{{Short description|Arawakan language spoken in Brazil}} {{Infobox language | name = Paresi | altname = Arití | states = Brazil | region = Mato Grosso | speakers = 1,800 | date = 2014 | ref = e18 | familycolor = arawakan | fam1 = Arawakan | fam2 = Southern ? | fam3 = Paresí–Xingu | fam4 = Paresí languages | iso3 = pab | glotto = pare1272 | glottorefname = Parecís | nativename = {{lang|pab|Haliti-Paresi}}, {{lang|pab|Paresi-Haliti}} | map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg | mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Pareci is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger''}}}} | ethnicity = 2,138 Paresí (2014)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paresí - Povos Indígenas no Brasil |url=https://pib.socioambiental.org/pt/Povo:Pares%C3%AD |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=pib.socioambiental.org}}</ref> }}
'''Paresi''' (also called Haliti-Paresi or Paresi-Haliti by the speakers themselves) is an Arawakan language spoken in Brazil. There are approximately 2000 Paresi people, and around 1800 (~90% of the population) speak the language. The Paresi live in the state of Mato Grosso, more specifically in nine indigenous territories: Rio Formoso, Utiariti, Estação Parecis, Estivadinho, Pareci, Juininha, Figueira, Ponte de Pedra, and Uirapuru. In terms of endangerment, it is not in immediate danger. It is used in many everyday domains, but there is a lack of transmission to younger generations, as well as an evident language shift to Portuguese. This is a result of Portuguese being used in education and healthcare, as well as the integration of Brazilian culture among the Paresi people, creating changes in their language and cultural practices.{{sfnp|Brandão|2014|p=14–15}}
== Background information ==
=== History === Paresi speaking people were deeply affected by contact with Portuguese colonizers, whom they first encountered in 1718. For over 100 years, they were enslaved as miners in Mato Grosso. As Paresi speakers lived in rubber-dense areas, many were driven from their homes or taken as guides by prospective tappers in the late 19th century; this exploitation and aggression would drive them almost to extinction in the 20th century. Several Catholic missionaries of the Anchieta congregation forced Paresi children into boarding schools, where attempts were made to suppress their language, and also assumed control of the entire Utiariti area from the local Waimaré people.{{sfnp|Brandão|2014|p=11-12}}
All of this disruption led to several subgroups of Paresis being lost either due to extinction or assimilation into other groups, as well as a shift in most groups towards speaking Brazilian Portuguese rather than Paresi. Some groups however are still making efforts to maintain Paresi traditional cultural practices as well as the language, such as the Kozarene who make traditional beer, and bread, and wear Paresi headdresses, and skirts.{{sfnp|Brandão|2014|p=12-13}}
=== Language family and stock === Paresi belongs to the Arawak language family, one of the largest and most widespread language families in South America. Payne (1991) used lexical retention to determine language classification, and placed Paresi in the Central branch. Aikhenvald (1999) and Ramirez (2001) group Paresi into the Paresi-Xingu branch.{{sfnp|Brandão|2014|p=5-7}}
== Documentation == There has been some documentation for Paresi. A sketch grammar served as a preliminary description of discourse, clause, and word structure.{{sfnp|Rowan|Burgess|1969}} A preliminary dictionary has been compiled based on the variety spoken in the Utiariti area.{{sfnp|Rowan|1978}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}} Phonology work has also been done,{{sfnp|Rowan|1961}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}}{{sfnp|Rowan|1963}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}}{{sfnp|Rowan|1964a}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}}{{sfnp|Rowan|1964b}}{{sfnp|Rowan|1967}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}}{{sfnp|Rowan|1972}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}}{{sfnp|Rowan|1977}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}} more specifically with the phonetics and phonology of the Waimaré dialect,{{sfnp|Drude|1995}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}} and a phonological description of major Paresi variants using feature geometry.{{sfnp|Rowan|Silva|2009}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}} Brandão has written a verbal morphology description dealing with verb classes, tense, aspect, and modality.{{sfnp|Brandão|2010}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}} A morphosyntax description addressing functional morphemes with respect to negation, aspect, and mood has also been written.{{sfnp|Silva|2013}} There are other pedagogical materials available{{sfnp|Paresi|Januário|2011}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2024}} in addition to student theses written by undergraduate Paresi speakers from the State University of Mato Grosso.
The Museu do Índio has an ongoing language project for Paresi, coordinated by Glauber Romling. The goal of the project is to involve the indigenous community by offering basic archival and linguistic training to analyze speech data in the form of mythical tales and sociolinguistic interviews.
== Phonology ==
=== Consonants === There are 17 contrastive consonant phonemes in Paresi, with three marginal phonemes that only appear in very restricted contexts. These marginal phonemes are analyzed to be their own phonemes, because unlike other palatalized consonant allophones in the language, these phonemes can appear word-initially before /a/, which would not trigger palatalization.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Adapted from Brandão (2014){{sfnp|Brandão|2014|p=29}} ! ! Labial ! Dental ! Alveolar ! Palato-Alveolar ! Velar ! Glottal |- ! Nasal | {{IPAlink|m}} {{grapheme|m}} | | {{IPAlink|n}} {{grapheme|n}} | | | |- ! Plosive | {{IPAlink|b}} {{grapheme|b}} | | {{IPAlink|t}} {{grapheme|t}} | {{IPAlink|tʲ}} {{grapheme|ty}} | {{IPAlink|k}} {{grapheme|k}} | |- ! Affricate | | | {{IPAlink|t͡s}} {{grapheme|ts}} | ({{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}}) {{grapheme|tx}} | | |- ! Fricative | {{IPAlink|f}} {{grapheme|f}} | {{IPAlink|θ}} {{grapheme|z}} | | ({{IPAlink|ʃ}}) {{grapheme|x}} | | {{IPAlink|h}} {{grapheme|h}} |- ! Flap | | | {{IPAlink|ɾ}} {{grapheme|r}} | | | |- ! Lateral | | | {{IPAlink|l}} {{grapheme|l}} | ({{IPAlink|lʲ}}) {{grapheme|ly}} | | |- ! Approximant | {{IPAlink|w}} {{grapheme|w}} | | | {{IPAlink|j}} {{grapheme|y}} | | |}
=== Vowels === There are 6 contrastive vowel phonemes in Paresi, although the nasalized vowels are restricted in the contexts in which they may occur and are occasionally emphatic allophones of their oral equivalents, the front nasal vowels are the only ones with distributions complementary to their respective oral vowels. Paresi exhibits a form of rhinoglottophilia in that vowels adjacent to a glottal fricative onset to a final syllable are nasalized and exhibit breathy phonation.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! !Front !Back |- !High |{{IPAlink|i}} {{grapheme|i}}, {{IPA link|ĩː}} {{grapheme|ĩ}} | |- !Mid |{{IPAlink|e}} {{grapheme|e}}, {{IPA link|ẽː}} {{grapheme|ẽ}} |{{IPAlink|o}} {{grapheme|o}} |- !Low | colspan="2" |{{IPAlink|a}} {{grapheme|a}} |}
<!--There may or may not be extra content in here. '''Morphology of Paresi'''
In Brandão’s (2014) paper “A Reference Grammar of Paresi-Haliti (Arawak)” she describes various morphological aspects of the Paresi language. Some of the areas of the language that are presented and discussed in her paper are: affixes, clitics, particles, pronouns, demonstratives, indefinites, quantification, postpositions, adjectives and adverbs, interjections and ideophones, possession, and lastly agent nominalizers. Each section of the paper contains a descriptive account and examples of the usage of the listed morphological aspects of Paresi. <ref name=":0" />
== Paresi Personal Pronouns == '''Table 3: Paresi Personal Pronouns''' (Brandão, 2014, 85) {| class="wikitable" |'''Person''' |'''Singular''' |'''Plural''' |- |1 |Natyo |Witso |- |2 |Hitso |Xitso |- |3 |Hatyo, Eze |Hatyonae, Ezenae |} According to Brandão, free forms of Paresi pronouns correspond to bound pronouns with the form atyo, which is reduced to tyo, with an allomorph tso (85). She further explains that the third person has the same form as the demonstrative hatyo and eze, which modify nouns. The other personal pronouns do not modify nouns. Hatyo also corresponds to a bound form, the proclitic ha= “anaphoric third person.” (Brandão, 2014, 86). <ref name=":0" />
Silva (2013, 183, 194), as referred to in Brandão (2014), considers hatyo to be a demonstrative distinct from personal pronouns. He also found the following uses of hatyo:
1. Hatyo takes – “nae” with a plural associative meaning, not for emphasis like pronouns.
2. It can co-occur with other demonstratives.
3. It can take the comitative ''kakoa.''
An example presented in Brandão’s paper is:
Hatyonae kakoa ali witso hoka witaonita
Hatyo -nae =kakoa ali witso hoka wit=tyaona –ita
3sg PL COM here 1pl CON 1pl live IFV
“We came with them to live here.” (Cabeceira do Osso) (Brandão, 2014, 86).
In addition, Brandão provides some other explanations of pronoun usage. She mentions that free pronouns marking subjects are optional with verbs, and that they can co-occur with a coreferential proclitic for emphasis. Her examples of proclitic emphasis are presented in (2) and (3), for a constructive focus in (4), and an example with the topicalizer atyo in (5). She mentions that for emphasis, pronouns generally occur with the emphasis marker –''ta''. Also, free pronouns marking subject must precede the verb and free pronouns marking objects must follow the verb (Brandão, 2014, 86). <ref name=":0" />
Q:
Maiha iyakatyo hiwawa '''hitso''' hiyaneta?
maiha =iya -ka =tyo hi=wawa hitso hi=yane-ta
NEG =IRR TH=TOP 2sg alone you 2sg go IFV
“Will you not be able to go alone?”
A:
natyo nozaniya
natyo no=zani =ya
1sg 1sg go =IRR
“I can go.” (Batsaj iraiti)
'''Ex 3'''
nonityohalititsehenatyo hoka natyota nonakairi
no= nityohaliti –tse -hena = tyo hoka '''natyo'''-ta no=nakairi
1sg old person CLF:small TRS=TOP CON 1sg EMPH 1sg food
natawehetehena
na=tawe -hete –hena
1sg look for PERF TRS
“I was almost an adult, and I already was looking for food myself.” (JT nawenane)
'''Ex 4'''
maikatyo hityani kohone '''hitso''' hakolaheta
maika =tyo h= ityani koho –ne hitso ha=kola –heta
SUG =TOP 2sg son, daughter basket POSSED you 2sg take PERF
hoka hityani hahalota Ø=tyoheta
hoka h=ityani hahalota Ø=tyo -heta
CON 2sg son, daughter ? 3sg come PERF
“You will take your daughter’s basket, and your daughter will come back with nothing.” (ketetse)
'''Ex 5'''
hoka '''natyo''' atyo nawaiyolore rota kahare zakore
hoka natyo =atyo na=waiyo –lo -re rota kahare zakore
CON 1sg =TOP 1sg=know NMLZ NMLZ fast a.lot FRUST
maha iya kalini nopauza aezahetya hoka
maha =iya kalini no=pauza a-ezahe -tya hoka
NEG =IRR now 1sg=pause THS more than TH CON
Nawaiyolota
Na=waiyo-lo -ta
1sg =know NMLA IFV
'I have learned a lot very fast, but now there is no point in increasing (my knowledge), because I won't learn.' (Katomo Aug nali) (Brandão, 2014, 87).
As well, Brandão mentions that free pronouns on non-verbal predicates are illustrated in affirmative sentences. An example of this is presented in (6). In negative sentences with the negative focus marker ''xini'' is used, which is presented in (7).
'''Ex 6'''
ah '''natyo''' Zomoizokae natyo
natyo Zomoizokae natyo
1sg Zomoizokae 1sg
“Ah, I am Zomoizokae.” (Katomo nawenane)
'''Ex 7'''
maiha '''witso''' xini kala zala zamani Ø=malahetene
maiha witso xini kala zala zamani Ø=mala -het =ene
NEG 1pl NEG DUB who DUB 3sg pull off PERF 3º
“It was not us, I don’t know who pulled it off.” (ketetse)
When it comes to the use of free pronouns against bound pronouns with nominalized verbs, their use depends in part on the type of nominalization. For example, in a non-verbal predicate with the nominalizer –''tiye,'' a free pronoun must be used, this is seen in example (8). In a nominalized verb form with the nominalizer ''–re'', it is necessary to use a bound pronoun, and the free pronoun is optional as seen in (9) (Brandão, 2014, 88).
'''Ex 8'''
'''natyo''' maotseratya-ti-ye
Natyo maotseratya-ti -ye
1sg lie UNPOSS NMLZ
“I am a deceiver.” (E)
'''Ex 9'''
('''natyo''') n=maotseratya-re
natyo '''na'''=maotseratya-re
1sg 1sg lie NMLZ
“I am the one who deceives.” (E)
== Paresi Adjectives == There are only eight words that are classified as adjectives in Paresi. These words are used for 1. '''Dimensions''': kalore –big, kirane-small, wahahare-tall, 2. '''Physical Properties''': tihe-bitter, katyala-sour, timena-heavy), 3. '''Age:''' waitare-old and 4. '''Value''': waiye –good.
These words share properties with stative verbs in that they take personal proclitics and verb inflection. In (10), the stative verb kirane “small” takes the proclitic no= “1sg” from set B (Brandão, 2014, 129).<ref name=":0" />
'''Ex 10'''
nokirani
'''No'''=kirane
1sg small
“I am small” (E)
Paresi adjectives can function as modifiers of nouns without any additional morphology, which is different from verbs which need the nominalizer ''–re'' to serve this function. According to Brandão (2009), Paresi adjectives modify nouns with or without the nominalizer, as in example (11). However, adjectives with a nominalizer are better analyzed as being in an appositional noun phrases than as modifiers of nouns. Evidence for considering this construction as composed of two appositional noun phrases is that both ''timenere'' and the noun ''kaxali'' can take the nominal plural –''nae:kaxalinae timenerenae'' “the boxes, the ones that are heavy.”(Brandão, 2014, 130).
'''Ex 11'''
hati kalore tyomaha
hati kalore Ø=tyoma –ha
house big 3sg make PL
“They made a big house.” (E)
In general, adjectives follow nouns, as seen in the examples so far, but there are rare cases where adjectives precede nouns, for example:
'''Ex 12'''
ehare kahare oliti aitxita kalore matsene
ehare kahare oliti Ø=aitxi –ta kalore matsene
for example a lot game hunting 3sg kill EMPH big field
tyomita
Ø = tyoma – ita
3sg make PROG
“For example, they killed a lot of game, and they made a big field” (toahiyere NB).
== Demonstratives used in Paresi == There are two indefinite demonstratives ''hatya'' and ''haiya'', which function as independent pronouns and modifiers of nouns (Brandão, 2014, 101). Both indefinite forms are prehead modifiers. They can be pluralized with ''–nae'' in the two syntactic contexts in which they occur. Hatya can mean “someone, somebody” when they occur as independent pronouns as shown in (13). It can also be used to modify a noun as a determiner where it means “another”, seen in example (14). It is also used closely with a meaning similar to an indefinite article (15) (Brandão, 2014, 101). <ref name=":0" />
'''Ex 13'''
'''hatya''' zema notyaonakoaitaene hoka
Hatya zema no=tyaona-koa-ita =ene hoka
IND1 COM2 1sg COP LOC IFV 3O CON
“Then, I was following someone.” (Kamoro nawenane)
'''Ex 14'''
'''hatya''' wenakala tserigao zane tawa enomanaha
hatya wenakala tserigao Ø=zane Ø=tawa e= nomana –ha
IND1 village latex 3sg go 3sg look for 3sg BEN PL
“And they went to look for latex for them in another village.” (Bacaval tahi)
'''Ex 15'''
'''hatya''' babera associação maiha nali aka hoka hatyo hatyo
hatya babera associação maiha nali aka hoka hatyo hatyo
IND1 paper organization NEG LOC have CON that that
zaokakatyo imoti certidão
za= aoka –ka=tyo imoti certidão
2pl say TH =TOP non-Indian certificate
“The organization did not have a document, that one which the non-indigenous people call a certificate.” (Batsaji tahi)
On the other hand, ''Haiya'' can mean “somebody, something, other” as an independent pronoun, as seen in example (16). Or it can be used as a noun modifier seen in example (17) (Brandão, 2014, 102).
'''Ex 16'''
Alatya natyota kalini nezanityo '''haiya''' ite iraeti
=ala tya natyo –tya kalini n= ezanityo haiya =ite irae –ti
=FOC ? 1SG FOC now 1sg= wife IND2 =FUT talk UNPOSS
hare nawaiyekehalakaita
hare na=waiyekehalaka –ita
also 1sg=understand IFV
“It was me who explained something to my wife, for example words.” (Kabikule Daniel iraiti 1)
'''Ex 17'''
'''haiyanae''' wihinaeohare kakao
Haiya –nae wi=hinae -hare –nae kakao
IND2 PL 1pl relatives MASC PL COM
“With some of my relatives.” (cabeceira)
== Syntax of Paresi Language == '''Valency in Paresi'''
'''Decreasing valency'''
Brandão (2014) states that there are three mechanisms to decrease valency. These are reflexive, middle voice and reciprocal (247). <ref name=":0" />
'''Middle marker ''–oa'''''
In 2010, Brandão described the suffix ''-oa'' as an intransitivizer occurring with anti-causative verbs and with a reflexive function (247). “-oa” marks inactive and inchoative form of verbs (verbs whose meaning exclude the causing agent, and represent a spontaneous situation) (247).
Some examples of transitive and inchoative pairs are:
'''Table 1: Transitive and inchoative pairs''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Transitive Form''' |'''Meaning''' |'''Intransitive form''' |- |Ehaika |Spill |ehaikoa |- |Taika |Break |taikoa |} A more comprehensive example of transitive and intransitive pairs is:
'''Ex 18'''
a.'''Namatxiholatya''' hatikanatse
Na=ma- txihola-tya hati kanatse
1sg NEG door -TH? House mouth
“I opened the door of the house” (248)
The following demonstrates a reflexive meaning using an example with grooming or body care verbs.
'''Ex 19'''
nikala nixakene nikala '''nolokehetyoatxoa'''
nika =la ni- xak =ene nika =la Ø= nolokehe -tya '''-oa''' -txoa
? =FOC 1sg shoot 3O ¿ =FOC 3sg drag TH MM ?
“I shot it (the tapir) and it dragged” (Katomo nali)
The middle voice morpheme can also occur with the intransitive verb without an unmarked counterpart. These verbs with lexicalized ''–oa'' are related to changes of posture, and movements of the body with or without change of position.
'''Reflexive Marker - ''wi'''''
According to Brandão (2014), the reflexive marker indicates that the agent and another argument in an event are coferential (the same entity). In Paresi, this coreferential function is expressed by the reflexive suffix ''-wi''. The reflexive ''–wi'' is also a marker of coreferentiality (249).
'''Ex 20'''
aikotyoawi
Ø= aiko -tya -oa -'''wi'''
3sg cut TH MM REF
“He cut himself”
Brandão (2014) explains that an important difference between ''–oa'' and ''–wi'' is the use of the latter only with verbs whose events have a high degree of “distinguishability of participants” (249).
'''Reciprocal marker ''-kakoa'''''
The reciprocal occurs in a canonical reciprocal event as defined by Evans et al. (2004) in Brandão (2014). This event is defined as situations with two participants where the subevents are simultaneous and symmetrical. The mark of reciprocity is the suffix ''kakoa'' (256).
'''Ex 21'''
zakolo'''kakoa'''
Ø= zakolo -kakoa
3sg hug REC
“They hugged each other.”
The reciprocal can also be used with a group of people simultaneously doing an action in pairs.
In this situation the plural set is marked with the plural marker ''–ha''.
'''Ex 22'''
'''zakolohalotyakakoahitaha'''
Ø= zakolo –halo –tya –kakoa -ha -ita –ha
3sg hug FEM TH REC PL IFV PL
“They (many pairs of people) hugged each other.”
'''Valency increasing mechanisms'''
The following are strategies used in Paresi for increasing valency: lexical causatives, the causative morpheme a-~e- and - (k)i, periphrastic causative constructions with the verb ''moka'' “put”, and incorporation of postpositions.
'''Lexical causatives'''
Pairs of different lexemes in a causative relation (where one is caused and the other uncaused). The lexical causative verbs in Paresi are: ''waini'' ‘die’ and ''aitsa'' ‘kill’, ''meta'' ‘lose’ (transitive) and ''hehana'' ‘get lost’ (intransitive).
'''Causatives a-~e- and - (k) i'''
The causative prefix a-~e- and - (k) I and the causative suffic ''–ki'' co-occur obligatorily with intransitive agentive verbs, intransitive non-agentive non-stative verbs, stative verbs, and transitive verbs (Brandão, 2014, 268).
In these constructions, the new participant is the causer in subject function, and the original subject of the underived intransitive verb is the cause in object function of the causitivized verb (2014, 268). The verbs derived from this process are transitive.
'''Ex 23'''
enakolini aemakakihenahene
e= nakolini '''a-''' emaka '''-ki''' -hena -h =ene
3sg= lap CAUS sleep CAUS TRS PL =3º
“They made him sleep.”
Stative verbs can occur with both causatives ''a-'' and ''–ki'' or only with ''a-''.
'''Ex 24''' {| class="wikitable" |Verb root |Causative a- |Gloss |Causatices a- and –ki |Gloss |- |kiya 'be black' |a-kiya-tya |'make black’ |a-kiya-ki-tsa |'make black |} '''Periphrastic causative'''
Periphrastic causatives are formed via the causative verb moka 'put'. This type of construction is rare, with only one example from texts. The causee maintains its original function as subject of the complement clause, and the causative verb moka functions as a manipulative complement-taking predicate occurring at the end of the clause (2014, 268).
'''Ex 25'''
amama [namaikohalo] '''moka'''
Amama n= amaiko -halo Ø=moka
My mother 1sg= be.sad FEM 3sg put
“My mother made me be sad”
'''Incorporation'''
A noun, a classifier, and a postposition can be combined with a verb in order to derive a verb stem.
Noun: They incorporate immediately following the verb root, before aspect suffixes and the middle ''–oa'' (269).
'''Table 2: noun incorporation''' {| class="wikitable" |Proclitic |Verb root |CLF/incorporated noun |Thematic suffixes |Aspect markers |Middle voice |} Brandão states that in literature about noun incorporation, it has been argued that patients are more likely to be incorporated. As a result, the direct object of a transitive verb can be incorporated, but the subject may not. In Paresi, only the direct object of a transitive verb can be incorporated with transitive verbs, and incorporation of nouns with intransitive verbs is rare (2014, 271).<ref name=":0" />
== Semantics of Paresi == The following is a description of one aspect of Paresi semantics, quantification, as described in Brandão (2014) paper.<ref name=":0" />
'''Quantifiers'''
Paresi has the following non-numeral quantifiers: ''tyotya'' (all), ''kahare'' (many), ''inira'' (few) and ''taita'' (only) (Brandão, 2014, 108). Syntactically, quantifiers are very similar to demonstratives because they can occur in two syntactic contexts: as independent pronouns and as modifiers of nouns.
'''''Tyotya (all)'''''
The quantifier ''tyotya'' can precede or follow a noun in the noun phrase. (Ex 26) illustrates the use of ''tyotya'' as a noun modifier preceding the noun, and (Ex 27) shows it as an independent pronoun which can be either a subject or an object argument.
'''Ex 26'''
'''tyotya''' haliti Ø=tyaonitaene
tyotya haliti Ø=tyaon –ita =ene
all Paresi.Indian 3sg live IFV PST
“All the Paresi people lived there” (Fenare nawenane) (108).
'''Ex 27'''
kozaka ene aliyerenae '''tyotya''' Ø=zane
Kozaka =ene ali -yere -nae tyotya Ø=zane
Already =PST here NMLZ PL everything, all 3sg go
“The people from here, all of them were already gone.” (Katomo nawenane) (109)
'''''Kahare (many, a lot)'''''
The quantifier Kahare can precede or follow nouns, as seen in (Ex 28) and (Ex 29), respectively. It can also occur with countable and uncountable nouns. With uncountable nouns, the quantifier can express an individuation-like meaning, as in (Ex 30), where it modifies speech meaning “many words”.
'''Ex 28'''
hatyohiyeta '''kahare''' zoima Ø=tyaonate hitiya
hatyohiyeta kahare zoima Ø=tyaona =te hitiya
then many child 3sg be born =FUT again
“Then, many children were born” (Batsaji tahi) (109)
'''Ex 29'''
oliti '''kahare''' Ø=aitsahitaha
oliti kahare Ø=aitsa –ha –ita –ha
game many 3sg kill PL FLV PL
“They killed a lot of game” (cabeceira) (109)
'''Ex 30'''
ekohena haiya zowakatyatyo nahekoita '''kahare'''
Eko -hena haiya zowaka tya =tyo n= aheko -ita kahare
? TRS IND2 period ? =TOP1sg think IFV a lot
wiraene hatyota makere Ø=tyaonita
w=irae -ne hatyo -ta makere Ø=tyaon –ita
1pl talk POSSED 3sg EMPH same 3sg live IFV
“Then, sometimes I think that a lot of words have the same meaning.” (Kabikule Daniel iraiti 1) (109-110)
Similar to ''tyotya'' (all), kahare can also occur as non-verbal predicate taking personal clitics and aspect markers. (Ex 31) is an example of personal clitic.
'''Ex 31'''
wikahare
Wi='''kahare'''
1pl a lot
“There were a lot of us.” (JT nawenane) (110)
'''''Inira (few)'''''
The quantifier ''inira'', similar to other quantifiers, can modify a nouns or function as an independent pronoun. (Ex 32) shows ''inira'' as it occurs as an independent pronoun and also as it takes the plural form ''–nae''.
'''Ex 32'''
waiyehare Ø=betehena hoka Ø=iyahitaha '''iniranae''' atyo
Waiye -hare Ø=bete -hena hoka Ø=iya –h –ita -ha inira -nae atyo
Good MASC 3sg sell TRS CON 3sg buy PL IFV PL few PL TOP
“They sold beautiful things, but they bought few things.” (kamoro nawenane) (110)
'''''Taita (only)'''''
The quantifier ''taita'' can precede or follow a noun phrase. This quantifier has different distribution from the other ones because it does not function as a pronoun. Brandão (2014) states that the quantifier ''taita'' only was used as a non-verbal predicate in elicitation. This is shown in (Ex 33) (111).<ref name=":0" />
'''Ex 33'''
hatyo taita
Hatyo '''taita'''
That only
“That is it.” (E) (111).--> == Morphology == Paresi is a polysynthetic language, whose morpheme boundaries are clear-cut and easy to parse. Affixes are very productive in the language, with prefixes being attached mainly to verbs, and to some nouns to form stative predicates. Different sets of suffixes exist for nouns and verbs; nominal suffixes encode possession and plurals, and verbal suffixes encode aspect, valency changes, and number. Personal and clausal clitics are quite numerous, with personal clitics marking possession and the subject, and clausal enclitics signalling future, past, or irrealis.{{sfnp|Brandão|2014|p=81}} Adnominal (appearing before nouns) and adverbial demonstratives are also extensive, with a 4-way split in adnominal demonstratives: proximal, medial, distal, and non-visual, as well as a distinction in number.
=== Personal Pronouns === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! !Singular !Plural |- !1st person |{{lang|pab|natyo}} |{{lang|pab|witso}} |- !2nd person |{{lang|pab|hitso}} |{{lang|pab|xitso}} |- !3rd person |{{lang|pab|hatyo, eze}} |{{lang|pab|hatyonae, ezenae}} |}
The third person pronouns are identical to the proximal and medial demonstratives, {{lang|pab|eze}} and {{lang|pab|hatyo}}. Little syntactic distinction exists between the two save for the fact that {{lang|pab|hatyo}} may be cliticized to /ha-/ to reflect a third person singular reflexive, otherwise the third person personal pronouns are identical to demonstratives.
{{interlinear|number=(1)|lang=pab |hatyo-nae kakoa ali witso hoka wi-tyaona-ita |3SG-PL COM here 1PL CON 1PL-live-IFV |'We came with them to live here.'}}
=== Pronominal Clitics === {| class="wikitable" |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | Set A ! colspan="2" | Set B |- ! Singular || Plural ! Singular || Plural |- ! colspan="2" | 1st person | {{lang|pab|na-}} | {{lang|pab|za-}} | {{lang|pab|no-}} | {{lang|pab|wi-}} |- ! colspan="2" | 2nd person | {{lang|pab|ha-}} | {{lang|pab|wa-}} | {{lang|pab|hi-}} | {{lang|pab|xi-}} |- ! rowspan="2" | 3rd person ! V | rowspan="2" | ∅- | {{lang|pab|-ha}} | colspan="2" | ∅- |- ! N | {{lang|pab|-ha/-nae}} | colspan="2" | {{lang|pab|e-}} |}
Pronominal clitics reflect subject agreement on verbs, with Set A marking subject agreement on agentive verbs, and Set B marking subject agreement on non-agentive verbs and possession on nouns. The suffix /-nae/ is a generic plural that is used with the third person plural, with /-ha/ being specific. Because these clitics are mandatory, Paresi is a strongly pro-drop language and subject pronouns are optional.
{{interlinear | number = (2) | lang = pab|(natyo) no-ka-nakaira-ene|(1SG) 1SG-ATTR-food-3OBJ|'I ate it.' }}
=== Valency Change === Paresi has three forms of valency decreasing for verbs morphologically: # the inactive inchoative /-oa/ # the reflexive /-wi/ # the reciprocal /-kakoa/
The suffix /-oa/ is used to express the middle voice for some transitives, the reflexive for various verbs of changing the position of one’s body or taking care of one’s self, and the passive for several verbs of harm or detriment.
{{interlinear | number = (3) | lang = pab|hati-kanatse ma-txihola-ty-oa|house-mouth NEG-door-TH-MM|‘The door of the house opened’ }}
{{interlinear | number = (4) | lang = pab|katxolo etolits-oa|dog lie.down-MM|‘The dog lays down (the dog lays itself down)’ }}
{{interlinear | number = (5) | lang = pab|hala-halo-ty-oa-heta|paint-FEM-TH-MM-PERF|‘She painted herself’ }}
{{interlinear | number = (6) | lang = pab|tyalok-oa|bite-MM|‘Get bitten’ }}
The suffix /-wi/ is a much more straightforward reflexive, and is exclusively used with verbs that would normally have two very distinct arguments, unlike those made reflexive by /-oa/. The reciprocal /-kakoa/ may be used with doubled plural morphology to indicated multiple reciprocal pairs, and may also attach to a noun in addition to a verb to indicate the reciprocal participants making it a “discontinuous reciprocal”.
Valency is increased by attaching either the causative prefix /a-/, or the causative suffix /-ki/, or both. Causatives may also be formed periphrastically with the verb /moka/.
=== Verbal Modality === Paresi modality and expression of verbal reality is intertwined with the evidentiality of said verbs. Paresi has three counterfactual modalities: # frustrative (an action that was unfortunately not achieved, or did not go as expected) # dubitative (an action may or may not be true) # desiderative (the action is desired by the speaker)
Of those three, the first two distinguish evidentiality and certainty.
The frustrative marker /zaore~zakore/ is used to indicate that an action did not or could not be achieved or finished, and comes before the clause that expresses said action, or acts as a particle and indicates an undesirable outcome.
{{interlinear | number = (7) | lang = pab|kazatya wi-tsere-hena zakore a-heka-e-tsa witso|jacuba 1PL-drink-TRS FRUST CAUS-be.drunk-CAUS-TH 1PL|‘We were drinking jacuba, and unfortunately we got drunk.’ }}
The other frustrative marker /motya/ indicates that the verb contradicts one’s assumptions or expectations drawn from visual evidence. If one were to see that the sky was cloudy, and from that expected it to rain, but then it did not, they would utter the following:
{{interlinear | number = (8) | lang = pab|motya atyo ite one-hena wi-hiye|FRUST TOP FUT water-TRS 1PL-BEN|‘Apparently it was going to rain (but it did not).’ }}
The two dubitative markers, /zamani/ and /kala/ are different in levels of certainty, the formers marks something that the speaker is quite uncertain of, while the latter indicates a non-absolute, but high degree of certainty, the speaker may have even witnessed the event personally.
{{interlinear | number = (9) | lang = pab|Sandro zamani Valeria kokoa ka-itsani aoka-ha|Sandro DUB Valeria COM ATTR-child say-PL|‘They say Valeria is pregnant by Sandro (but I doubt it).’ }}
{{interlinear | number = (10) | lang = pab|Kala Enoharetse tyaona-ita eye ha-wawa-hare-nae|DUB Enoharetse live-IFV this 3S-be.alone-MASC-PL|‘Enoharetse was already living alone here (I think).’ }}
Finally, there is the desiderative marker /katsani/ indicating a first person wish.
== Syntax == Paresi is a nominative-accusative language, in that subjects of transitive and intransitive verbs are marked identically, and the object of a transitive differently. Paresi does not overtly mark case, but indicates subjects and objects primarily through word order: sentences where the object is not a pronoun are usually ordered Subject-Object-Verb,
{{interlinear | number = (11) | lang = pab|Paula iyakaniti hotikitsa|Paula pictures show|‘Paula showed pictures.’ }}
and sentences with a pronominal object are typically ordered Subject-Verb-Object.
{{interlinear | number = (12) | lang = pab|Baba aotyaitsa natyo hoka|father teach me then|‘Then my father taught me.’ }}
Since the person and number of subjects are always marked with verb prefixes, subjects that have already been introduced are mostly omitted. If the object is established and third person, then it is also usually dropped in favour of the object suffix {{lang|pab|-ene}}, so sentences are frequently OV, SV, or simply V.
{{interlinear | number = (13) | lang = pab|No-kanakair-ene|1SG-eat-3OBJ|‘I ate it.’ }}
However, as Paresi is a very topic-focused language, the most relevant information, be that object or subject, tends to be put first in a sentence, making OSV a very common word order in Paresi, leading to some ambiguity if the arguments are not of different persons or numbers.
{{interlinear | number = (14) | lang = pab|Katxolohokotsetxoa<sub>O</sub> ala ani<sub>S</sub> xakatetya<sub>V</sub>|small.dog FOC wasp sting|‘The wasp was stinging the dog.’ }}
These cases can be disambiguated with the topic marker {{lang|pab|atyo}}, which marks a new conversational subject, or the focus marker {{lang|pab|ala}}, which usually marks an object that has been moved to first position. These, however, are optional, so in subject and object must occasionally be discerned by context.
{{interlinear | number = (15) | lang = pab|Wi-halanatse<sub>O</sub> menetse<sub>S</sub> toka-olatya<sub>V</sub>|our-dog anaconda hold-tie|‘An anaconda held and tied our dog.’ }}
Paresi sentences also very occasionally have OVS word order:
{{interlinear | number = (16) | lang = pab|Kala koloho<sub>O</sub> miyatya<sub>V</sub> mahalitihare<sub>S</sub> hoka|DUB forest destroy non-native then|‘Then the non-native destroyed the forest.’ }}
== Semantics ==
=== Numerals === The first four numbers in Paresi are lexical items (listed below), and anything above 4 is counted using base-5, using body parts (ie: fingers, toes, hands, feet).{{sfnp|Brandão|2014}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" !Numeral !Paresi |- |1 |hatita |- |2 |hinama |- |3 |hanama |- |4 |zalakakoa |}
{{interlinear | number = (17) | lang = pab|hinama-li ala konare Ø-noloka|two-CLF:round FOC cará.fish 3SG-pull|‘She caught two cará fishes.’ }}
{{interlinear | number = (18) | lang = pab|kahi-ti halakoa kahe haiya, kahi-ti tyotya|hand-UNPOSS one.side hand IND2 hand-UNPOSS everything/all|‘Sometimes five days (one hand), or ten days (all the hands).’ }}
=== Quantifiers === Paresi has the following quantifiers: # {{lang|pab|tyotya}} 'all' # {{lang|pab|kahare}} 'many, a lot' # {{lang|pab|inira}} 'few' # {{lang|pab|taita}} 'only’
The first three can appear independently as pronouns, and all four modify nouns. {{lang|pab|Tyotya}}, {{lang|pab|kahare}}, and {{lang|pab|inira}} can appear both before and after nouns, whereas {{lang|pab|inira}} can only appear before nouns. Unlike demonstratives, these quantifiers can also take personal clitics and aspect markers, which are normally only found on verbs.{{sfnp|Brandão|2014}}
{{interlinear | number = (19) | lang = pab|kozaka-ene ali-yere-nae tyotya Ø-zane|already-PST here-NMLZ-PL everything/all 3SG-go|‘The people from here, all of them were already gone.’ }}
{{interlinear | number = (20) | lang = pab|kozaka-ene ali-yere-nae tyotya Ø-zane|already-PST here-NMLZ-PL everything/all 3SG-go|‘The people from here, all of them were already gone.’ }}
{{interlinear | number = (21) | lang = pab|tyotya haliti Ø-tyaon-ita-ene|all Paresi.Indian 3SG-live-IFV-PST|'All the Paresi people lived there.' }}
{{lang|pab|Kahare}} ‘many, a lot’ can take both countable nouns and uncountable nouns. Examples (24) and (25) show {{lang|pab|kahare}} taking clitics and aspect markers respectively.
{{interlinear | number = (22) | lang = pab|hatyohiyeta kahare zoima Ø-tyaona-te hitiya|then many child 3SG-be.born-FUT again|‘Then, many children were born.’ }}
{{interlinear | number = (23) | lang = pab|oliti kahare Ø-aitsa-ha-ita-ha|game many 3SG-kill-PL-IFV-PL|‘They killed a lot of game.’ }}
{{interlinear | number = (24) | lang = pab|wi-kahare|1PL-a.lot|'There were a lot of us.' }}
{{interlinear | number = (25) | lang = pab|kahare-hena haiya haliti ena ohiro zoaha Ø-waiyore-ta|a.lot-TRS IND2 person man woman and 3SG-know-IFV|'Many Paresi people, men, and women, know.' }}
{{lang|pab|Inira}} appears before nouns and can also take the plural {{lang|pab|–nae}}, shown in Example (26).
{{interlinear | number = (26) | lang = pab|waiye-hare Ø-bete-hena hoka Ø-iya-h-ita-ha inira-nae atyo|good-MASC 3SG-sell-TRS CON 3SG-buy-PL-IFV-PL few-PL TOP|'They sold beautiful things, but they bought few things.' }}
{{interlinear | number = (27) | lang = pab|no-zakaihaka-tya inira|1SG-tell.story-TH few|'I will tell a little bit of the story.' }}
{{lang|pab|Taita}} can come before or after the noun, but does not appear as its own independent pronoun. In (29), {{lang|pab|taita}} is being used as a non-verbal predicate.
{{interlinear | number = (28) | lang = pab|imoti taita ali tyaona|non-Indian only here COP|'Here there were only non-Indian people.' }}
{{interlinear | number = (29) | lang = pab|hatyo taita|that only|'That is it.' }}
==References== {{reflist|20em}}
* {{citation |first1=Orland |last1=Rowan |first2=Eunice |last2=Burgess |date=1969 |title=Gramática Parecis |lang=pt |url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/73/40/09/73400972130341650670030186114866222068/PCGram.pdf}} * {{cite thesis |last=Brandão |first=Ana Paula Barros |title=A reference grammar of Paresi-Haliti (Arawak) |date=2014 |degree=PhD |publisher=The University of Texas at Austin |hdl=2152/24847 |hdl-access=free}} * {{cite thesis |first=Glauber Romling |last=Silva |date=2013 |title=Morfossintaxe da língua Paresi-Haliti |degree=PhD |lang=pt |location=Rio de Janeiro |publisher=Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro |url=https://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Asilva-2013/silva_2013_morfossintaxe.pdf}}
== External links == * [http://elar.soas.ac.uk/deposit/0278 ELAR Documentation and description of Paresi-Haliti (Arawak)]
{{Languages of Brazil}} {{Arawakan languages}}
<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations" /><div style="display:none;"> 3OBJ:third person, object ATTR:attributive BEN:benefative CON:connective DUB:dubitative FRUST:frustrative IFV:imperfective IND2:one of two indefinite pronouns MM:middle marker NMLZ:nominalizer TH:thematic suffix TRS:transitional UNPOSS:unpossessed </div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations" />
Category:Languages of Brazil Category:Arawakan languages Category:Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area