{{Short description|Pay in the Roman army}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}} {{Primary sources|date=April 2023}} [[File:8denarii.jpg|link=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:8denarii.jpg|thumb|Some examples of [[denarius]], annual pay of soldiers in the [[Roman army]]. Top: approx. 157 BC. [[Roman Republic]], approx. 73 AD. [[Vespasian]], approx. 161 [[Marcus Aurelius]], approx. 194 [[Septimius Severus]]; bottom: approx. 199 [[Caracalla]], approx. 200 [[Julia Domna]], approx. 219 [[Elagabalus]], approx. 236 [[Maximinus Thrax]]]] '''Pay''' in the [[Roman army]] was defined by the annual '''''stipendium''''' received by a Roman soldier, of whatever rank he was, from the [[Roman Republic|Republican era]] until the [[Later Roman Empire]]. It constituted the main part of the Roman soldier's income, who from the end of the Republic began to receive, in addition to the [[looting|spoils of war]], prize money called [[Donativum|donativa]]. The latter grew to such an extent in the following centuries that by the 4th century, the ancient ''stipendium'' constituted only 10–15% of the Roman [[legionary]]'s entire income.
== History == {{See also|Roman army|donativum}}
=== Republican Era === {{Main|Roman Republic}}
==== The first ''stipendium'' in the late 5th century BC ==== {{See also|Marcus Furius Camillus}} During [[407 BC]], when the Roman army was divided into three parts and sent to plunder the enemies' territory under the command of three of the four military Tribunes ([[Lucius Valerius Poplicola Potitus|Lucius Valerius Potitus]] headed for Anzio, Gnaeus Cornelius Cossus headed for [[Ecetra]], and [[Numerius Fabius Ambustus]] attacked and conquered [[Terracina|Anxur]], leaving the prey to the soldiers of all three armies), the stipend for the soldiers was established, perhaps at the direction of [[Marcus Furius Camillus|Furius Camillus]] himself. Below is how [[Livy]] tells it: {{Blockquote|text="The patricians then added a most opportune gift for the plebs: the Senate decreed, with no prior mention of it to plebs or tribunes, that soldiers should receive a stipend drawn from the State coffers. Until that time each person fulfilled military service at his own expense. (60) As far as we know, no measure was greeted with such joy by the plebs."|title=<small>''[[Ab Urbe condita libri]]'', IV, 59–60, op. cit.</small>|author=[[Livy]]}} The consequences were obvious: acknowledgements from the plebeians, controversy from the Tribunes who saw some of their weapons blunted, protests from those who had to pay. The immediate benefit was that a law declaring war on Veius was passed, and the new Tribunes with military power led an army there consisting mostly of volunteers. And perhaps, also under this circumstance, the legion may have assumed the [[Maniple (military unit)|manipular]] system as its battle formation.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Livy|loc=8.3}}</ref>
At the time of the [[Punic Wars]], pay was set at 2 [[Obol (coin)|obols]] per day, or one-third of a [[Ancient drachma|drachma]] (one [[denarius]] after [[211 BC]]), for the period they were under arms.<ref name=":0">{{Harvtxt|Polybius|loc=6.39}}</ref> In addition, each infantryman was entitled to a share of the spoils of war (prisoners were sold as slaves, as well as animals, treasure, weapons, and other goods), which were auctioned off and the proceeds distributed to officers and men according to various criteria. [[Centurion]]s received twice the pay of their men, that is, four [[Obol (coin)|obols]] or two-thirds of a [[Ancient drachma|drachma]] a day. As for the food ration, infantrymen were distributed about two-thirds of an Attic [[medimnos]] of grain per month.<ref name=":1">{{Harvtxt|Polybius|loc=39.13}}</ref>
It is also known from [[Polybius]] that if the pay distributed to Roman horsemen was one drachma a day, three times what an infantryman earned,<ref name=":0" /> the monthly rations were seven [[Medimnos|medimnoi]] of barley and two of wheat.<ref name=":1" /> Allies ([[socii]]), on the other hand, were given one medimnos and a third of wheat free of charge, as well as five of barley per month.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Polybius|loc=39.13–14}}</ref> To the allies all this was given as a gift. In the case of the Romans, on the other hand, the [[quaestor]] deducted from the ''stipendium'' the price set for wheat, clothing, and any weapons that they might need.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Polybius|loc=39.15}}</ref>
==== The reform of Gaius Marius (107–101 BC) ==== [[File:Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg|link=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg|thumb|Marble bust of [[Gaius Marius]].]] Toward the end of the 2nd century BC Rome had found itself embroiled in a [[Jugurthine War|war]] in [[Numidia]], in which, because of the lack of appeal of any kind, it was almost impossible to find new recruits. From this premise the consul of that year, [[Gaius Marius]], decided to open the legions to anyone, whether or not they were landowners,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Connolly|1976|p=26}}</ref> as [[Sallust]] tells it: {{Blockquote|text=Marius noticed that the spirits of the [[plebs]] were full of enthusiasm. Without wasting any time he loaded the ships with weapons, stipendium for the soldiers and anything else useful, ordering Manlius to embark. He, meanwhile, enlisted soldiers, not as was the custom at that time, by social classes, but rather by accepting all volunteers, for the most part destitute of (''[[capite censi]]'').|author=[[Sallust]]|title=Bellum Iugurthinum|source=LXXXVI}} Permanent active duty thus underwent a major change in [[107 BC]]. The [[Roman Republic]] was forced to take on the burden of equipping and supplying legionary troops, allowing everyone, including have-nots, to enlist. The minimum age for volunteers (no longer forced to serve) was now set at 17, and the maximum at 46.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Connolly|1998|p=213}}</ref> This was the first example of a professional army where conscription by census was abolished, while [[Veteran (Roman history)|veteran soldiers]], who drew daily sustenance (food and lodging, as well as equipment) from the army, received a pension in the form of land allotments in the colonies and, later on, of [[Roman citizenship]] as well. To them, Marius and then subsequent commanders also granted to share the spoils plundered during military campaigns.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Connolly|1998|p=214}}</ref>
==== In Caesar's time ==== Caesar did not, in the course of the [[Gallic Wars|conquest of Gaul]], deprive his soldiers of the opportunity to loot, but the mere [[legionary]] had to be clear about the ultimate goal of the campaign, and his actions were not to affect the commander's operational plans. Aware of the misery of his soldiers, Caesar, on his own initiative, doubled the pay in [[51 BC|51]]–[[50 BC]] from 5 to 10 asses per day (equal to 225 denarii per year), so that the legionary's pay remained unchanged until the period of Emperor [[Domitian]] ([[AD 81|81]]-[[AD 96|96]]).<ref>{{Harvtxt|Milan|1993|p=95}}</ref>
He, unlike many of his predecessors who provided troops with occasional donations, deemed it necessary to give continuity to the service the soldiers provided, instituting the right to a reward in land for discharge, in accordance with the custom that until then had been at the total discretion solely of the commander.
=== High Empire === During the High Empire, supply to the troops, stationed along the [[Limes (Roman Empire)|imperial borders]], was ensured by a system of food collection, including through forced requisitions (against reimbursement), called ''annona militaris''. Basically, from the pay of [[Legionary|legionaries]] and [[auxilia]]ries all costs associated with their maintenance were, then, deducted. The ''stipendium'' was, therefore, composed of a pay in coin and one "in kind."
==== In the time of Augustus (30 BC – 14 AD) ==== [[Augustus]] reorganized the entire [[Limes (Roman Empire)|system of the imperial border defenses]], permanently quartering [[Roman legion|legions]] and [[auxilia]] in fortresses and [[Castra|forts]] along the [[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]]. He brought order to the financial administration of the Roman state, awarding a salary and leave bonus to all soldiers in the imperial army (both [[Legionary|legionaries]] and [[auxilia]]ries) with the creation of an ''[[aerarium militare]]''.
With reference to the [[Auxilia|auxiliary troops]] Augustus offered them a four-monthly pay and uniform equipment, equal to about 1/3 of what a legionary (who received 225 [[Denarius|denarii]] annually) received, that is, around 75 [[Denarius|denarii]] annually. The ''stipendium'' of an ''[[Ala (Roman allied military unit)|Ala]]'' knight, however, was higher than that of a [[Legionary|Roman legionary]], hovering around 250 [[Denarius|denarii]], while that of a knight of ''[[Cohors equitata (military unit)|cohors equitata]]'' ranged around 200 denarii.<ref name=":2">{{Harvtxt|Le Bohec|1992|p=283}}</ref> In essence, the ''[[Ala (Roman allied military unit)|equites alares]]'' (Ala knights) were the highest paid: after them were the infantrymen of a ''cohors equitata'' with 150 denarii and finally those of a ''[[cohors peditata]]''.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Cheesman|1914|p=35}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Tacitus|loc=IV, 19}}</ref><ref>[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|CIL]] [https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_url.php?s_sprache=it&p_publication=CIL+08%2C+18042&r_sortierung=Belegstelle VIII, 18042.]</ref> According to some recent calculations, the annual outlay that the ''[[aerarium militare]]'' had to spend to maintain this massive army was between 31,000,000 [[Denarius|denarii]] according to some<ref>{{Harvtxt|Cascarino|2008|p=12}}</ref> and 65,000,000 denarii according to others.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Le Bohec|1992|p=284}}</ref>
Here is how the historian [[Tacitus]] describes military service and soldier pay in the time of Augustus (in the year [[AD 14|14]]): {{Blockquote|text="Military service is, in its essence, strenuous and yields nothing: one's soul and body are valued at ten [[As (Roman coin)|assēs]] a day, and with these one must pay for clothing, weapons, tents, as well as to save oneself from the abuse of the [[centurion]]s or to buy some exemption from some toil."|author=[[Tacitus]]|title=[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annales]]|source=I, 17.}} The final reward upon discharge, almost as if it were a form of modern [[severance package]], was 3,000 [[Denarius|denarii]] for legionaries, while praetorians were given as much as 5,000 denarii.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Milan|1993|p=119}}</ref>
==== In the time of Domitian (81–96) ==== The first increase in a soldier's pay in imperial times was in the time of [[Domitian]], who increased it by a quarter not only the ''stipendium'' of [[Legionary|legionaries]], but also that of [[Auxilia|auxiliary units]], thus bringing the annual compensation to 333 [[Denarius|denarii]] for an ''[[Ala (Roman allied military unit)|Ala]]'' knight, 266 denarii for a knight of ''cohors equitata'', and 200 [[Denarius|denarii]] for a foot soldier of ''cohors equitata''.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Suetonius]] |title=Domitian |at=7, 3}}</ref>
==== In the time of Septimius Severus (193–211) ==== [[Septimius Severus]] favored legionaries in several ways, increasing their pay and granting them the right to marry while in service,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Keppie|1998|p=148}}</ref> as well as allowing them to live with their families outside the camp ([[canaba]]e). This reform entailed a "regionalization" of the legions, which in this way became tied not only to their commander but also to a specific territory.
==== In the time of Caracalla (211–217) ==== With the introduction of the ''[[Constitutio Antoniniana]]'' by Emperor [[Caracalla]], [[Roman citizenship]] was granted to all inhabitants of the empire except the ''[[dediticii]]''. The aim was to increase tax revenues in the treasury's coffers to attempt to meet the rising costs of [[Roman army|military]] salaries needed to maintain armies along the [[Limes (Roman Empire)|frontiers]].
==== Maximinus Thrax (235) ==== According to Herodian's version, the revolt of the soldiers that led to the death of Alexander Severus was mainly due to the fact that many of the soldiers of [[Pannonia]]n origin, who were very devoted to Maximinus,<ref name=":3">{{Harvtxt|Herodian|loc=VI, 8.3}}</ref> felt that Alexander was depending too much on his mother's power and was behaving cowardly in conducting the Germanic war against the [[Alemanni]]. They recalled the recent [[Sassanid campaign of Severus Alexander|disasters in the East]] caused by the Emperor's continued hesitation.<ref name=":3" /> Thus they planned the killing of Alexander and the elevation to the imperial purple of Maximinus,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Herodian|loc=VI, 8.4}}</ref> to whom they apparently threw the purple mantle as he passed for inspection.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Herodian|loc=VI, 8.5}}</ref> While at first he refused, he later decided to accept, although he felt that such acclamation should be followed by the immediate killing of Alexander before he organized his legions.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Herodian|loc=VI, 8.7}}</ref> And so after promising to double their ''stipendium'', new ''[[Donativum|donativa]]'', and cancel all punishments, he marched decisively against Alexander's camp (which was located at [[Roman Mogontiacum|Mogontiacum]]).<ref name=":4">{{Harvtxt|Herodian|loc=VI, 8.8}}</ref>
==== Summary table of military ''stipendia'': from Augustus to Maximinus Thrax ==== Below is a table that attempts to summarize, based on calculations made by some modern scholars and the little literary evidence of the time, as well as limited archaeological-epigraphic documentation that has come down to us, the annual pay of Roman soldiers:<ref>{{Harvtxt|Cascarino|2008|pp=48–54 & 84–86}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Le Bohec|1992|pp=280–284}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |[[Roman legion]] ! width="16%" |[[Augustus]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Domitian]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Septimius Severus]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Caracalla]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Maximinus Thrax]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]])<ref name=":4" /> |- |[[legionary]] (''miles'') |<div align="center">225</div> |<div align="center">300</div> |<div align="center">450</div> |<div align="center">675</div> |<div align="center">1350</div> |- |''[[Immunes|immunis]]'' |<div align="center">225</div> |<div align="center">300</div> |<div align="center">450</div> |<div align="center">675</div> |<div align="center">1.350</div> |- |''principalis sesquiplicarius'' (= pay equal to 1.5 times) (''[[Cornicen]]'', ''[[Tesserarius]]'' e ''[[List of Roman army unit types|Beneficiarius]]'') |<div align="center">337</div> |<div align="center">450</div> |<div align="center">675</div> |<div align="center">1.012</div> |<div align="center">2.025</div> |- |''principalis duplicarius'' (= pay equal to 2 times) (''[[Optio]]'', ''[[Aquilifer]]'', ''[[Signifer]]'', ''[[Imaginifer]]'', ''[[Vexillarius|Vexillarius equitum]]'', ''[[Corniculary|Cornicularius]]'', ''Campidoctor'') |<div align="center">450</div> |<div align="center">600</div> |<div align="center">900</div> |<div align="center">1.350</div> |<div align="center">2.700</div> |- |''principalis triplicarius'' (= pay equal to 3 times)<ref name=":5">{{AE|1976|495}}.</ref> (''[[Evocatus]]'')<ref name=":5" /> |<div align="center">675</div> |<div align="center">900</div> |<div align="center">1350</div> |<div align="center">2025</div> |<div align="center">4050</div> |- |[[Roman cavalry|Legionary knight]] |<div align="center">262</div> |<div align="center">350</div> |<div align="center">525</div> |<div align="center">787</div> |<div align="center">1.575</div> |- |[[Centurion]] / [[Decurion (Roman cavalry officer)|decurion]] |<div align="center">3.375</div> |<div align="center">4.500</div> |<div align="center">6.750</div> |<div align="center">10.125</div> |<div align="center">20.250</div> |- |[[Centurion]] ''primo ordo'' |<div align="center">6.750</div> |<div align="center">9.000</div> |<div align="center">13.500</div> |<div align="center">20.250</div> |<div align="center">40.500</div> |- |[[Centurion]] ''[[primus pilus]]'' |<div align="center">13.500</div> |<div align="center">18.000</div> |<div align="center">27.000</div> |<div align="center">40.500</div> |<div align="center">81.000</div> |- |''[[Praefectus castrorum]]'' |<div align="center">15.000</div> |<div align="center">20.000</div> |<div align="center">30.000</div> |<div align="center">45.000</div> |<div align="center">90.000</div> |- |''[[Tribunus angusticlavius]]'' |<div align="center">18.750</div> |<div align="center">25.000</div> |<div align="center">37.500</div> |<div align="center">56.250</div> |<div align="center">112.500</div> |- |''[[Tribunus laticlavius]]'' |<div align="center">30.000</div> |<div align="center">40.000</div> |<div align="center">60.000</div> |<div align="center">90.000</div> |<div align="center">180.000</div> |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |''[[Auxilia|Auxiliary troops]]'' ! width="16%" |[[Augustus]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Domitian]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Septimius Severus]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Caracalla]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Maximinus Thrax]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) |- |Infantryman of ''cohors peditata'' |<div align="center">75</div> |<div align="center">100</div> |<div align="center">150</div> |<div align="center">225</div> |<div align="center">450</div> |- |Infantryman of ''cohors equitata'' |<div align="center">150</div> |<div align="center">200</div> |<div align="center">300</div> |<div align="center">450</div> |<div align="center">900</div> |- |[[Roman cavalry|Knight]] of ''cohors equitata'' |<div align="center">200</div> |<div align="center">267</div> |<div align="center">400</div> |<div align="center">600</div> |<div align="center">1.200</div> |- |[[Roman cavalry|Knight]] of ''[[Ala (Roman allied military unit)|Ala]]'' |<div align="center">250</div> |<div align="center">333</div> |<div align="center">500</div> |<div align="center">750</div> |<div align="center">1.500</div> |- |''Praefectus cohortis'' |<div align="center">3.375</div> |<div align="center">4.500</div> |<div align="center">6.750</div> |<div align="center">10.125</div> |<div align="center">20.250</div> |- |''Praefectus alae'' |<div align="center">11.250</div> |<div align="center">15.000</div> |<div align="center">22.500</div> |<div align="center">33.750</div> |<div align="center">67.500</div> |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Garrisons of [[Rome]] ! width="16%" |[[Augustus]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Domitian]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Septimius Severus]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Caracalla]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Maximinus Thrax]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) |- |''[[Praetorian Guard|praetorianus]]'' |<div align="center">750<ref name=":6">{{Harvtxt|Tacitus|loc=I, 17}}</ref></div> |<div align="center">1.000</div> |<div align="center">1.500</div> |<div align="center">2.250</div> |<div align="center">4.500</div> |- |''[[Cohortes urbanae|urbanicianus]]'' |<div align="center">375<ref name=":6" /></div> |<div align="center">500</div> |<div align="center">750</div> |<div align="center">1.125</div> |<div align="center">2.250</div> |- |''[[Vigiles|vigil]]'' |<div align="center">150<ref name=":6" /></div> |<div align="center">200</div> |<div align="center">300</div> |<div align="center">450</div> |<div align="center">900</div> |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |[[Roman navy|Navy]] ! width="16%" |[[Augustus]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Domitian]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Septimius Severus]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Caracalla]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) ! width="16%" |[[Maximinus Thrax]] (in [[Denarius|denarii]]) |- |''[[classiarius]]'' (''[[Classis Misenensis]]'') |<div align="center">150</div> |<div align="center">200</div> |<div align="center">300</div> |<div align="center">450</div> |<div align="center">900</div> |- |''[[classiarius]]'' (''[[Classis Ravennas|Classis Ravennatis]]'') |<div align="center">150</div> |<div align="center">200</div> |<div align="center">300</div> |<div align="center">450</div> |<div align="center">900</div> |- |''[[classiarius]]'' (''[[Roman province|Classis provincialis]]'') |<div align="center">75</div> |<div align="center">100</div> |<div align="center">150</div> |<div align="center">225</div> |<div align="center">450</div> |}
==== Army costs in the first two centuries of the Empire ==== {{See also|Roman economy}} The impact of the costs of such a large army (from [[Augustus]] to the [[Severan dynasty|Severans]]) on the economy of the Roman Empire can be measured, albeit roughly, as follows: {| class="wikitable" |+ Military expenditures as a percentage of the Roman Empire's GDP ! width="20%" |Date ! width="20%" |Empire population ! width="20%" |Empire GDP (millions of denarii)<ref name=":0" group="note">Constant values as of 14 AD expressed in denarii, untied by increases in military pay to compensate for currency devaluation</ref> ! width="20%" |Cost of the military (millions of denarii)<ref name=":0" group="note" /> ! width="20%" |Cost of the military (% of GDP) |- |14 AD. |46 million<ref>{{Harvtxt|CAH XI|p=812}}</ref> |5.000<ref>{{Harvtxt|Scheidel|Friesen|2009|p=7}}</ref> |123<ref>{{Harvtxt|Duncan-Jones|1994|p=36}}</ref> |'''2.5%''' |- |150 AD. |61 million<ref>{{Harvtxt|CAH XI|p=814}}</ref> |6.800 |194<ref name=":2" group="note">Duncan-Jones: costs of years 14–84, inflated by army increase, also assuming bonuses paid to auxiliaries after 84</ref> |'''2.9%''' |- |215 AD. |50 million<ref>{{Harvtxt|Stathakopoulos|2007|p=95}}</ref> |5.435 |223<ref name=":2" group="note" /> |'''4.1%''' |} The cost of the entire army grew moderately as a % of GDP between AD 14 and 150, despite an increase in manpower of about 50%, from about 255,000 armed men<ref>Implied from [[Tacitus]], ''Annales''.</ref> in AD 23 to 383,000<ref>CAH XI 320 estimates 380,000</ref> under [[Hadrian]], to about 442,000<ref>{{Harvtxt|MacMullen|1980|p=454}}</ref> by the death of [[Septimius Severus]] in 211.
This was because the population of the empire, and thus the total GDP, increased significantly (+35 percent approx.). Subsequently, the percentage of army spending toward GDP increased by almost half, although the increase in army personnel was only about 15% (from [[AD 150|150]] to 215). This was mainly due to the Antonine plague, which epidemiological historians have estimated to have reduced the empire's population by 15% to 30%. However, even in 215, the Romans were spending a similar percentage on GDP as the defense of the only global superpower, the United States of America, spends today (amounting to 3.5 percent of GDP in 2003). However, the actual burden on taxpayers, in a quasi-agricultural economy with truly limited surplus production (80 percent of the imperial population depended on [[subsistence agriculture]] and an additional 10 percent on subsistence income), was certainly much heavier. Indeed, a study of imperial taxes in [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], by far the best-documented province, established that the burden was relatively heavy.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Duncan-Jones|1994}}</ref>
Military expenditures thus constituted about 75 percent of the total state budget, since "social" spending was little, whereas all the rest was spent on prestigious building projects in [[Rome]] and the [[Roman province|provinces]]; this was supplemented by a grain subsidy for those found to be unemployed, as well as aid to the proletariat of Rome ([[Congiarium|congiaria]]) and subsidies to Italic families (similar to modern family allowances), to encourage them to beget more children. Augustus instituted this policy, distributing 250 denarii for every child born.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Suetonius]] |title=Augustus |at=46}}</ref> Further subsidies were later introduced for Italic families ([[Alimenta|Institutio Alimentaria]]), by Emperor [[Trajan]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Duncan-Jones|1994|p=35}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Tributum]] * [[Donativum]] * [[Denarius]]
== Notes == {{reflist|group="note"}}
== References == {{reflist}}
== Bibliography == {{refbegin|2}} * {{Cite book |last=Marcellinus |first=Ammianus |title=Le Storie (testo latino a fronte) |publisher=UTET |year=2007 |isbn=978-88-02-07712-3 |editor-last=Salem |editor-first=A.}} * {{Cite book |last=Caesar |title=Commentarii de Bello Gallico}} * {{Cite book |last=[[Polybius]] |title=Histories |at=VI, 19-42}} * {{Cite book |last=[[Sallust]] |title=[[Bellum Iugurthinum]] |at=LXXXVI}} * {{Cite book |last=[[Vegetius]] |title=De re militari}} * {{Cite book |last=[[Livy]] |title=[[Ab urbe condita libri]] |at=VIII}} * {{cite book |last=Herodian |title=Roman history |volume=VI |url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/herodian-s-roman-history/herodian-6.8/}} * {{Cite book |last=[[Tacitus]] |title=[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annales]] |at=I}} * {{Cite book |last=[[Suetonius]] |title=Augustus}} * {{Cite book |last=[[Suetonius]] |title=Domitian}} * {{Cite book |last1=Abranson |first1=E. |title=La vita dei legionari ai tempi della guerra di Gallia |last2=Colbus |first2=J.P. |year=1979 |location=Milan |publisher=Mondadori}} * {{Cite book |ref={{harvid|CAH XI}} |title=Cambridge Ancient History (CAH) |edition=2nd |volume=XI The High Empire |pages=70–192}} * {{Cite book |last=Cascarino |first=G. |title=L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione |year=2007 |volume=I – Dalle origini alla fine della repubblica |location=Rimini|publisher=-Il Cerchio}} * {{Cite book |last=Cascarino |first=G. |title=L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione |year=2008 |volume=II – Da Augusto ai Severi |location=Rimini|publisher=Il Cerchio}} * {{Cite book |last1=Cascarino |first1=G. |title=L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione |last2=Sansilvestri |first2=C. |year=2009 |volume=III – Dal III secolo alla fine dell'Impero d'Occidente |location=Rimini|publisher=Il Cerchio}} * {{Cite book |last=Cheesman |first=G. L. |title=The Auxilia during the first two century A.D. |year=1914 |location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press}} * {{Cite book |last=Connolly |first=P. |title=L'esercito romano |year=1976 |location=Milan|publisher=A. Mondadori}} * {{Cite book |last=Connolly |first=P. |title=Greece and Rome at war |year=1998 |isbn=1-85367-303-X |location=London|publisher=Greenhill Books/Lionel Leventhal}} * {{Cite book |last=Duncan-Jones |first=Richard |title=Money and Government in the Roman Empire |year=1994}} * {{Cite book |last=Fields |first=N. |title=Roman Auxiliary Cavalryman |year=2006 |location=Oxford|publisher=Osprey Publishing}} * {{Cite book |last=Gabba |first=E. |title=Esercito e società nella tarda Repubblica romana |year=1973 |location=Firenze|publisher=La nuova Italia}} * {{Cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=A. K. |title=The Roman Army at War, 100 BC-AD 200 |year=1998 |location=Oxford – N.Y|publisher=Clarendon Press}} * {{Cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=A.K. |title=Storia completa dell'esercito romano |year=2007 |isbn=978-88-7940-306-1 |location=Modena|publisher=Logos}} * {{Cite book |last=Keppie |first=L. |title=The Making of the Roman Army, from Republic to Empire |year=1998 |location=London|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press}} * {{Cite book |last=Le Bohec |first=Y. |title=L'esercito romano da Augusto alla fine del III secolo |year=1992 |location=Rome|publisher=Carocci}} * {{Cite book |last=Le Bohec |first=Y. |title=Armi e guerrieri di Roma antica. Da Diocleziano alla caduta dell'impero |year=2008 |isbn=978-88-430-4677-5 |location=Rome|publisher=Carocci}} * {{Cite journal |last=MacMullen |first=R. |year=1980 |title=How Big was the Roman imperial Army? |journal=KLIO |pages=454}} * {{Cite book |last=Mazzarino |first=S. |title=L'impero romano |year=1973 |location=Bari|publisher=Laterza}} * {{Cite book |last=Milan |first=A. |title=Le forze armate nella storia di Roma Antica |year=1993 |location=Rome|publisher=Jouvence}} * {{Cite book |last=Parker |first=H. |title=The Roman Legions |year=1958 |location=N.Y.|publisher=Barnes & Noble Inc}} * {{Cite book |last=Reddé |first=M. |title=Mare nostrum |year=1986 |location=Paris|publisher=École française de Rome}} * {{Cite book |last=Rodríguez González |first=J. |title=Historia de las legiones Romanas |year=2003 |location=Madrid|publisher=École française de Rome}} * {{Cite book |last=Ruffolo |first=Giorgio |title=Quando l'Italia era una superpotenza |publisher=Einaudi |year=2004}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Scheidel |first1=Walter |last2=Friesen |first2=Steven |year=2009 |title=The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=99 |pages=61–91|doi=10.3815/007543509789745223 |s2cid=202968244 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Stathakopoulos |first=D.Ch. |title=Famine and Pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine Empire |year=2007}} * {{Cite book |last=Webster |first=G. |title=The Roman Imperial Army |year=1998 |location=London – Oklahoma|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press}} {{refend}}
[[Category:Military of ancient Rome]] [[Category:Employment compensation]]