{{Short description|Social relationship}} {{Redirect|Patron-client relationship|a political practice|Clientelism}}
[[File:Tabulae patronatus da amiternum, 325-335 dc. 01.jpg|thumb|A ''[[tabula patronatus]]'' from [[Amiternum]], 325–335 AD]] [[Patronage]] (''clientela'') was the distinctive relationship in [[Social class in ancient Rome|ancient Roman society]] between the ''patronus'' ('patron') and their ''cliens'' ('client'). Apart from the patron-client relationship between individuals, there were also client kingdoms and tribes, whose rulers were in a subordinate relationship to the Roman state.
The relationship was hierarchical, but obligations were mutual. The patron was the protector, sponsor, and benefactor of the client; the technical term for this protection was ''patrocinium''.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last= Quinn |first= Kenneth |editor1-first= Wolfgang |editor1-last= Haase |title= Poet and Audience in the Augustan Age |encyclopedia= Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt |volume =30/1 |year= 1982 |pages= 117 |isbn= 978-3-11-008469-6 |doi= 10.1515/9783110844108-003}}</ref> Although typically the client was of inferior social class,<ref name=ac>{{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Client}}</ref> a patron and client might even hold the same social rank, but the former would possess greater wealth, power, or prestige that enabled him to help or do favors for the client.
From the emperor at the top to the commoner at the bottom, the bonds between these groups found formal expression in the legal definition of patrons' responsibilities to clients.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Worlds Together, Worlds Apart concise edition vol. 1|last = Pollard|first = Elizabeth|publisher = W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.|year = 2015|isbn = 9780393250930|location = New York|pages = 253}}</ref> Patronage relationships were not exclusively between two people and also existed between a [[Roman general|general]] and [[Early Roman army|his soldiers]], a [[Colonia (Roman)|founder and colonists]], and a conqueror and a [[client state|dependent foreign community]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dillon|first1=Matthew|last2=Garland|first2=Lynda|author2-link=Lynda Garland |title=Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar|publisher=[[Routledge]]| year=2005|page=87|isbn=9780415224581}}</ref>
==Nature of ''clientela''== Benefits a client may be granted include [[legal representation]] in court, loans of money, influencing business deals or [[Marriage in ancient Rome|marriages]], and supporting a client's candidacy for [[Roman Magistrates|political office]] or a [[College of Pontiffs|priesthood]]. Arranging marriages for their daughters, clients were often able to secure new patrons and extend their influence in the political arena.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.psu.edu/romanpatronagegroupdcams101/patronage-in-politics/|title=Patronage in Politics {{!}} Roman Patronage in Society, Politics, and Military|website=sites.psu.edu|access-date=2020-03-10|archive-date=2020-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412182954/https://sites.psu.edu/romanpatronagegroupdcams101/patronage-in-politics/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In return for these services, the clients were expected to offer their services to their patron as needed. A client's service to the patron included accompanying the patron in Rome or when he went to war, [[ransom]]ing him if he was captured, and supporting him during political campaigns.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947-|title=Ancient Roman civilization: history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE|others=Based on (work): Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947-, Based on (work): Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947-|year=2019|isbn=978-0-19-084960-3|location=New York, NY|pages=64–65, 252–255|oclc=1038024098}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.psu.edu/romanpatronagegroupdcams101/societal-patronage/|title=Societal Patronage {{!}} Roman Patronage in Society, Politics, and Military|website=sites.psu.edu|access-date=2020-03-10|archive-date=2020-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412182951/https://sites.psu.edu/romanpatronagegroupdcams101/societal-patronage/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ea2">{{Cite Americana|wstitle=Clients}}</ref>
Requests were usually made by ''clientela'' at a daily morning reception at the patron's home, known as the ''salutatio''. The patron would receive his clients at dawn in the [[Cavaedium|atrium]] and [[tablinum]], after which the clients would escort the patron to the [[forum (Roman)|forum]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tuck, Steven L.|title=Pompeii: daily life in an ancient Roman city|date=2010|publisher=Teaching Company|pages=92|oclc=733795148}}</ref> The number of clients who accompanied their patron was seen as a symbol of the patron's prestige.<ref name=":12" /> The client was regarded as a minor member of their patron's [[gens]], entitled to assist in its [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#sacra gentilicia|sacra gentilicia]], and bound to contribute to the cost of them. The client was subject to the jurisdiction and discipline of the gens, and was entitled to burial in its common [[sepulchre]].<ref name="eb2">{{Cite EB1911|last=Muirhead|first=James|last2=Clay|first2=Agnes Muriel|wstitle=Patron and Client}}</ref>
One of the major spheres of activity within patron–client relations was the [[Roman law|law courts]], but ''clientela'' was not itself a legal contract, although it was supported by law from [[Roman Republic#Patrician Era (509–367 BC)|earliest Roman times]].<ref>[[Twelve Tables]] 8.10; Dillon and Garland, ''Ancient Rome,'' p. 87.</ref> The pressures to uphold one's obligations were primarily moral, founded on [[mos maiorum|ancestral custom]], and on qualities of ''[[good faith]]'' on the part of the patron and ''[[pietas|loyalty]]'' on the part of the client.<ref>Karl-J. Hölkeskamp, ''Reconstructing the Roman Republic: An Ancient Political Culture and Modern Research'' (Princeton University Press, 2010), pp. 33–35; Emilio Gabba, ''Republican Rome: The Army and the Allies'', translated by P.J. Cuff (University of California Press, 1976), p. 26.</ref> The patronage relationship was not a discrete one, but a network, since a ''patronus'' might himself be obligated to someone of higher status or greater power. A ''client'' might have more than one patron, whose interests could come into conflict. While the [[Pater familias|Roman ''familia'']] ('family', but more broadly the "household") was the building block of society, interlocking networks of patronage created highly complex social bonds.<ref>Carlin A. Barton, ''The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster'' (Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 176–177.</ref>
Reciprocity ethics played a major role in the patron-client system. Favors given from patron to client and client to patron do not cancel each other; instead, the giving of favors and counter favors was symbolic of the personal relationship between patron and client. As a consequence, the act of returning a favor was done more out of a sense of gratuity and less so because a favor needed to be returned.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Covino|first=Ralph|date=November 2006|title=K. Verboven, The Economy of Friends. Economic Aspects of Amicitia and Patronage in the Late Republic. Brussels: Latomus, 2002. Pp. 399. ISBN 2-87031-210-5. €54.00.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0075435800001118/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Roman Studies|language=en|volume=96|pages=236–237|doi=10.1017/S0075435800001118|s2cid=162385287 |issn=0075-4358|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
The regulation of the patronage relationship was believed by the Greek historians [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]] and [[Plutarch]] to be one of the early concerns of [[Romulus]]. Hence, it was dated to the very [[founding of Rome]].<ref name="eb2" /> In the earliest periods, patricians would have served as patrons. Both ''patricius'', 'patrician', and ''patronus'' are related to the Latin word {{Lang|la|pater}}, 'father', in this sense symbolically, indicating the [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] nature of Roman society. Although other societies have similar systems, the ''patronus cliens'' relationship was "peculiarly congenial" to Roman politics and the sense of ''familia'' in the [[Roman Republic]].<ref>Quinn, "Poet and Audience in the Augustan Age," p. 118.</ref> An important person demonstrated their prestige or ''[[Dignitas (Roman concept)|dignitas]]'' by the number of clients they had.<ref>Dillon and Garland, ''Ancient Rome'', p. 87.</ref>
==''Patronus'' and ''libertus''== {{Unreferenced section|date=July 2024}} When a [[Slavery in ancient Rome|slave]] was [[manumission|manumitted]], the former owner became their patron. The [[freedman]] ''(libertus)'' had social obligations to their patron, which might involve campaigning on their behalf if the patron ran for election, doing requested jobs or errands, or continuing a [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Master-slave relations|sexual relationship that began in servitude]]. In return, the patron was expected to ensure a certain degree of material security for their client. Allowing one's clients to become [[destitute]] or entangled in unjust legal proceedings would reflect poorly on the patron and diminish their prestige.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}
==Changing nature of patronage== [[File:Giovanni Battista Tiepolo - Maecenas Presenting the Liberal Arts - 1743.jpg|thumb|''[[Maecenas]] Presenting the Liberal Arts'', 1743, by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] depicting Augustus in a fanciful setting as a patron whose support is sought]] The complex patronage relationships changed with the social pressures during the [[Roman Republic#From the Gracchi to Caesar (133–49 BC)|late Republic]], when terms such as ''patronus'', ''cliens'' and ''patrocinium'' are used in a more restricted sense than ''[[amicitia]]'', 'friendship', including political friendships and alliances, or ''[[hospitium]]'', reciprocal "guest–host" bonds between families.<ref>Quinn, "Poet and Audience in the Augustan Age," p. 116.</ref> It can be difficult to distinguish ''patrocinium'' or ''clientela'', ''amicitia'', and ''hospitium,'' since their benefits and obligations overlap.<ref>[[John Crook (classicist)|J.A. Crook]], ''Consilium Principis: Imperial Councils and Counsellors from Augustus to Diocletian'' (Cambridge University Press, 1955), p. 22; Dillon and Garland, ''Ancient Rome,'' p. 87; Koenraad Verboven, "Friendship among the Romans," in ''The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World'' (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 413–414.</ref> Traditional ''clientela'' began to lose its importance as a social institution during the 2nd century BC;<ref>[[Fergus Millar]], "The Political Character of the Classical Roman Republic, 200–151 B.C.," in ''Rome, the Greek World, and the East: The Roman Republic and the Augustan Revolution'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2002), p. 137, citing also the "major re-examination" of ''clientela'' by N. Rouland, ''Pouvoir politique et dépendance personnelle'' (1979), pp. 258–259.</ref> [[Fergus Millar]] doubts that it was the dominant force in [[Roman elections]] that it has often been seen as.<ref>Millar, "The Political Character of the Classical Roman Republic," p. 137.</ref>
Throughout the evolution from republic to empire we see the most diversity between patrons. Patrons from all positions of power sought to build their power through the control of clients and resources. More and more patronage extended over entire communities whether based on political decree, benefaction by an individual who becomes the community's patron, or by the community formally adopting a patron.<ref name=":2" />
Both sides had expectations of one another. The community expected protection from outside forces, while the patron expected a loyal following for things such as political campaigning and manpower should the need arise. The extent of a person's client relationships was often taken into account when looking for an expression of their potential political power.<ref name=":2" />
Patronage in the late empire differed from patronage in the republic. Patrons protected individual clients from the tax collector and other public obligations. In return, clients gave them money or services. Some clients even surrendered ownership of their land to their patron. The emperors were unable to prevent this type of patronage effectively.<ref>Oxford Classical Dictionary "patronus"</ref> The significance of ''clientela'' changed along with the social order during [[late antiquity]]. By the 10th century, ''clientela'' meant a contingent of armed retainers ready to enforce their [[lord]]'s will. A young man serving in a military capacity, separate from the entourage that constituted a noble's ''[[Medieval household|familia]]'' or "household", might be termed a ''[[vavasor]]'' in documents.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}
==Civic patronage== [[File:Romancoloniae.jpg|thumb|300px|A map showing Roman colonies in the mid-2nd century]] Several influential Romans, such as [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] and [[Augustus]], established client–patron relationships in conquered regions. This can be seen in Caesar’s relations with the [[Aedui]] of [[Gaul]] wherein he was able to restore their influence over the other Gallic tribes who were once their clients. Hereafter he was asked on several occasions to serve the duties of a patron by the Aedui and was thus regarded by many in Rome as the patron of the Aedui.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Nicols, John, Ph.D.|title=Civic patronage in the Roman Empire|date=2 December 2013|isbn=978-90-04-26171-6|location=Leiden|pages=21–35, 29, 69, 90|oclc=869672373}}</ref>
Augustus established [[Colonia (Roman)|colonies]] in all parts of the empire during his conquests which extended his influence to its furthest reaches. He also made many acts of kindness to the whole of Rome at large, including food and monetary handouts, as well as settling soldiers in new colonies that he sponsored, which indebted a great many people to him.<ref name=":12" /> Through these examples, Augustus altered the form of patronage to one that suited his ambitions for power, encouraging acts that would benefit Roman society over selfish interests.<ref name=":2" /> Although rare, it was possible for women to be patronesses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hemelrijk|first=Emily A.|date=2004|title=City Patronesses in the Roman Empire|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436724|journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte|volume=53|issue=2|pages=209–245|jstor=4436724 |issn=0018-2311}}</ref>
Patronage and its many forms allowed for a minimal form of administration bound by personal relations between parties and thus in the [[Roman Republic#From the Gracchi to Caesar (133–49 BC)|late Republic]] patronage served as a model for ruling.'''<ref name=":2" /><ref>Cicero, ''De officiis'' 1.35.</ref>''' Conquerors or [[Roman governor|governors]] abroad established personal ties as patron to whole communities, ties which then might be perpetuated as a family obligation.<ref>[[Erich S. Gruen]], "''Patrocinium'' and ''clientela''," in ''The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome'' (University of California Press, 1986), vol. 1, pp. 162–163.</ref> One such instance was the Marcelli's patronage of the [[Sicily (Roman province)|Sicilians]], as [[Claudius Marcellus]] had conquered [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] and Sicily.<ref>{{Cite NIE|wstitle=Patron|year=1905}}</ref>
Extending [[Latin Rights|rights]] or [[Roman citizenship|citizenship]] to [[municipium|municipalities]] or [[Roman province|provincial]] families was one way to add to the number of one's clients for political purposes, as [[Pompeius Strabo]] did among the [[Transpadana|Transpadanes]].<ref>A.T. Fear, ''Rome and Baetica" Urbanization in Southern Spain c. 50 BC–AD 150'' (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 142.</ref> This form of patronage contributed to the new role created by [[Augustus]] as sole ruler after the collapse of the Republic, when he cultivated an image as the patron of the [[Roman Empire|Empire]] as a whole.
Various professional and other corporations, such as ''[[Collegium (ancient Rome)|collegia]]'' and ''[[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#sodalitas|sodalitates]]'', awarded statutory titles such as ''patronus'' or ''pater patratus'' to benefactors.
==See also== * [[Euergetism]] * [[Pietas|''Pietas'' (Duty)]] * ''[[Jus patronatus]]'' ;Client kingdoms and tribes Chronologically: * [[Hasmoneans]]: kings of Judea, the last of which were clients of the Roman republic * [[Herod the Great]] of Judea and his descendants * [[Ghassanids]], the: client tribe of the Byzantine Empire
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== * Badian, Ernst. 1958. ''Foreign Clientelae (264–70 B.C.)''. Oxford: Clarendon. * Bowditch, Phebe Lowell. 2001. ''Horace and the Gift Economy of Patronage''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Carolina Press. * Busch, Anja, John Nicols, and Francesco Zanella. 2015. "Patronage". ''Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum'', 26:1109–1138. * Damon, Cynthia. 1997. ''The Mask of the Parasite: A Pathology of Roman Patronage''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. * de Blois, Lucas. 2011. "Army and General in the Late Roman Republic". In ''A Companion to the Roman Army''. Edited by Paul Erdkamp, 164–179. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. * Eilers, Claude. 2002. Roman Patrons of Greek Cities. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Gold, Barbara K. 1987. ''Literary Patronage in Greece and Rome''. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press. * Goldbeck, Fabian. 2010. ''Salutationes. Die Morgenbegrüßungen in Rom in der Republik und der frühen Kaiserzeit'' [Salutationes. The morning greetings in Rome during the Republic and the early Imperial period]. [[Klio (journal)|Klio]] Beihefte, vol. N. F. 16. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-05-004899-4}}. * Konstan, David. 2005. "Friendship and Patronage". In ''A Companion to Latin Literature''. Edited by Stephen Harrison, 345–359. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. * Lomas, Kathryn, and Tim Cornell, eds. 2003. ''"Bread and Circuses": Euergetism and Municipal Patronage in Roman Italy''. London: Routledge. * Nauta, Ruurd R. 2002. ''Poetry for Patrons: Literary Communication in the Age of Domitian''. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. * Nicols, John. 2014. ''Civic Patronage in the Roman Empire''. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. * Saller, Richard P. 1982. ''Personal Patronage Under the Early Empire''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. * Verboven, Koenraad. 2002. ''The Economy of Friends: Economic Aspects of Amicitia and Patronage in the late Roman Republic''. Brussels: Latomus. * Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew, ed. 1989. ''Patronage in Ancient Society''. London: Routledge.
==External links== {{Commons category}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Patronage in ancient Rome |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }} * The Roman Client (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Cliens.html LacusCurtius] * {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Patron |short=x}} {{Ancient Rome topics}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Society of ancient Rome]] [[Category:Roman law]]