre-651 empire as well as the Zoroastrian religion. These aspirations came to an end with Mardavij's murder by his Turkic military slaves in 934/935.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}} Most of the Ziyarid realm was lost, except for territories surrounding the Caspian Sea, inherited by Mardavij's Muslim relatives.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}}

Mardavij may have revived the Sasanian ruling title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) since later Buyid writers attribute the title to him.{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}{{Efn|Mardavij also fashioned a golden throne for himself, in imitation of the ancient throne of the Sasanian rulers.{{sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=44}}}} Later Ziyarid rulers used the title ''amir''.{{sfn|Blair|1992}} The Ziyarids went through a succession of capitals in northern Iran, including Ray, Amol, and Gorgan.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Mardavij |927/928–934/935{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} (7 years) |Mountain chief and mercenary who took control of much of northern Iran{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Vushmgir |934/935–966/967{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} (32 years) |Brother of Mardavij{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |65px |Bisutun |966/967–977/978{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} (11 years) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Vushmgir{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |65px |Qabus |977/978–1012/1013 (in exile 981–998){{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} (35 years) |- |65px |Manuchihr |1012/1013–1029/1030{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} (17 years) |Son of Qabus{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Anushirvan |1029/1030–1049/1050{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} (20 years) |Son of Manuchihr{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Keikavus |1049/1050–?{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |Cousin of Anushirvan{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Gilanshah |?–1090/1091{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |Son of Keikavus{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |}

==== Buyids (934–1062) ==== {{See also|Buyid dynasty}} [[File:Buyid Dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Buyids at their greatest extent|190px]] The Buyids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by three brothers who had served under Mardavij (the first Ziyarid ruler). After Mardavij's murder, the three carved out their own realm out of the southern Ziyarid territories. The Buyid state was composed of three principalities ruled by three branches of the family, sometimes with divergent goals, rather than a unified realm.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} The Buyids came to dominate much of Iran, a development that culminated in 945 with the capture of Baghdad and domination of the caliph himself.{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} The Buyid dynasty claimed descent from the Sasanian king Bahram V (420–438),{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}} almost certainly a forgery.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}}

Individual Buyid rulers were styled as ''amir''. The senior of the three was also invested by the caliph with the grander title ''amīr al-omarāʾ'' ({{Literal translation|great emir}}).{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} The Buyid emirates were transformed into something akin to a restored Iranian monarchy under Rukn al-Dawla and his son 'Adud al-Dawla, who also reintroduced the Sasanian royal title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}).{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=44}} This title continued to be sporadically claimed by Buyid dynasts.{{efn|Rukn al-Dawla claimed Iranian imperial status by 962, when he minted a medal depicting him similar to a Sasanian ruler with the inscription "may the glory of the king of kings increase".{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=44}} 'Adud al-Dawla also claimed the title ''šāhānšāh'' by 965. In 969, he minted a medal with the inscriptions "''šāhānšāh'', may his glory increase" and "May ''šāh'' Panāh Khusraw live long".{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=45}} The caliphs opposed Buyid use of the old imperial title.{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=45}} 'Adud al-Dawla's son Baha al-Dawla is recorded to have used the Arabic version of 'King of Kings' (''malik al-mulūk'') and the title is also recorded in both Arabic and Persian for Baha al-Dawla's grandson Abu Kalijar Marzuban.{{Sfn|Blair|1992|p=6}} The title was sometimes assumed by rival emirs not part of the 'main branch' listed below, such as Fakhr al-Dawla and Musharrif al-Dawla.}}

This list records only the 'main branch' of Buyid rulers, per Daryaee (2012).{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} For a full list of major and minor Buyid rulers, see Buyid dynasty § Buyid rulers. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Imad al-Dawla (Ali) |933/934–949/950{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}} (16 years, Fars{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}) |Son of a Daylamite chief.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} Seized power in the southern territories of the Ziyarid state.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} |- |65px |Mu'izz al-Dawla (Ahmad) |935/936–949/950{{Sfn|Ross|1977|pp=111–112}} (14 years, Kerman{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}} then Iraq{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}) | rowspan="2" |Brothers (and coregents) of Imad al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |65px |Rukn al-Dawla (Hasan) |946/947 – 16 September 976{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=112}} (29–30 years, Ray{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}) |- |65px |'Adud al-Dawla (Panāh Khusraw) |949/950 – 26 March 983{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}} (33–34 years) |Son of Rukn al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |65px |Sharaf al-Dawla (Shirdil) |March/April 983 – September/October 989{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}} ({{Age in years, months and days|983|3||989|9|}}) | rowspan="3" |Sons of 'Adud al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |65px |Samsam al-Dawla (Abu Kalijar Marzuban) |989–998{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (9 years) |- |65px |Baha al-Dawla (Abu Nasr Firuz) |998–1012{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (14 years) |- |65px |Sultan al-Dawla (Abu Shuja) |1012–1024{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (12 years) |Son of Baha al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |65px |Abu Kalijar Marzuban |1024–1048{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (24 years) |Son of Sultan al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun |1048–1062{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} (14 years) |Son of Abu Kalijar Marzuban{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |}

==== Ghaznavids (977–1040) ==== {{See also|Ghaznavids}} [[File:Ghaznavids (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Ghaznavids at their greatest extent|190px]] The Ghaznavids were of Turkic{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} slave origin. In the tenth century, Turkish slave commanders became increasingly prominent, and eventually effectively autonomous, in the southern parts of the Samanid realm. In 977, the commander Sabuktigin seized power in Ghazni, nominally as a Samanid vassal. Once the Samanids went into terminal decline and collapsed in the late tenth century, Sabuktigin's state became a fully independent realm.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} Although not Iranian, the Ghaznavid rulers nevertheless claimed descent from the Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III ({{Circa}} 633–651).{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}

Sabuktigin ruled with the title ''al-ḥājeb al-ajall'' ({{Literal translation|most noble commander}}).{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} From 999 onwards,{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} the Ghaznavids ruled with the title ''sulṭān''. Sabuktigin's capital, Ghazni, remained the Ghaznavid capital for the duration of their rule in Iran.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Sabuktigin |977/978–997/998{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} (20 years) |Seized power in Ghazni{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Ismail |997/998–998{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} (less than a year) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Sabuktigin{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} |- |65px |Mahmud |998 – 30 April 1030{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} (32 years) |- |65px |Muhammad |1030{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} (briefly) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Mahmud{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} |- |65px |Masʽud |1030 – 23 May 1040{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} (10 years) |} The Ghaznavids lost their territories in Iran to the Seljuks after the Battle of Dandanaqan (1040).{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}}{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} For later Ghaznavid rulers, see Ghaznavids § List of rulers.

=== Turco-Mongol rule (1038–1508) ===

==== Seljuk Empire (1038–1194) ==== {{See also|Seljuk Empire|Seljuk dynasty|List of sultans of the Seljuk Empire}} [[File:Seljuk Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Seljuk Empire under Malik-Shah I|190px]] The Seljuk Empire was established by the Turkoman chieftain Tughril I, who invaded the Ghaznavids in the late 1030s.{{sfn|Barthold|1962|pp=107–108}} In 1040, the Seljuks conquered the Ghaznavid-held parts of Iran{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}}{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} and over the following decades they established control over most of the Middle East,{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} ending the Iranian Intermezzo.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} Though they were not of Iranian origin, the Seljuk rulers bolstered their legitimacy by claiming descent from Afrasiab, a legendary figure from the ''Shahnameh''.''{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}''

From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) in its Persian form,{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} perhaps adopting it from the Buyids.{{Sfn|Blair|1992|p=6}} Later on, the rulers more prominently used the Arabic title ''sulṭān'' and royal styles such as the Arabic ''malik'' and Persian ''šāh'' were bestowed on vassals.{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} ''Šāhānšāh'' continued to be used on the majority of Seljuk coinage, sometimes in the new variant "''šāhānšāh'' king of Islam".{{sfn|Tor|2012|p=150}} Nishapur served as the first capital of the Seljuk Empire. In 1143, the capital was moved to Ray and a few years later it was moved again to Isfahan. From 1118 onwards, the Seljuk regime became increasingly unstable and rival claimants used various bases of power, including Baghdad, Hamadan, and Merv.{{sfn|Lowe|Yasuhara|2017|loc=The golden age of Islam}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Tughril I |June/July 1038{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=37}} – 4 September 1063{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} (25 years and 2–3 months) |Initiated the Seljuk conquest of Iran{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=37}} |- |65px |Alp Arslan |4 September 1063 – 15 December 1072{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1063|9|4|1072|12|15}}) |Nephew of Tughril I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |65px |Malik-Shah I |15 December 1072{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} – 14 October 1092{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=64}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1072|12|15|1092|10|14}}) |Son of Alp Arslan{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |65px |Mahmud I |14 October 1092{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=64}} – 1093{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} (c. 1 year) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Malik-Shah I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |65px |Berkyaruq |October/November 1092{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=67}} – 22 December 1104{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}} (12 years and 1–2 months) |- |{{Centre|—}} |Malik-Shah II |22 December 1104 – February/March 1105{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}} (2–3 months) |Son of Berkyaruq{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}} |- |65px |Muhammad I Tapar |February/March 1105{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}} – 5 August 1118{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} (13 years and 5–6 months) |Son of Malik-Shah I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |65px |Mahmud II |5 August 1118{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} – 11 September 1131{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=101}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1118|8|5|1131|9|11}}) |Son of Muhammad I Tapar.{{Sfn|Luther|2001|pp=79–80}} Defeated by his uncle Ahmad Sanjar after eight months of rule, thereafter sultan only in Iraq.{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=99}} |- |65px |Ahmad Sanjar |1118{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} – 8 May 1157{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=101}} (39 years) |Son of Malik-Shah I.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} Previously Seljuk ruler in Khorasan.{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=80}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Dawud |December 1132/January 1133{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=102}} (briefly) |Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Tughril II |December 1132/January 1133 – October/November 1134{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}} (1 year and 10 months) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Muhammad I Tapar; sultans in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Mas'ud |October/November 1134 – 10 October 1152{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}} (18 years) |- |65px |Malik-Shah III |October 1152 – December 1152/January 1153{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}} (2–3 months) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Mahmud II; sultans in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Muhammad II |December 1152/January 1153{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=140}} – December 1159/January 1160{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=132}} (7 years) |- |{{Centre|—}} |Suleiman-Shah |22 March{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=135}} – September/October 1160{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=136}} (6–7 months) |Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Arslan-Shah |September/October 1160{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=136}} – January/February 1176{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=150}} (15 years and 4 months) |Son of Tughril II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |65px |Tughril III |January/February 1176{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=150}} – 1194{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} (18 years) |Son of Arslan-Shah; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |}

==== Khwarazmian Empire (1097–1220/1221) ==== {{See also|Khwarazmian Empire|Anushtegin dynasty|Khwarazmshah}} [[File:Khwarazmian dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Khwarazmian Empire under Muhammad II|190px]] The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent.{{sfn|El-Azhari|2019|p=311}} One of these vassals was the Anushtegin dynasty, which ruled the Khwarazm region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of Anushtegin Gharchai, a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans.{{Sfn|Bosworth|1986}} In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler Tekish conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}

The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title ''xwârazmšāh'', traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} Urganj was the Khwarazmian capital.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- | |Muhammad I |1096/1097 – 1127/1128{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} (31 years) |Seljuk vassal in Khwarazm{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |65px |Atsiz |1127/1128 – 30 July 1156{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} (28–29 years) |Son of Muhammad I. Seljuk vassal.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |65px |Il-Arslan |22 August 1156 – March 1172{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} (15 years and 7 months) |Son of Atsiz{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Sultan Shah |1172 – 11 December 1172{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} (less than a year) |Son of Il-Arslan. Deposed by Tekish, who he continued to oppose as a rival claimant until 1193.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |65px |Tekish |11 December 1172 – 3 July 1200{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1172|12|11|1200|7|3}}) |Son of Il-Arslan. Conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire in 1194.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |65px |Muhammad II |3 August 1200 – 1220/1221{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} (20–21 years) |Son of Tekish{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Later pretenders (1220/1221–1231) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Tenure ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Mangburni |1220/1221 – August 1231{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} (10–11 years) |Son of Muhammad II.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} Fled to India for three years (1221–1224) after the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire and was then involved in various wars in western Iran.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} |}

==== Mongol Empire (1220–1259) ==== {{See also|Mongol Empire|Borjigin|List of Mongol rulers}} [[File:Mongol Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Mongol Empire's nominal size under Kublai Khan (1279)|190px]] The Mongol Empire was established by Genghis Khan in 1206 through uniting the Mongol clans. The unification of the clans was followed by aggressive imperial expansion throughout Asia and parts of Europe.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=244}} In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols under reached Iran. The region around Bukhara was conquered in 1220{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}} and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} Over the following decades, further conquests followed in the Middle East, culminating in the fall of Baghdad and end of the Abbasid Caliphate's rule there in 1258.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}}

The rulers of the Mongol Empire used the ruling title ''khagan'' ({{Literal translation|Great Khan' or 'emperor}}).{{Sfn|Falk|2010|p=9}} In the 1230s, the Mongol Empire established its capital at Karakorum in Mongolia.{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=85}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Genghis Khan |1220{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}} – 25 August 1227{{Sfn|Atwood|2023|loc=The 1228 theory}} (7 years) |Founder of the Mongol Empire.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=249–250}} Conquered the region around Bukhara in 1220, initiating Mongol rule in Iran.{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}} |- |65px |Ögedei Khan |13 September 1229{{Sfn|Atwood|2023|loc=The 1228 theory}} – 11 December 1241{{Sfn|Pow|2022}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1229|9|13|1241|12|11}}) |Son of Genghis{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} |- |65px |Güyük Khan |24 August 1246 – April 1248{{Sfn|Jackson|2002}} (1 year and 8 months) |Son of Ögedei{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=82}} |- |65px |Möngke Khan |2 May 1252{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=27}} – 11 August 1259{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=143}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1252|5|2|1259|8|11}}) |Grandson of Genghis{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=86}} |}

==== Ilkhanate (1256–1388) ==== {{See also|Ilkhanate|Borjigin|Division of the Mongol Empire}} [[File:Ilkhanate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Ilkhanate under Ghazan Khan|190px]] After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East. Kublai Khan (1260–1294) was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} In much of the south-west of the empire (including Iran), power fell to Hulegu Khan,{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}} who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} Hulegu was swiftly accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was further legitimized through a ''fatwa'' issued by the Shia scholar Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=253–254, 256}} Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=253–254, 256}} Ghazan Khan (1295–1304) converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms.{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}}

The rulers of the Ilkhanate adopted the style ''ilkhan'' ({{Literal translation|subordinate khan}}) to show deference to the Great Khan in China and Mongolia.{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}} From the time of Ghazan Khan onwards, they also used the title ''pādishāh-i Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran}}), sometimes extended to ''pādishāh-i Īrān wa Islām'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran and Islam}}).{{Sfn|Fragner|2013|p=73}} The version ''pādishāh-i Islām'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Islam}}) is also recorded.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=10}} The Ilkhanate went through a succession of capitals, beginning with Maragheh (1256–1265), Tabriz (1265–1306), and Soltaniyeh (1306–1335).{{Sfn|Falk|2024|loc=Us and Them}} After the empire disintegrated in the 1330s, various claimants established different centers of power. The last ilkhan, Luqman, ruled from Astarabad under Timurid suzerainty.{{Sfn|Jackson|2017|p=383}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Hulegu Khan |1256{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} – 8 February 1265{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=155}} (9 years) |Grandson of Genghis Khan.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} Granted power in Iran under Möngke Khan.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} |- |65px |Abaqa Khan |8 February 1265{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=155}} – 1 April 1282{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=175}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1265|2|8|1282|4|1}}) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |65px |Ahmad Tekuder |1 April 1282{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} – 10 August 1284{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1282|4|1|1284|8|10}}) |- |65px |Arghun Khan |11 August 1284 – 10 March 1291{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1284|8|11|1291|3|10}}) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Abaqa{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |65px |Gaykhatu |10 March 1291 – 26 March 1295{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1291|3|10|1295|3|26}}) |- |65px |Baydu |26 March – summer? 1295{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} (a few months) |Grandson of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |55px |Ghazan Khan |Summer? 1295 – 11 May 1304{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} (9 years) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Arghun{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |55px |Öljaitü |11 May 1304 – 16 December 1316{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1304|5|11|1316|12|16}}) |- |65px |Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan |16 December 1316{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} – 30 November 1335{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1316|12|16|1335|11|30}}) |Son of Öljaitü{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |65px |Musa Khan |1335/1336–1336{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} (less than a year) |Grandson of Baydu{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} |- |65px |Arpa Khan |1335–1336{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} (1 year) |Descendant of Tolui, the father of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |frameless|65x65px |Muhammad Khan |1336–1338{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} (2 years) |Great-great-great-grandson of Hulegu{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |65px |Togha Temür |1337–1353 (6 years) |Descendant of Qasar, a brother of Genghis Khan{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |65px |Jahan Temür |1338/1339–1340/1341{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} (2 years) |Grandson of Gaykhatu{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Sati Beg |1338/1339–1339/1340{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} (1 year) |Daughter of Öljaitü.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} Fourth and last of only four women to rule in Iranian history.{{efn|The other three were Musa (2 BC–AD 4), Boran (630), and Azarmidokht (630–631).}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Suleiman Khan |1339/1340 – 1343/1344{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} (4 years) |Great-great-grandson of Hulegu{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |65px |Anushirwan Khan |1344–1356{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} (12 years) |Unknown lineage{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Ghazan II |1356–1357{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} (1 year) |Son of Togha Temür{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Luqman |1356{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=183}}–1388{{Sfn|Roemer|2001|p=29}} (32 years) |Son of Togha Temür.{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} Puppet ruler under various warlords, including Amir Vali{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=183}} and later Timur.{{Sfn|Jackson|2017|p=383}} |}

==== Timurid Empire (1370–1458) ==== {{See also|Timurid Empire|Timurid dynasty}} [[File:Timurid Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Timurid Empire under Timur|190px]] The Timurid Empire was established by Timur, a conqueror who claimed both Turkic and Mongol descent. Timur began as a minor brigand chief under the Chagatai Khanate. In the middle 1360s, Timur rose to become the effective ruler of Transoxiana. He went on to establish his seat of power in Khorasan and conquered most of Iran through campaigns in the 1380s and 1390s.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}}

During his conquests, Timur made some effort to portray himself as the heir of the Ilkhanate, adopting the Ilkhanid title ''pādishāh-i Islām'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Islam}}).{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=10}} Timur also used the style ''guregen'' ({{Literal translation|son-in-law}}) to stress his marriage to Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan. ''Pādishāh'' continued to be used by Timur's successors, who at times also adopted the style of ''sulṭān''.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=13}} Samarkand was the capital of the Timurid Empire.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Timur |9 April 1370 – 18 February 1405{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1370|4|9|1405|2|18}}) |Conquered Iran in the 1370s–1390s.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Pir Muhammad |February 1405 – 1407{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} (2 years) |Grandson of Timur{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} and his designated heir.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=10}} Ruler in Fars.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} |- |frameless|79x79px |Khalil Sultan |February 1405{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} – 1409/1410{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} (4–5 years) |Grandson of Timur.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} Senior Timurid ruler and ruler of Persia.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} |- |65px |Shah Rukh |February 1405{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} – 1446/1447{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} (41–42 years) |Son of Timur. Initially only ruler in Khorasan; ruler of the entire empire from 1415/1416 onwards.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |- |65px |Ulugh Beg |1446/1447 – October/November 1449{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} (2–3 years) |Son of Shah Rukh{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Abdal-Latif Mirza |October/November 1449 – May 1450{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} (6–7 months) |Son of Ulugh Beg{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |- |65px |Abdullah Mirza |May 1450 – 1451/1452{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} (1–2 years) |Grandson of Shah Rukh{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |- |65px |Abu Sa'id Mirza |1451/1452{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}–1458{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}} (6–7 years) |Great-grandson of Timur{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |} The Timurids lost almost all of their territories in Iran to the Qara Qoyunlu in 1452–1458.{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}} For later Timurid rulers in Khorasan and elsewhere, see Timurid Empire § Emperors (Emir).

==== Qara Qoyunlu (1452–1469) ==== {{See also|Qara Qoyunlu|List of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu}} [[File:Qara Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Qara Qoyunlu under Jahan Shah|190px]] The Qara Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkoman confederation that grew in power west of Iran following the collapse of the Ilkhanate. The origins of the Qara Qoyunlu are obscure and they are first recorded as an identifiable group in the 1330s.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=101}} Under the leader Jahan Shah, the Qara Qoyunlu seized most of Iran from the Timurids. This began with the conquest of Jibal in 1452, and continued with further conquests of Isfahan, Fars, and Kerman in 1458.{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}}

The Qara Qoyunlu rulers presented themselves as rulers of Iran and political successors of the Ilkhanate, using titles such as ''pādishāh-i Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran}}) and ''kesra-yi Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|Caesar of Iran}}).{{Sfn|May|2012|p=83}} Tabriz served as the Qara Qoyunlu capital 1436–1467.

This list only includes the Qara Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran.{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} For a full list, see the list of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Jahan Shah |1452–1467{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} (15 years) |Conquered much of Iran from the Timurid Empire in 1452–1458{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}} |- |65px |Hasan Ali |1467–1469{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} (2 years) |Son of Jahan Shah{{Sfn|Roemer|2001b|p=116}} |}

==== Aq Qoyunlu (1465–1508) ==== {{See also|Aq Qoyunlu|List of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu}} [[File:Ag Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan|190px]] Like the Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkoman confederation that rose to power after the Ilkhanate's collapse. The Aq Qoyunlu was a more long-lived and better recorded group.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=101}} In the 1450s and 1460s, the Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan defeated both the Qara Qoyunlu and Timurid forces and by 1469, Uzun Hasan ruled all of Iraq and Iran.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=105}}

Like the preceding Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu rulers titled themselves as ''pādishāh-i Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran}}) and ''kesra-yi Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|Caesar of Iran}}), among other titles.{{Sfn|May|2012|p=83}} Amida was the original Aq Qoyunlu capital.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=104}} The capital was transferred to Tabriz under Uzun Hasan.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=105}}

This list only includes the Aq Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran.{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} For a full list, see the list of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Uzun Hasan |1465/1469–1478{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} (9–13 years) |Conquered Iran in the 1460s{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=105}} |- |65px |Sultan-Khalil |1478{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} (less than a year) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |65px |Yaqub |1478–1490{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} (12 years) |- |65px |Baysunghur |1490–1492{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} (2 years) |Son of Yaqub{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |65px |Rustam Beg |1492–1496{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} (4 years) | rowspan="4" |Grandsons of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |65px |Ahmad Beg |1496–1497{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} (1 year) |- |65px |Alvand Beg |1497–1502{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} (5 years, in Diyar Bakr and then Azerbaijan) |- |{{Centre|—}} |Muhammad Beg |1499–1500{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} (1 year, in Iraq and southern Persia) |- |65px |Sultan Murad |1500–1508{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} (8 years, in Fars and Kerman) |Son of Yaqub{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Zayn al-Abidin |1504–1508{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} (4 years, in Diyar Bakr) |Great-grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |}

=== Minor kingdoms and dynasties ===

* Various local Iranian dynasties in Tabaristan: ** Qarinvand dynasty (550s–11th century) ** Dabuyid dynasty (642–760) ** Bavand dynasty (651–1349) ** Baduspanid dynasty (665–1598) ** Afrasiyab dynasty (1349–1504) * Ghurid dynasty (786–1215), which controlled parts of eastern Iran * Minor dynasties of the Iranian Intermezzo: ** Sajid dynasty (889–929) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan ** Rawadid dynasty (900–1070/1116) in Azerbaijan ** The Simjurids (913–1002) in Khorasan and Gorgan as viceroys of Samanid Empire and Buyid dynasty ** Sallarid dynasty (919–1062) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan ** The Ilyasids (932–968) in Kerman ** The Shaddadids (951–1199) in Armenia ** The Hasanwayhids (959–1015) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan ** The Marwanids (983/990–1084) in Mesopotamia ** The Annazids (990/991–late 12th century) in western Iran/eastern Iraq ** The Kakuyids (1008–1141) in central Iran ** Amir Gilaki dynasty (11th and 12th centuries) in Tabas and Tun; known rulers were Amir Abul Hasan Gilaki Ibn Muhammad, who ruled c. 1052 (444 AH) and Amir Ismail Gilaki, who ruled until 1104 (497 AH) ** Nizari Ismaili state (1090–1256) in Alamut and Rudbar *** Muhtashams of Quhistan (1091–1256) in Quhistan region, as viceroys for Nizari Ismaili state ** Muayyid dynasty (1161–1187) in Khorasan (three rulers: Mu'ayyid al-Din Ai-Aba, Toghan-Shah, and Sanjar-Shah) * Minor successor states of the Ilkhanate: ** Kart dynasty (1244–1381) in much of Khorasan ** The Muzaffarids (1314–1393) in central and southern Iran ** The Injuids (1335–1357) in southern Iran ** Jalayirid Sultanate (1335–1432) in Iraq and western Iran ** Jauni-Qurbani dynasty (1335–1381) in Tus region, Khorasan in north-eastern Iran ** The Sarbadars (1337–1381) in parts of Khorasan ** The Chobanids (1338–1357) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan

== Modern Iran (1501–1979) ==

=== Safavid Iran (1501–1722) === {{See also|Safavid Iran|Safavid dynasty}}[[File:Safavid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|Safavid Iran under Abbas the Great|190px]] Of native Iranian (possibly Kurdish) origins,{{efn| * {{Harvnb|Amoretti|Matthee|2009}}: "Of Kurdish ancestry, the Ṣafavids started as a Sunnī mystical order (...)" * {{Harvnb|Matthee|2005|p=18}}: "The Safavids, as Iranians of Kurdish ancestry and of nontribal background, did not fit this pattern, although the stat they set up with the aid of Turkmen tribal forces of Eastern Anatolia closely resembled this division in its makeup. Yet, the Turk versus Tajik division was not impregnable." * {{Harvnb|Matthee|2008}}: "As Persians of Kurdish ancestry and of a non-tribal background, the Safavids did not fit this pattern, though the state they set up with the assistance of Turkmen tribal forces of eastern Anatolia closely resembled this division in its makeup." * {{Harvnb|Savory|2008|p=8}}: "This official version contains textual changes designed to obscure the Kurdish origins of the Safavid family and to vindicate their claim to descent from the Imams." * {{Harvnb|Hamid|2006|pp=456–474}}: "The Safavids originated as a hereditary lineage of Sufi shaikhs centered on Ardabil, Shafeʿite in school and probably Kurdish in origin." * {{Harvnb|Amanat|2017|p=40}} "The Safavi house originally was among the landowning nobility of Kurdish origin, with affinity to the Ahl-e Haqq in Kurdistan (chart 1). In the twelfth century, the family settled in northeastern Azarbaijan, where Safi al-Din Ardabili (d. 1334), the patriarch of the Safavid house and Ismail's ancestor dating back six generations, was a revered Sufi leader." * {{harvnb|Tapper|1997|p=39}}: "The Safavid Shahs who ruled Iran between 1501 and 1722 descended from Sheikh Safi ad-Din of Ardabil (1252–1334). Sheikh Safi and his immediate successors were renowned as holy ascetics Sufis. Their own origins were obscure; probably of Kurdish or Iranian extraction, they later claimed descent from the Prophet." * {{harvnb|Manz|2021|p=169}}: "The Safavid dynasty was of Iranian – probably Kurdish – extraction and had its beginnings as a Sufi order located at Ardabil near the eastern border of Azerbaijan, in a region favorable for both agriculture and pastoralism." * {{harvnb|Blow|2009|p=1}}: "The Safavids are thought to have been Kurdish in origin, but by Sheikh Safi's day they were a Persian-speaking family of small landowners, living near Ardabil, which was a commercial centre in mountainous country, about 40 miles inland from the Caspian Sea. There was also a large Turkoman tribal population in Azerbaijan, who spoke a language closely related to Turkish, known today as Azeri. In time the province would become almost entirely Azeri-speaking."}} the Safavid dynasty originated as the leaders of the medieval mystic Safavid order. In 1499, the Safavid ''sheikh'' Ismail defeated the Shirvanshahs of Azerbaijan and began to wrest control of Iran from the Aq Qoyunlu. The power of the Aq Qoyunlu was decisively broken in 1501 with the defeat of Alvand Beg.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}} In 1502, Ismail crowned himself ''šâhanšâh'' at Tabriz.{{Sfn|Rahimi|2011|p=166}} The rise of the Safavids is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, with their state being the earliest stage of the modern Iranian nation state.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}{{Sfn|Brown|2011|p=432}} Through further conquests, the Safavids restored Iran as a single Iranian political unit and retransformed the tribal nomadic order of the land, established during its period under Turko-Mongol rule, into a sedentary society. Shia Islam was for the first time established as the state religion.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}

The Safavids ruled as ''šâhanšâh-e Irân'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings of Iran}}).{{Sfn|O'Brien|2022|p=47}} The initial capital of the Safavid Empire was at Tabriz. Due to conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the west, the capital was moved eastwards to Qazvin in 1548, and then to Isfahan in the 1590s.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Ismail I''' |11 May 1502 – 22/23 May 1524{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1502|5|11|1524|5|22}}) |Conquered and reunified Iran{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}} |- |65px |'''Tahmasp I''' |22/23 May 1524 – 22 August 1576{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1524|5|22|1576|8|22}}) |Son of Ismail I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} |- |65px |'''Ismail II''' |22 August 1576 – 11 February 1578{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1576|8|22|1578|2|11}}) | rowspan="2" |Sons of Tahmasp I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} |- |65px |'''Mohammad Khodabanda''' |11 February 1578 – 2 December 1587{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1578|2|11|1587|12|2}}) |- |65px |'''Abbas I''' ''the Great'' |2 December 1587 – 21 January 1629{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1587|12|2|1629|1|21}}) |Son of Mohammad Khodabanda{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} |- |65px |'''Safi I''' |21 January 1629 – 12 May 1642{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1629|1|21|1642|5|12}}) |Grandson of Abbas I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} |- |65px |'''Abbas II''' |12 May 1642 – 27 September 1667{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1642|5|12|1667|9|27}}) |Son of Safi I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} |- |65px |'''Safi II'''{{efn|The coronation of Safi II was followed by epidemics and famine. Court astrologers thus declared that he had been crowned at an inauspicious time. This prompted the ''shah'' to have himself re-crowned under the name Suleiman I in 1668.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}}} (1667–1668) '''Suleiman I''' (1668–1694) |3 October 1667 – 30 January 1694{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1667|10|3|1694|1|30}}) |Son of Abbas II{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} |- |65px |'''Soltan Hoseyn I''' |28 April 1694 – 22 October 1722{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1694|4|28|1722|10|22}}) |Son of Suleiman I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} |}

=== Intermediate period (1722–1796) === Complex rivalries in the region of Khorasan led to the Afghan Hotak dynasty invading Iran. In 1722, this conflict led to the collapse of the Safavid Empire after the siege of Isfahan.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}{{Sfn|Aghaie|2012|p=306}} The brief interlude between 1722 and the rise of the Qajar dynasty in 1789–1796 was marked by widespread political turmoil in Iran and several rival attempts to establish power over the country. The Safavids failed to regain power and the Hotaks failed to establish control. The rival Afsharid and Zand dynasties were established by Nader Shah (1736–1747) and Karim Khan (1751–1779), respectively. Although both of these founding figures established their rule over large parts of the former Safavid domain, the political influence of their dynasties swiftly collapsed under their successors.{{Sfn|Aghaie|2012|p=306}}

==== Hotaks (1722–1729) ==== {{See also|Hotak dynasty}} [[File:Hotak dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The Hotak dynasty under Mahmud Hotak|190px]] In 1701, unrest among the Ghilji Pashtun tribe of Afghanistan led to a rebellion against the Safavids. This uprising was suppressed by the local commander, George XI of Kartli, but the Afghan anti-Safavid movement continued under Mirwais Hotak, who established independence in Kandahar. He was later succeeded by Mahmud Hotak, who in 1720, began raiding the Kerman area and in March 1722, a larger hastily assembled and more powerful Safavid army was defeated at the Battle of Gulnabad. Following a six-month siege of Isfahan, Soltan Hoseyn I formally submitted to Mahmud and recognized him as the new ''shah'' of Iran.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}} The Hotak rulers of Iran ruled from the former Safavid capital of Isfahan.{{Sfn|Balland|1987}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Mahmud Hotak''' |22 October 1722 – April/May 1725{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1722|10|22|1725|4}}) |Invaded and seized power from Soltan Hoseyn I{{Sfn|Balland|1987}} |- |65px |'''Ashraf Hotak''' |April/May 1725 – 1729{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} (4 years) |Cousin of Mahmud Hotak; murdered and overthrew Mahmud{{Sfn|Balland|1987}} |}

==== Safavid dynasts (1722–1773) ==== When news of the fall of Isfahan reached Soltan Hoseyn I's son Tahmasp II at Qazvin, Tahmasp proclaimed himself ''shah''.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}} Pro-Safavid forces successfully defeated Ashraf Hotak in 1729 and forced to Afghan forces out of Iran.{{Sfn|Balland|1987}} Tahmasp failed to assert his authority in the aftermath of the Hotak invasion and the effective ruler of Iran was instead the general Nader Khan. In 1732, Nader deposed Tahmasp and replaced him with the eight-month old Abbas III. Abbas was in turn deposed in 1736 and Nader Khan was proclaimed the new ''shah'' of Iran under the name Nader Shah, terminating the Safavid dynasty.{{Sfn|Savory|1982}} Safavid descendants continued to emerge for some time after 1736 as pretenders or as figurehead rulers put forward by warlords vying for power in Iran.{{Sfn|Perry|1998}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Tahmasp II''' |31 October 1722{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} – August 1732{{Sfn|Savory|1982}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1722|10|22|1732|8}}) |Son of Soltan Hoseyn I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} |- |65px |'''Abbas III''' |7 September 1732 – 8 March 1736{{Sfn|Savory|1982}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1732|9|7|1736|3|8}}) |Son of Tahmasp II{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} |- |colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|No recognized Safavid ruler 1736–1750 |- |65px |'''Suleiman II''' |13 January – March 1750{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} (2 months) |Grandson of Suleiman I.{{Sfn|Floor|2005|pp=435–481}} Proclaimed ''shah'' at Mashhad after the deposition of Shahrokh Shah (Afsharid) and ruled until Shahrokh was restored.{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} |- |65px |'''Ismail III''' |Summer 1750 – 1773{{Sfn|Perry|1998}} (23 years) |Grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I. Proclaimed ''shah'' at Isfahan by Karim Khan Zand in 1750, as a puppet ruler.{{Sfn|Perry|1998}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |'''Soltan Hoseyn II''' |1752{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}/1753{{Sfn|Perry|1971|pp=63–72}} |Son of an Azeri man and an Armenian woman, but claimed to be a son of Tahmasp II. Proclaimed ''shah'' at Baghdad by Ali Mardan Khan Bakhtiari, as a puppet ruler.{{Sfn|Perry|1971|pp=63–72}} |}

==== Afsharids (1736–1796) ==== {{See also|Afsharid Iran|Afsharid dynasty}} [[File:Afsharid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|Afsharid Iran under Nader Shah|190px]] The Afsharid dynasty was established by Nader Shah, a general under the Safavids who seized control of the empire in 1736 after the deposition of Abbas III.{{Sfn|Savory|1982}} Nader was a powerful conqueror but the Afsharid Empire quickly collapsed after his assassination in 1747. Large territories fell to the rival Zand dynasty as well as the Afghan Durrani Empire. The domain of Nader's heirs became largely confined to the Iranian parts of Khorasan. For most of its later history, the Afsharid state was dominated by military leaders or other court factions.{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} The Afsharids ruled with the style of ''šâhanšâh''{{Sfn|Tucker|2022|p=9}} and their capital was at Mashhad.{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Nader''' |8 March 1736 – 20 June 1747{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1736|3|8|1747|6|20}}) |General; deposed Abbas III{{Sfn|Savory|1982}} |- |65px |'''Adel''' |6 July 1747{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} – 24 September 1748{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1747|8|6|1748|9|24}}) |Nephew of Nader; proclaimed ruler after Nader's assassination{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} |- |65px |'''Shahrokh''' |1 October 1748{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} – 13 January 1750{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} (''1st reign'') ({{Age in years, months and days|1748|10|1|1750|1|13}}) |Grandson of Nader and matrilineal grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I (Safavid). Proclaimed ruler by tribal leaders at Mashhad in opposition to Adel.{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} |- |65px |'''Ebrahim''' |8 December 1748 – December 1749{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} (~1 year) |Brother of Adel; proclaimed ruler (in opposition to Shahrokh) after deposing and blinding Adel{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} |- |colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|Shahrokh was removed from the throne in January–March 1750 in favor of the Safavid ruler Suleiman II{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} |- |65px |'''Shahrokh''' |March 1750{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} – 1796{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} (''2nd reign'') (46 years) |Restored to the throne{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} |}

==== Zands (1751–1794) ==== {{See also|Zand Iran|Zand dynasty}} [[File:Zand dynasty.svg|thumb|Zand Iran under Lotf Ali Khan|190px]] In the aftermath of Nader Shah's assassination, the Zand dynasty grew to become the most powerful rivals of the Afsharids and seized control of much of Iran in the 1750s. Established by the tribal leader Karim Khan Zand, the Zand rulers never proclaimed themselves to be ''shah''s. Instead, they presented themselves as regents of Iran, at first on behalf of the Safavid puppet Ismail III (1750–1773) and then on behalf of the Iranian people. Karim Khan Zand ruled with the title of ''khân'', as well as the style of ''wakil'' (regent) or ''wakil-al-raʿāyāʾ'' ({{Literal translation|regent of the people}}). His successors ruled simply as ''khân'', though were often considered to be "kings" by European observers. The Zand dynasty ruled from Shiraz.''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Karim |1751 – 1 March 1779''{{Sfn|Perry|2011}}'' (28 years) |Seized power over much of Iran{{Sfn|Perry|2000}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Mohammad-Ali |2 March – 19 June 1779{{Sfn|Busse|1983}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1779|3|2|1779|6|19}}) |Son of Karim.''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' Joint co-ruler with his brother Abol-Fath.{{Sfn|Busse|1983}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |Abol-Fath |2 March – 22 August 1779{{Sfn|Busse|1983}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1779|3|2|1779|8|22}}) |Son of Karim.''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' Initially joint co-ruler with his brother Mohammad-Ali.{{Sfn|Busse|1983}} |- |60px |Sadeq |22 August 1779 – 14 March 1781{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1779|8|22|1781|3|14}}) |Brother of Karim''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' |- |60px |Ali-Morad |14 March 1781 – 10 January 1785{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1781|3|14|1785|1|10}}) |Member of the 'Hazāra' branch of the Zand family''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' |- |60px |Jafar |17 January 1785 – 23 January 1789{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1785|1|17|1789|1|23}}) |Son of Sadeq''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' |- |60px |Sayed Morad |23 January – 7 May 1789{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1789|1|23|1789|5|7}}) |Cousin of Ali-Morad. Mutinied against Jafar (leading to Jafar's death) and opposed the accession of Jafar's son, Lotf Ali.''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' |- |65px |Lotf Ali |7 May 1789{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}} – November 1794''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' ({{Age in years, months and days|1789|5|7|1794|11}}) |Son of Jafar{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}} |}

=== Qajar Iran (1789–1925) === {{See also|Qajar Iran|Qajar dynasty}} [[File:Qajar dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|Qajar Iran under Agha Mohammad Shah|190px]] The Qajar dynasty originated as a local Turkoman noble family in northern Iran, under the Safavids. The Qajars gradually increased in power as other families fought each other in Iran, culminating in Agha Mohammad Shah proclaiming himself ruler in 1789, in opposition to the Afsharids and Zands. Agha Mohammad defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794 and was officially crowned in 1796. Shortly thereafter, he captured and deposed the Afsharid Shahrokh Shah, reunifying Iran under a single ruler.{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}}

Agha Mohammad Shah ruled with the title ''khân'' and later ''šâh'', never assuming the more grandiose ''šâhanšâh''. Agha Mohammad's successor, Fath-Ali Shah, assumed both ''šâhanšâh'' and the Mongol ''khagan'',{{sfn|Amanat|1997|p=10}} titles frequently used by later Qajar rulers.{{sfn|Ashraf|2024|p=48}} Many other honorifics of imperial and religious significance were also used by the Qajar rulers.{{sfn|Amanat|1997|p=10}} The Qajar dynasty ruled from Tehran, inaugurated as Iran's capital in the 1780s under Agha Mohammad Shah.{{sfn|Amanat|1997|p=12}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Agha Mohammad''' |1789{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}} – 17 June 1797{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}} (8 years) |Seized power and reunified Iran 1789–1796{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}} |- |65px |'''Fath-Ali''' |17 June 1797 – 23 October 1834{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1797|6|17|1834|10|23}}) |Nephew of Agha Mohammad{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}} |- |65px |'''Mohammad''' |23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1834|10|23|1848|9|5}}) |Grandson of Fath-Ali{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}} |- |65px |'''Naser al-Din''' |5 September 1848 – 1 May 1896{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1848|9|5|1896|5|1}}) |Son of Mohammad{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}} |- |65px |'''Mozaffar ad-Din''' |1 May 1896 – 3 January 1907{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1896|5|1|1907|1|3}}) |Son of Naser al-Din{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}} |- |65px |'''Mohammad Ali''' |3 January 1907 – 16 July 1909{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1907|1|3|1909|7|16}}) |Son of Mozaffar ad-Din{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}} |- |65px |'''Ahmad''' |16 July 1909 – 15 December 1925{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1909|7|16|1925|12|15}}) |Son of Mohammad Ali{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}} |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Later pretenders (1925–1943) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Tenure ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Ahmad |15 December 1925{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}} – 27 February 1930{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=364}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1925|12|15|1930|2|27}}) |Ruler of Iran 1909–1925. Died in exile in France.{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=13}} |- |65px |Mohammad Hassan |27 February 1930{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=364}} – 7 January 1943{{Sfn|Majd|2016|p=356}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1930|2|27|1942|1|7}}) |Son of Mohammad Ali and designated successor of Ahmad (his brother).{{Sfn|Majd|2016|p=356}} |- |65px |Hamid | rowspan="2" |''No formal claim put forth'' |Son of Mohammad Hassan. Viewed himself as the rightful heir after his father's death but did not officially claim the throne.{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=369}} Was monitored by the US Department of State in 1943 over whether he would declare himself Shah of Iran.{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=367}} |- |65px |Fereydoun |Son of Ahmad. While he lived in Switzerland in 1943, the US Department of State intercepted and suppressed messages from relatives urging Fereydoun to declare himself the rightful Shah of Iran.{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=367}} |- |colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|There continues to be recognized heads of the Qajar family in exile to the present day, though the family has renounced all claims to rule through lineage and does not endorse political activity under its coat of arms.<ref>{{Cite Instagram |postid=CniG-yVt7PB |user=qajar.association |title=Official Statement of the Qajar Association |date=17 January 2023}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2025}} |}

=== Pahlavi Iran (1925–1979) === {{See also|Pahlavi Iran|Pahlavi dynasty}} [[File:Iran (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|Map of Pahlavi Iran|190px]] During the late Qajar dynasty, Iran became increasingly embroiled in internal political turmoil over the extent of the monarch's power, among other events leading to the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911). In 1923, the brigade commander Reza Khan quickly rose through the ranks to become prime minister. In 1925, Reza succeeded in deposing Ahmad Shah and having himself proclaimed by Iran's National Assembly first as regent and then as the new monarch. As his family name, Reza took ''Pahlavi'', after the Pahlavi language of the pre-Islamic Sasanian Empire.{{Sfn|Hiro|2011|p=29}}

The Pahlavi rulers styled themselves as ''šâhanšâh-e Irân'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings of Iran}}).{{Sfn|Hiro|2011|p=29}}''{{Sfn|Bulloch|Morris|2017|p=202}}'' Tehran remained the capital of Iran under Pahlavi rule.{{Sfn|Lee|2024|p=105}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |'''Reza''' |15 December 1925 – 16 September 1941{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=21}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1925|12|15|1941|9|16}}) |Former prime minister |- |65px |'''Mohammad Reza''' |16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=21}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1941|9|16|1979|2|11}}) |Son of Reza{{Sfn|Hiro|2011|p=29}} |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Later pretenders (1979–present) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Tenure ! width="34%" |Succession |- |65px |Mohammad Reza |11 February 1979{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=21}} – 27 July 1980{{Sfn|Lea|2001|p=55}} ({{Age in years, months and days|1979|2|11|1980|7|27}}) |Ruler of Iran 1941–1979. Died in exile in Egypt.{{Sfn|Lea|2001|p=55}} |- |65px |Reza ("Reza II"{{Sfn|Brentjes|1999|p=160}}) |31 October 1980{{Sfn|Brentjes|1999|p=160}} – present ({{Age in years, months and days|1980|10|31}}) |Son of Mohammad Reza. Proclaimed himself "Reza II", rightful ruler of Iran, in October 1980.{{Sfn|Brentjes|1999|p=160}} Has voiced support for democracy but has not renounced his claim to the throne.{{Sfn|Kazemzadeh|2022|p=124}} |}

== See also ==

* History of Iran – a general overview of Iranian history * Monarchism in Iran – advocacy for restoring the Iranian monarchy * List of heads of state of Iran – a comprehensive list of Iranian heads of state since 1501 * List of royal consorts of Iran – the consorts of the rulers of Iran * Coronation of the Iranian monarch – the coronations of the rulers of Iran ** List of Iranian coronations – a comprehensive list of coronations of the rulers of Iran since 1501 * Pishdadian dynasty and Kayanian dynasty – two legendary Iranian dynasties from the Avesta and the ''Shahnameh'' * List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran – poorly attested regional rulers before the Achaemenid Empire

== Notes == {{Notelist}}

== References == === Citations === {{Reflist|20em}}

=== Sources === {{refbegin|30em}} {{sfn whitelist|CITEREFHamid2006|CITEREFSavory2008}} * {{cite journal |last=Afkande |first=Ehsan |date=2014 |title=The Last Sasanians in Eastern Iran and China |url=https://www.academia.edu/12375505 |journal=Anabasis. Studia Classica et Orientalia. |pages=139–155 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book |last=Aghaie |first=Kamran Scot |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-973215-9 |chapter=The Afghan Interlude and the Zand and Afshar Dynasties (1722–95)}} * {{Cite book |last=Aigle |first=Denise |title=Iran Under the Mongols: Ilkhanid Administrators and Persian Notables in Fars |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-7556-4573-2}} * {{Cite book |last=Amanat |first=Abbas |author-link=Abbas Amanat |title=Iran: a Modern History |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-300-11254-2}} * {{cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Ṣafavid Dynasty |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=J. L. |pages= |quote= |last2=Matthee |first2=Rudolph P. |last1=Amoretti |first1=B. Scarcia |isbn=9780195305135}} * {{Cite book |last=al-Mulk |first=Nizam |title=The Book of Government or Rules for Kings |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=0-7007-1228-3 |orig-date=1960}} * {{Cite book |last=Amanat |first=Abbas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFu7X2UtpAC |title=Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-520-08321-0 |location=}} * {{Cite book|last=Anthony|first=David W.|title=The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0691058870|author-link=David W. Anthony}} * {{Cite book |last=Ashraf |first=Assef |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBrxEAAAQBAJ |title=Making and Remaking Empire in Early Qajar Iran |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-1-009-36155-2 |location=}} * {{Cite book |last=Atwood |first=Christopher P. |title=The Secret History of the Mongols |publisher=Penguin Classics |year=2023 |isbn=978-0241197912 |chapter=Appendix A: Alternative Mouse Year Theories and the Question of the ''Secret History'''s Unity}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=AŠRAF ḠILZAY|year=1987|first=D.|last=Balland|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/asraf-gilzay-the-afghan-chief-who-ruled-as-shah-over-part-of-iran-from-1137-1725-to-1142-1729}} * {{Cite book |last=Barthold |first=V. V. |title=Four Studies on the History of Central Asia: Volume III: Mir Ali-Shir: A History of the Turkman People |publisher=Brill |year=1962 |chapter=}} * {{Cite book |last=Baumer |first=Christoph |title=The History of Central Asia: The Age of Islam and the Mongols |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2016 |isbn=9781838609399}} * {{Cite book |last=Bickerman |first=E. |title=The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=((0-521-20092-x)) |chapter=The Seleucid Period |orig-date=1983}} * {{Cite book |last=Binder |first=Carsten |title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire: Volume I |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781119071655 |chapter=From Darius II to Darius III}} * {{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Sheila |title=The Monumental Inscriptions from Early Islamic Iran and Transoxiana |publisher=Brill |year=1992 |isbn=90-04-09367-2}} * {{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Brad |title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-336-1 |editor-last=Mikaberidze |editor-first=Alexander |volume=1 |chapter=Ismail, Shah (Safavid) (1487–1524)}} * {{cite book |last=Blow |first=David |title=Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-84511-989-8 |chapter=Shah Abbas's Inheritance: The Birth of a Shi'i State}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=ANŪŠTIGIN ḠARČAʾĪ|year=1986|first=C. Edmund|last=Bosworth|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/anustigin-garcai-slave-commander}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Ghaznavids|year=2001|first=C. Edmund|last=Bosworth|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghaznavids}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=KHWARAZMSHAHS i. Descendants of the line of Anuštigin|year=2009|first=C. Edmund|last=Bosworth|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khwarazmshahs-i}} * {{Cambridge History of Iran|volume=4|last=Bosworth|first=C. Edmund|chapter=The Ṭāhirids and Ṣaffārids|pages=90–135|chapter-page=90}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Saffarids|year=2010|first=C. Edmund|last=Bosworth|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saffarids}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Ziyarids|year=2010|first=C. Edmund|last=Bosworth|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/ziyarids|ref=CITEREFBosworth2010a}} * {{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=C. Edmund |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7486-2137-8 |orig-date=1996}} * {{Cite book |last=Brentjes |first=Burchard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0a1AAAAIAAJ |title=Oil, Dollars and Politics: 7000 Years at the Arabo-Persian Gulf |publisher=Rishi Publications |year=1999 |isbn=9788185193199}} * {{Cite book |last=Briant |first=Pierre |title=From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=2002 |isbn=1-57506-031-0}} * {{Cite book |last=Brosius |first=Maria |title=A History of Ancient Persia: The Achaemenid Empire |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781444350920}} * {{Cite book |last=Bryce |first=Trevor |title=The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-203-87550-6}} * {{Cite book |last1=Bulloch |first1=John |title=The Gulf War: Its Origins, History and Consequences |last2=Morris |first2=Harvey |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-138-19428-1 |orig-date=1989}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=ABU’L-FATḤ KHAN ZAND|year=1983|first=H.|last=Busse|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606084930/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-fath-khan-zand}} * {{Cambridge History of Iran|volume=4|last=Busse|first=Heribert|chapter=Iran Under the Buyids|pages=250–305|chapter-page=250}} * {{Cite book |last=Carney |first=Elizabeth |title=Women's History and Ancient History |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8078-4310-9 |chapter="What's in a Name?": The Emergence of a Title for Royal Women in the Hellenistic Period}} * {{Cite book |last1=Chegini |first1=N. N. |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Volume III: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750 |last2=Nikitin |first2=A. V. |publisher=Unesco |year=1996 |isbn=92-3-103211-9 |chapter=Sasanian Iran – Economy, Cociety, Arts and Crafts}} * {{Cite book |last=Christie |first=Niall |title=Crusaders: Christianity's Wars in the Middle East, 1095–1382, from the Islamic Sources |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=9781351007344 |edition=2nd}} * {{Cite book |last1=Crone |first1=Patricia |title=God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam |last2=Hinds |first2=Martin |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-54111-5 |orig-date=1986}} * {{Cite book |last1=Curtis |first1=Vesta Sarkhosh |title=The Age of the Parthians |last2=Stewart |first2=Sarah |publisher=I. B. Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84511-406-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Dąbrowa |first1=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-poAgAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199875757 |editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |editor1-link=Touraj Daryaee |location=Oxford |pages=1–432 |chapter=The Arsacid Empire}} * {{Cite book |last=Daiber |first=Hans |title=Islamic Thought in the Dialogue of Cultures: A Historical and Bibliographical Survey |publisher=Brill |year=2012 |isbn=9789004232044}} * {{Cite book |last=Dandamaev |first=M. A. |title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire |publisher=Brill |year=1989 |isbn=90-04-09172-6}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=MEDIA|year=2006|first=Muhammad|last=Dandamayev|first2=Inna|last2=Medvedskaya|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/media}} * {{Cite book |last=Dandamayev |first=Muhammad |title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire: Volume II |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-119-07165-5 |chapter=Eastern Europe}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Taherids|year=2000|first=Elton L.|last=Daniel|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/taherid-dynasty}} * {{Cite book |last=Daryaee |first=Touraj |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-973215-9 |chapter=Ruling Dynasties of Iran}} * {{Cite book |last=Dashdondog |first=Bayarsaikhan |title=The Mongols and the Armenians (1220-1335) |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=9789004186354}} * {{Cite book |last=Davaran |first=Fereshteh |title=Continuity in Iranian Identity: Resilience of a Cultural Heritage |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-415-48104-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Diakonoff |first=I. M. |title=The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenian Periods |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-521-20091-1 |chapter=Media |orig-date=1985}} * {{Cite book |last=Ellerbrock |first=Uwe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFEXEAAAQBAJ |title=The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0367481902 |location=Oxford}} * {{cite book |last1=El-Azhari |first1=Taef |title=Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661–1257 |date=2019 |publisher=Edinburg University Press |isbn=978-1-4744-2318-2 |pages=285–348 |chapter=The Seljuqs from Syria to Iran: The Age of Khatuns and Atabegs |doi=10.3366/edinburgh/9781474423182.003.0007 |s2cid=219872073}} * {{Cite book |last=El-Hibri |first=Tayeb |title=The Abbasid Caliphate: A History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-107-18324-7}} * {{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HUDXkJIE3EC&pg=PA39 |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=9780199880416}} * {{Cite book |last=Farrokh |first=Kaveh |title=Iran at War: 1500-1988 |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2011 |isbn=978-1846034916}} * {{Cite book |last=Fragner |first=Bert G. |title=Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan |publisher=Brill |year=2013 |isbn=978-90-474-1857-3 |chapter=Ilkhanid Rule and its Contributions to Iranian Political Culture}} * {{Cite book |last=Falk |first=Avner |title=Franks and Saracens: Reality and Fantasy in the Crusades |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |isbn=9781855757332}} * {{Cite book |last=Falk |first=Avner |title=Franks and Saracens: A Psychoanalytic Study of the Crusades |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2024 |isbn=9781040228913}} * {{citation |last=Floor |first=Willem |title=A Note on The Grand Vizierate in Seventeenth Century Persia |journal=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft |pages=435–481 |year=2005 |volume=155 |issue=2 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |jstor=43382107}} * {{Cite book |last=Frye |first=Richard N. |title=The History of Ancient Iran |publisher=Verlag C. H. Beck |year=1984 |isbn=3-406-09397-3}} * {{Cite book |last=Gaube |first=Heinz |title=The City in the Islamic World: Volume 2 |publisher=Brill |year=2008 |isbn=978-90-47-44265-3 |chapter=Iranian Cities}} * {{Cite book |last=Ghiasian |first=Mohamad Reza |title=Lives of the Prophets: The Illustrations to Hafiz-i Abru's "Assembly of Chronicles" |publisher=Brill |year=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-37721-9}} * {{cite book |last=Gillespie |first=Alexander |title=The Causes of War: Volume 1: 3000 BCE to 1000 CE |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84946-500-7}} * {{Encyclopedia Iranica|year=2006 |title=IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (2) Islam in Iran (2.3) Shiʿism in Iran Since the Safavids |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ix23-shiism-in-iran-since-the-safavids |last=Hamid |first=Algar|author-link=Hamid Algar |volume=online}} * {{Cite book |last=Hammond |first=N. G. L. |title=Hellenistic History and Culture |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |isbn=0-520-07564-1 |chapter=The Macedonian Imprint on the Hellenistic World}} * {{EI3|last=Haug|first=Robert|title=Manṣūr I b. Nūḥ|year=2022|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_36177}} * {{Cite book |last=Hiro |first=Dilip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P8QwrtpxdMQC |title=Iran Under the Ayatollahs |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-66737-1 |orig-date=1985}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=ḴOSROW II|year=2000|first=James|last=Howard-Johnston|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khosrow-ii}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=GÜYÜK KHAN|year=2002|first=Peter|last=Jackson|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gyk-khan}} * {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |title=The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-300-12533-7}} * {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |title=From Genghis Khan to Tamerlane: The Reawakening of Mongol Asia |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2023 |isbn=978-0-300-27504-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Katouzian |first=Homa |title=The Persians: Ancient, Medieval and Modern Iran |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-300-16932-4 |pages= |chapter=Greeks, Parthians and Persians}} * {{Cite book |last=Katouzian |first=Homa |title=Iran: Politics, History and Literature |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-63689-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Kazemzadeh |first=Masoud |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JJZuEAAAQBAJ |title=The Iran National Front and the Struggle for Democracy |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH |year=2022 |isbn=978-3-11-078205-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Kechichian |first=Joseph A. |title=Succession in Saudi Arabia |publisher=Palgrave |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-349-99954-5}} * {{The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates|edition=Third}} * {{Cite book |last=Kia |first=Mehrdad |title=The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2016 |isbn=9781610693912}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Bahrām V Gōr|year=2016|first=O.|last=Klíma|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-05}} * {{Cite book |last=Kraemer |first=Joel L. |title=Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival during the Buyid Age |publisher=Brill |year=1992 |isbn=90-04-09736-8 |edition=2nd Revised}} * {{Cite book |last=Kuhrt |first=Amélie |title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire: Volume I |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781119071655 |chapter=The Great Conquests}} * {{Cite book|last=Kuzmina|first=Elena E.|title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians|date=2007|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-16054-5|author-link=Elena Efimovna Kuzmina}} * {{Cite book |last=Lane |first=George E. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-973215-9 |chapter=The Mongols in Iran}} * {{Cite book |last=Lea |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f25h1qJLtnAC |title=A Political Chronology of the Middle East |publisher=Europa Publications |year=2001 |isbn=0-203-40305-3}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Aparna|year=2011|first=P.|last=Lecoq|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aparna-c3k}} * {{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Joo-Yup |title=The Turkic Peoples in World History |publisher=Routledge |year=2024 |isbn=978-1-032-18837-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Litvak |first=Meir |title=Constructing Nationalism in Iran: From the Qajars to the Islamic Republic |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-138-21322-7 |chapter=The Construction of Iranian National Identity: an Overview}} * {{Cite book |last=Llewellyn-Jones |first=Lloyd |title=King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE) |publisher=Jordan Center for Persian Studies |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-692-86440-1 |chapter=The Achaemenid Empire}} * {{Cite book |last=Lorentz |first=John H. |title=The A to Z of Iran |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8108-7638-5}} * {{Cite book |last1=Lowe |first1=Roy |title=The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge network and the early development of universities |last2=Yasuhara |first2=Yoshihito |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-138-84482-7}} * {{Cite book |last=Luther |first=Kenneth Allin |url=https://archive.org/details/saljuq-nama-2001-english/mode/2up?view=theater |title=The History of the Seljuq Turks: From the ''Jami' al Tawarikh'', An Ilkhanid Adaptation of the ''Saljuq-nama'' of Zahir al-Din Nishapuri |publisher= |year=2001 |editor-last=Bosworth |editor-first=C. Edmund}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Ērān, Ērānšahr|year=1998|first=D. N.|last=MacKenzie|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah}} * {{Cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |title=The Succession to Muhammad: a study of the early Caliphate |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-521-56181-7}} * {{cite book |last1=Madelung |first1=Wilferd |author-link1=Wilferd Madelung |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxqxdJGMkx8C&pg=PA338 |title=Culture and Memory in Medieval Islam: Essays in Honor of Wilferd Madelung |last2=Daftary |first2=Farhad |author-link2=Farhad Daftary |last3=Meri |first3=Josef W. |author-link3=Josef W. Meri |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-86064-859-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Mahendrarajah |first=Shivan |title=Iran after the Mongols |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2019 |isbn=9781786725974 |chapter=The Iranian Interlude: From Mongol Decline to Timur's Invasion}} * {{Cite book |last=Majd |first=Mohammad Gholi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Cdm5MRQ5lMC |title=August 1941: The Anglo-Russian Occupation of Iran and Change of Shahs |publisher=University Press of America |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7618-5941-3}} * {{Cite book |last=Majd |first=Mohammad Gholi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLypCwAAQBAJ |title=Iran Under Allied Occupation In World War II: The Bridge to Victory & A Land of Famine |publisher=University Press of America |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-7618-6739-5}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=SAFAVID DYNASTY|author-link=Rudi Matthee | year=2008|first=Rudolph P.|last=Matthee|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids}} * {{Cite book |last=Matthee |first=Rudolph P. |title=The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500–1900 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780691144443}} * {{Cite book |last=Manz |first=Beatrice F. |author-link=Beatrice Forbes Manz |title=Nomads in the Middle East |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781139028813}} * {{Cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |title=The Mongol Conquests in World History |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-86189-867-8}} * {{Cite book |last=Middleton |first=John |title=World Monarchies and Dynasties |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7656-8050-1}} * {{Cite book |last=Montgomery Watt |first=W. |title=Islamic Political Thought |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7486-1098-3 |orig-date=1968}} * {{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=David |title=Medieval Persia 1040–1797 |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-582-01483-1 |orig-date=1988}} * {{Cite book |last=Mørkholm |first=Otto |title=Early Hellenistic Coinage: From the Accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea (336-188 B.C.) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-521-39504-6 |orig-date=1991}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Buyids|year=1990|first=Tilman|last=Nagel|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/buyids}} * {{Cite book |last=O'Brien |first=Janet |title=The Contest for Rule in Eighteenth-Century Iran |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2022 |isbn=9780755645978 |chapter=Dismembering the Corporate: The Single Portraits of Nader Shah and the Changing Body Politic in Post-Safavid Iran}} * {{Cite book |last=Overtoom |first=Nikolaus Leo |title=Reign of Arrows: The Rise of the Parthian Empire in the Hellenistic Middle East |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0190888329 |location=Oxford}} * {{Cite book |last=Osman |first=Khalil |title=Sectarianism in Iraq: The Making of State and Nation Since 1920 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-138-77946-4}} * {{Cite book |last1=Papoli-Yazdi |first1=Leila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVo2EAAAQBAJ |title=Homogenization, Gender and Everyday Life in Pre- and Trans-modern Iran: An Archaeological Reading |last2=Dezhamkhooy |first2=Maryma |publisher=Waxmann |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-8309-4350-1 |location=}} * {{cite journal |last=Patterson |first=Lee E. |date=2013 |title=Caracalla's Armenia |url=https://www.academia.edu/8171185 |journal=Syllecta Classica |publisher=Project Muse |volume=2 |pages=27–61 |doi=10.1353/syl.2013.0013 |s2cid=140178359 |url-access=registration}} * {{cite journal |last=Perry |first=J. R. |year=1971 |title=The Last Ṣafavids, 1722-1773 |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.2307/4300438 |jstor=4300438}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Āgā Mohammad Khan Qājār|year=1984|first=J. R.|last=Perry|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aga-mohammad-khan/}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=AFSHARIDS|year=1984|first=J. R.|last=Perry|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afsharids-dynasty|ref=CITEREFPerry1984b}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=ESMĀʿĪL III ṢAFAWĪ|year=1998|first=J. R.|last=Perry|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-iii-safawi}} * {{cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=ZAND DYNASTY |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zand-dynasty |last=Perry |first=J. R.}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=KARIM KHAN ZAND|year=2011|first=J. R.|last=Perry|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karim-khan-zand}} * {{cite book |last=Pourshariati |first=Parvaneh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-xtAAAAMAAJ |title=Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84511-645-3}} * {{Cite book |last=Pow |first=Stephen |title=The Mongol World |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=9781351676311 |chapter=The Mongol Invasions of Europe}} * {{Cite book |last=Rahimi |first=Babak |title=Theater State and the Formation of Early Modern Public Sphere in Iran: Studies on Safavid Muharram Rituals, 1590–1641 CE |publisher=BRILL |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-20979-4}} * {{Cite book |last=Roemer |first=H. R. |title=The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-521-20094-6 |chapter=The Jalayirids, Muzaffarids and Sarbadārs |orig-date=1986}} * {{Cite book |last=Roemer |first=H. R. |title=The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-521-20094-6 |chapter=The successors of Tīmūr |ref=CITEREFRoemer2001b |orig-date=1986}} * {{Cite book |last=Rollinger |first=Robert |title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire: Volume I |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781119071655 |chapter=The Median Dilemma}} * {{Cite book |last=Roux |first=Georges |title=Ancient Iraq |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1992 |isbn= |edition=3rd}} * {{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Martha |title=Rulers and Governments of the World: Volume 1: Earliest Times to 1491 |publisher=Bowker |year=1977 |isbn=0-85935-021-5 |chapter=}} * {{Cite book |last=Rossabi |first=Morris |title=The Legacy of Genghis Khan: Courtly Art and Culture in Western Asia, 1256–1353 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2002 |isbn=1-58839-071-3 |chapter=The Mongols and Their Legacy}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=ʿABBĀS III|year=1982|first=R. M.|last=Savory|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-iii}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=ARDAŠĪR III|year=1986|first=A. Shapur|last=Shahbazi|author-link=Alireza Shapour Shahbazi|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ardasir-iii-sasanian-king-r}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=BESṬĀM O BENDŌY|year=1989|first=A. Shapur|last=Shahbazi|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bestam-o-bendoy}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=HORMOZD V|year=2004|first=A. Shapur|last=Shahbazi|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hormozd-v}} * {{cite book |last=Shayegan |first=M. Rahim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_gcyC8l80MC&q=false |title=Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in Post-Hellenistic and Late Antique Persia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0521766418 |location=Cambridge}} * {{Cite book |last=Shenkar |first=Michael |title=Intangible Spirits and Graven Images: The Iconography of Deities in the Pre-Islamic Iranian World |publisher=Brill |year=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-28148-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Sicker |first=Martin |title=The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna |publisher=Praeger |year=2000 |isbn=0-275-96892-8}} * {{Cite book |last=Sparkes |first=Brian A. |title=The Edinburgh Companion to Ancient Greece and Rome |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7486-1630-5 |chapter=Time-charts |orig-date=2006}} * {{Cite book |last=Spooner |first=Brian |title=Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors |publisher=BRILL |year=2012 |isbn=978-90-04-20145-3 |chapter=Persian, Farsi, Dari, Tajiki: Language Names and Language Policies}} * {{Cite book |last=Spuler |first=Bertold |title=Rulers and Governments of the World: Volume 2: 1492 to 1929 |publisher=Bowker |year=1977 |isbn=0-85935-009-6 |chapter=}} * {{Cite book |last=Stark |first=Sören |title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire: Volume I |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781119071655 |chapter=The Iranian East}} * {{Cite book |last=Starkey |first=Janet |title=Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7007-1588-6 |chapter=Al-Kufa}} * {{cite book |last1=Stephen Humphreys |first1=R. |url=https://archive.org/details/betweenmemorydes1999hump |title=Between Memory and Desire |date=January 1999 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520214118 |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}} * {{Cite book |last=Strootman |first=Rolf |title=New Perspectives in Seleucid History, Archaeology and Numismatics: Studies in Honor of Getzel M. Cohen |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-11-028378-5 |chapter=The Great Kings of Asia: Imperial Titulature in the Seleukid and Post-Seleukid Middle East}} * {{Encyclopedia Iranica|year=2008 |title=EBN BAZZĀZ |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ebn-bazzaz |last=Savory |first=Roger M. |author-link=Roger Savory |volume=online}} * {{Cite book |last=Savory |first=Roger M. |title=The Cambridge History of Islam: the Central Islamic Lands from pre-Islamic Times to the First World War |date=1970 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Holt |editor-first=Peter M. |volume=1A |chapter=The Safavid Persia |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K. S. |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |editor-link3=Bernard Lewis |isbn=9781139055024}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=BĀNBIŠN|year=1988|first=W.|last=Sundermann|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/banbisn-middle-persian-queen}} * {{Cite book |last=Sykes |first=Ella C. |title=Persia and its People: Volume 9 |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-60846-6 |chapter= |orig-date=1910}} * {{cite book |last=Tor |first=Deborah |url=https://www.academia.edu/1298503 |title=Late Antiquity: Eastern Perspectives |date=2012 |publisher=Oxbow |isbn=978-0-906094-53-2 |editor-last=Bernheimer |editor-first=Teresa |location=Oxford |pages=145–163 |chapter=The Long Shadow of Pre-Islamic Iranian Rulership: Antagonism or Assimilation? |editor-last2=Silverstein |editor-first2=Adam J. |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book |last=Truhart |first=Peter |title=Regents of Nations: Systematic Chronology of States and Their Political Representatives in Past and Present: A Biographical Reference Book Part II: Asia / Australia–Oceania |publisher=K. G. Saur |year=1985 |isbn=3-598-10493-6 |chapter=}} * {{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Ernest |title=The Contest for Rule in Eighteenth-Century Iran |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2022 |isbn=9780755645978 |chapter=Nader Shah's Idea of Iran}} * {{Cite book |last=Tapper |first=Richard L. |author-link=Richard Tapper |title=Frontier Nomads of Iran: A Political and Social History of the Shahsevan |date=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780511582257}} * {{Cite book |last=Venning |first=Timothy |title=A Compendium of World Sovereigns: Volume I Ancient |publisher=Routledge |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-032-36194-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Venning |first=Timothy |title=A Compendium of World Sovereigns: Volume II Medieval |publisher=Routledge |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-032-36198-7 |ref=CITEREFVenning2023b}} * {{Cite book |last=Waters |first=Matt |title=Revolt and Resistance in the Ancient Classical World and the Near East |publisher=Brill |year=2016 |isbn=9789004330177 |chapter=Xerxes and the Oathbreakers: Empire and Rebellion on the Northwestern Front}} * {{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Adam |title=The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-45209-0 |orig-date=1992}} * {{Cite book |last=Worthington |first=Ian |title=Alexander the Great: A Reader |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-29186-0}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times|year=2004|first=Ehsan|last=Yarshater|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii1-pre-islamic-times}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=2004 |volume=online |title=IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 2)|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii2-islamic-period-page-2 |last=Yarshater |first=Ehsan |ref=CITEREFYarshater2004a}} * {{Cite journal |last=Yücel |first=Muhammet |date=2017 |title=A Unique Drachm Coin of Shapur I |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=331–344 |doi=10.1080/00210862.2017.1303329 |s2cid=164631548|hdl=20.500.12639/991 |hdl-access=free }} {{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:List of monarchs of Iran}} Monarchs Persia *