[[File:Pollen and spore grains in brightfield, DIC and confocal microscopy - Jaramillo et al 2025 - PPP Figure 1.jpg|thumb|345x345px|Pollen and spore grains seen under differen research-grade microscopes, including [[confocal microscopy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jaramillo |first=Carlos |last2=Punyasena |first2=Surangi W. |last3=de Alba |first3=Daurys |last4=Alveo |first4=Roxana |last5=Arcila |first5=Angelica |last6=Bermudez |first6=Jorge |last7=Bustos |first7=Jonatan |last8=Caballero‐Rodriguez |first8=Dayenari |last9=Cardenas |first9=Karen |last10=Caro |first10=David |last11=Carvajal |first11=Francy |last12=Castañeda |first12=Ivonne Marcela |last13=Chaves |first13=Shara |last14=D'Apolito |first14=Carlos |last15=Diaz‐Jaramillo |first15=Andres |date=2025-08-01 |title=Digitizing collections to unlock the full potential of palynology: A case study with the Smithsonian palynology collection |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.70073 |journal=PLANTS, PEOPLE, PLANET |language=en |doi=10.1002/ppp3.70073 |issn=2572-2611}}</ref>]] {{Short description|Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2022}} {{Paleontology}} '''Palynology''' is the study of microorganisms and microscopic fragments of macroorganisms that are composed of acid-resistant organic material and occur in [[sediment]]s, [[sedimentary rock]]s, and even some metasedimentary rocks. '''Palynomorphs''' are the microscopic, acid-resistant organic remains and debris produced by a wide variety of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[Protista]] that have existed since the late [[Proterozoic]].<ref name="NeuendorfOthers2005a">Neuendorf, K.K.E., J.P. Mehl, Jr., and J.A. Jackson, eds., 2005, ''Glossary of Geology'' (5th ed.). Alexandria, Virginia, American Geological Institute. 779 pp. {{ISBN|0-922152-76-4}}</ref><ref name="WilliamsOther2020a"/>
It is the science that studies contemporary and fossil [[#Palynomorphs|palynomorph]]s (paleopalynology), including [[pollen]], [[spores]], [[orbicule]]s, [[dinocysts]], [[acritarchs]], [[chitinozoa]]ns and [[Scolecodonts|scolecodont]]s, together with [[particulate organic matter]] (POM) and [[kerogen]] found in [[sedimentary]] rocks and [[sediment]]s. Palynology does not include [[diatoms]], [[foraminiferans]] or other organisms with [[siliceous]] or [[calcareous]] [[Test (biology)|tests]]. The name of the science and organisms is derived from the Greek {{langx|grc|παλύνω|palynō}}
, "strew, sprinkle" and ''[[-logy]]'') or of "particles that are strewn".<ref name="WilliamsOther2020a">Williams, G., Fensome, R.A., Miller, M. and Bujak, J., 2020. ''Microfossils: palynology.'' In Sorkhabi, R., ed., 15 pp., ''Encyclopedia of Petroleum Geoscience.'' Geneva, Switzerland, Springer Nature. 1000 pp.</ref><ref name="KnellerOther2020a">Kneller, M., and Fowell, F., 2009. ''Palynology.'' In Gornitz, V., ed., pp. 766-768., ''Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments.'' Geneva, Switzerland, Springer Dordrecht. 1049 pp.</ref>
Palynology is an interdisciplinary science that stands at the intersection of [[earth science]] ([[geology]] or geological science) and [[biological science]] ([[biology]]), particularly [[plant science]] ([[botany]]). [[Biostratigraphy]], a branch of [[paleontology]] and [[paleobotany]], involves [[fossil]] palynomorphs from the [[Precambrian]] to the [[Holocene]] for their usefulness in the [[relative dating]] and correlation of sedimentary [[strata]]. Palynology is also used to date and understand the evolution of many kinds of plants and animals. In [[paleoclimatology]], fossil palynomorphs are studied for their usefulness in understanding ancient Earth history in terms of reconstructing [[paleoecology|paleoenvironments]] and paleoclimates.<ref name="WilliamsOther2020a"/><ref name="KnellerOther2020a"/>
Palynology is quite useful in disciplines such as [[archeology]], in honey production, and [[Criminal law|criminal]] and [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]].<ref name="WilliamsOther2020a"/><ref name="KnellerOther2020a"/> In archaeology, palynology is widely used to reconstruct ancient paleoenvironments and environmental shifts that significantly influenced past human societies and reconstruct the diet of prehistoric and historic humans. [[Melissopalynology]], the study of pollen and other palynomorphs in [[honey]], identifies the sources of pollen in terms of geographical location(s) and [[genera]] of plants. This not only provides important information on the [[ecology]] of honey bees, it also an important tool in discovering and policing the criminal adultriation and mislabeling of honey and its products. [[Forensic palynology]] uses palynomorphs as evidence in criminal and civil law to prove or disprove a physical link between objects, people, and places.<ref name="KnellerOther2020a"/><ref name="LaurenceOther2014a">Laurence, A.R., and Bryant, V.M., 2009. ''Forensic Palynology.'' In Bruinsma, G., and Weisburd, D., ed., pp. 1471-1754., ''Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice.'' New York, New York, Springer Science+Business Media. 5632 pp.</ref>
== Palynomorphs == Palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic remains, including [[microfossil]]s, and microscopic fragments of macroorganisms that are composed of acid-resistant organic material and range in size between 5 and 500 [[micrometre]]s. They are extracted from soils, [[sedimentary rock]]s and [[pollen core|sediment cores]], and other materials by a combination of physical (ultrasonic treatment and [[sieve analysis|wet sieving]]) and chemical (acid digestion) procedures to remove the non-organic fraction. Palynomorphs may be composed of organic material such as [[chitin]], [[pseudochitin]] and [[sporopollenin]].<ref name="Traverse2007a">Traverse, A., 2007, ''Paleopalynology'' (2nd ed.). Amsterdam, the Netherlands, Springer-Dordrecht. 813 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-5609-3}}</ref>[[Image:Trilete spores.png|thumb|231x231px| A late [[Silurian]] [[sporangium]] bearing [[trilete spore]]s. Such spores provide the earliest evidence of life on land.<ref name="Gray1985">{{cite journal | author = Gray, J. | date = 1985 | title = The Microfossil Record of Early Land Plants: Advances in Understanding of Early Terrestrialization, 1970–1984 | journal = [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]] | volume = 309 | issue = 1138 | pages = 167–195 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.1985.0077 | last2 = Chaloner | first2 = W. G. | last3 = Westoll | first3 = T. S. | jstor=2396358 | bibcode=1985RSPTB.309..167G | doi-access = }}</ref> '''Green''': A spore tetrad. '''Blue''': A spore bearing a trilete mark – the Y-shaped scar. The spores are about 30–35 μm across.|left]]Palynomorphs form a [[geological]] record of importance in determining the type of [[prehistoric life]] that existed at the time the sedimentary [[strata]] was laid down. As a result, these microfossils give important clues to the prevailing [[paleogeography|climatic conditions]] of the time. Their paleontological utility derives from an abundance numbering in millions of palynomorphs per gram in organic marine deposits, even when such deposits are generally not [[fossiliferous]]. Palynomorphs, however, generally have been destroyed in [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] or recrystallized rocks.<ref name="Traverse2007a"/>
Typical palynomorphs include [[dinoflagellate cysts]], [[acritarch]]s, [[spore]]s, [[pollen]], plant tissue, [[fungi]], [[scolecodonts]] (scleroprotein teeth, jaws, and associated features of [[polychaeta|polychaete]] [[annelid]] worms), [[arthropod]] organs (such as [[insect]] mouthparts), and [[chitinozoa]]ns. Palynomorph microscopic structures that are abundant in most sediments are resistant to routine pollen extraction.<!--Check this sentence, before I copy/edit-ted it. It had GROSS errors.--><ref name="Traverse2007a"/>
== Palynofacies == A '''palynofacies''' is the complete assemblage of [[organic matter]] and [[#Palynomorphs|palynomorph]]s in a fossil deposit. The term was introduced by the French [[geologist]] {{ill|André Combaz|wikidata|Q63441366}} in 1964. Palynofacies studies are often linked to investigations of the organic [[geochemistry]] of [[sedimentary rock]]s. The study of the palynofacies of a [[sedimentary depositional environment]] can be used to learn about the depositional palaeoenvironments of sedimentary rocks in exploration geology, often in conjunction with palynological analysis and [[vitrinite]] reflectance.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fonseca|first1=Carolina|last2=Mendonça Filho|first2=João Graciano|last3=Lézin|first3=Carine|last4=de Oliveira|first4=António Donizeti|last5=Duarte|first5=Luís V.|title=Organic matter deposition and paleoenvironmental implications across the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary of the Subalpine Basin (SE France): Local and global controls|journal=International Journal of Coal Geology|date=December 2019|volume=218|article-number=103364|doi=10.1016/j.coal.2019.103364|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fonseca|first1=Carolina|last2=Mendonça Filho|first2=João Graciano|last3=Lézin|first3=Carine|last4=Duarte|first4=Luís V.|last5=Fauré|first5=Phillipe|title=Organic facies variability during the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event record of the Grands Causses and Quercy basins (southern France)|journal=International Journal of Coal Geology|date=April 2018|volume=190|pages=218–235|doi=10.1016/j.coal.2017.10.006|bibcode=2018IJCG..190..218F }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fonseca|first1=Carolina|last2=Oliveira Mendonça|first2=Joalice|last3=Mendonça Filho|first3=João Graciano|last4=Lézin|first4=Carine|last5=Duarte|first5=Luís V.|title=Thermal maturity assessment study of the late Pliensbachian-early Toarcian organic-rich sediments in southern France: Grands Causses, Quercy and Pyrenean basins|journal=Marine and Petroleum Geology|date=March 2018|volume=91|pages=338–349|doi=10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.01.017|bibcode=2018MarPG..91..338F }}</ref>
Palynofacies can be used in two ways: * [[Organic matter|Organic]] palynofacies considers all the acid insoluble [[particulate organic matter]] (POM), including [[kerogen]] and [[#Palynomorphs|palynomorph]]s in sediments and palynological preparations of sedimentary rocks. The sieved or unsieved preparations may be examined using [[strew mount]]s on microscope slides that may be examined using a transmitted light biological microscope or [[ultraviolet]] (UV) fluorescence microscope. The abundance, composition and preservation of the various components, together with the thermal alteration of the organic matter is considered. * Palynomorph palynofacies considers the abundance, composition and diversity of palynomorphs in a sieved palynological preparation of sediments or palynological preparation of [[sedimentary rock]]s. The ratio of [[ocean|marine]] [[fossil]] [[phytoplankton]] ([[acritarchs]] and [[dinoflagellate]] cysts), together with [[chitinozoa]]ns, to terrestrial palynomorphs ([[pollen]] and [[spores]]) can be used to derive a terrestrial input index in marine sediments.
==History== [[File:Pollen core sampling.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pollen core]] sampling, Fort Bragg, North Carolina]]
===Early history=== The earliest reported observations of pollen under a microscope are likely to have been in the 1640s by the English [[botanist]] [[Nehemiah Grew]],<ref>{{cite book| last=Bradbury| first=S.| date=1967| title=The Evolution of the Microscope| url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofmicr00brad| url-access=registration| publisher=Pergamon Press| place=New York| pages=375 p}}</ref> who described pollen and the stamen, and concluded that pollen is required for sexual reproduction in flowering plants.
By the late 1870s, as optical microscopes improved and the principles of [[stratigraphy]] were worked out, [[Robert Kidston]] and [[P. Reinsch]] were able to examine the presence of fossil spores in the Devonian and Carboniferous coal seams and make comparisons between the living spores and the ancient fossil spores.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Jansonius| first=J.| author2=D.C. McGregor| date=1996| title=Introduction, Palynology: Principles and Applications| journal=AASP Foundation| volume=1| pages=1–10| url=http://www.palynology.org/history/jansonmcgrgrhist.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709194314/http://www.palynology.org/history/jansonmcgrgrhist.html| archive-date=2007-07-09}}</ref> Early investigators include [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg]] ([[radiolarian]]s, [[diatoms]] and [[dinoflagellate cysts]]), [[Gideon Mantell]] ([[desmid]]s) and [[Henry Hopley White]] (dinoflagellate cysts).
=== 1890s to 1940s=== [[File:Palynologie-exemple.jpg|left|thumb|229x229px|[[Pine]] [[pollen]] under a modern simple light microscope]] Quantitative analysis of pollen began with [[Lennart von Post]]'s published work.<ref>Traverse, Alfred and Sullivan, Herbert J. "The Background, Origin, and Early History of the American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists" Palynology 7: 7-18 (1983)</ref> Although he published in the Swedish language, his methodology gained a wide audience through his lectures. In particular, his [[Kristiania]] lecture of 1916 was important in gaining a wider audience.<ref name="FIPol">{{cite book| last=Fægri| first=Knut| author-link=Knut Fægri| author2=Johs. Iversen| author2-link=Johs. Iversen| url=http://www.palynology.org/history/erdtman.html| title=Textbook of Pollen Analysis| publisher=[[Blackwell Scientific Publications]]| date=1964| place=Oxford| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403043220/http://www.palynology.org/history/erdtman.html| archive-date=2010-04-03}}</ref> Because the early investigations were published in the Nordic languages ([[Scandinavian languages]]), the field of pollen analysis was confined to those countries.<ref name="InMem">{{cite journal| last=Faegri| first= Knut| title=In memoriam O. Gunnar E. Erdtman| journal=Pollen et Spores| date=1973| volume=15| pages=5–12}}</ref> The isolation ended with the German publication of [[Gunnar Erdtman]]'s 1921 thesis. The methodology of pollen analysis became widespread throughout [[Europe]] and [[North America]] and revolutionized [[Quaternary]] vegetation and [[Climate change (general concept)|climate change]] research.<ref name="FIPol" /><ref>von Post, L (1918) "Skogsträdpollen i sydsvenska torvmosslagerföljder", Forhandlinger ved de Skandinaviske naturforskeres 16. møte i Kristiania 1916: p. 433</ref>
Earlier pollen researchers include Früh (1885),<ref>Früh, J (1885) "Kritische Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Torfes", Jahrb.k.k.Geol.Reichsanstalt 35</ref> who enumerated many common tree pollen types, and a considerable number of [[spore]]s and [[herb]] pollen grains. There is a study of pollen samples taken from sediments of Swedish lakes by Trybom (1888);<ref>Trybom, F (1888) "Bottenprof fran svenska insjöar", Geol.Foren.Forhandl.10</ref> [[Pinus|pine]] and [[Picea|spruce]] pollen was found in such profusion that he considered them to be serviceable as "[[index fossils]]". [[Georg F. L. Sarauw]] studied fossil pollen of middle Pleistocene age ([[Cromerian]]) from the harbour of [[Copenhagen]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Sarauw | first=G. F. L. | date= 1897 | title = Cromer-skovlaget i Frihavnen og trælevningerne i de ravførende sandlag ved København | language = da |trans-title= The Cromer Forest layer in the Free Harbour and Wood Remains in the Amber containing strata near Copenhagen | journal = Meddelelser Fra Dansk Geologisk Forening / Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark | volume=1 | issue=4 | pages= 17–44 | url = http://2dgf.dk/xpdf/bull-1897-1-4-17-44.pdf }}</ref> Lagerheim (in Witte 1905) and C. A.Weber (in H. A. Weber 1918) appear to be among the first to undertake 'percentage frequency' calculations.
=== 1940s to 1989===
The term ''palynology'' was introduced by Hyde and Williams in 1944, following correspondence with the Swedish [[geologist]] [[Ernst Antevs]], in the pages of the ''[[Pollen Analysis Circular]]'' (one of the first journals devoted to pollen analysis, produced by [[Paul Sears]] in North America). Hyde and Williams chose ''palynology'' on the basis of the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words ''paluno'' meaning 'to sprinkle' and ''pale'' meaning 'dust' (and thus similar to the [[Latin]] word ''pollen'').<ref>{{cite journal| last=Hyde| first=H.A.| author2=D.A. Williams| url=http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/riteword.html| title=The Right Word| journal=Pollen Analysis Circular| volume=8| page=6| date=1944| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070618031355/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/riteword.html| archive-date=2007-06-18}}</ref> The archive-based background to the adoption of the term ''palynology'' and to alternative names (e.g. ''paepalology'', ''pollenology'') has been exhaustively explored.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=Kevin J. |last2=Pardoe |first2=Heather S. |date=2018-01-02 |title=How palynology could have been paepalology: the naming of a discipline |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01916122.2017.1393020 |journal=Palynology |language=en |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=4–19 |doi=10.1080/01916122.2017.1393020 |bibcode=2018Paly...42....4E |issn=0191-6122|hdl=2164/11661 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> It has been argued there that the word gained general acceptance once used by the influential Swedish palynologist [[Gunnar Erdtman]].
Pollen analysis in North America stemmed from [[Phyllis Draper]], an MS student under Sears at the University of Oklahoma. During her time as a student, she developed the first pollen diagram from a sample that depicted the percentage of several species at different depths at Curtis Bog. This was the introduction of pollen analysis in North America;<ref name=Draper1928a>{{cite journal |author = Draper, P.| date = 1928| title = A demonstration of the technique of pollen analysis| journal= Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science |volume = 8|issue = |pages = 63–64 |doi= |url=http://ojs.library.okstate.edu/osu/index.php/OAS/article/viewFile/2553/2251}}</ref> pollen diagrams today still often remain in the same format with depth on the y-axis and abundances of species on the x-axis.
=== 1990s to the 21st century === Pollen analysis advanced rapidly in this period due to advances in optics and computers. Much of the science was revised by [[Johannes Iversen]] and [[Knut Fægri]] in their textbook on the subject.<ref>Fægri, K. & Iversen, J. (1989) ''Textbook of pollen analysis''. 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. 328 p.</ref>
== Methods of studying palynomorphs == ===Chemical preparation=== Chemical digestion follows a number of steps.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bennett |first=K.D. |author2=Willis, K.J. |chapter=Pollen |date=2001 |title=Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Volume 3: Terrestrial, algal, and siliceous indicators |editor-last=Smol |editor-first=John P. |editor2-last=Birks |editor2-first=H. John B. |editor3-last=Last |editor3-first=William M. |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |place=Dordrecht |pages=5–32}} </ref> Initially the only chemical treatment used by researchers was treatment with [[potassium hydroxide]] (KOH) to remove [[Humic acid|humic]] substances; defloculation was accomplished through surface treatment or ultra-sonic treatment, although sonification may cause the pollen exine to rupture.<ref name="InMem" /> In 1924, the use of [[hydrofluoric acid]] (HF) to digest [[silicate]] [[mineral]]s was introduced by Assarson and Granlund, greatly reducing the amount of time required to scan slides for palynomorphs.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Assarson | first=G. och E. |author2=Granlund, E. | title=En metod for pollenanalys av minerogena jordarter | journal=Geologiska Föreningen i Stockholm Förhandlingar | volume=46 | pages=76–82 | doi=10.1080/11035892409444879 | date=1924| issue=1–2 }} </ref>
Palynological studies using peats presented a particular challenge because of the presence of well-preserved organic material, including fine rootlets, moss leaflets and organic litter. This was the last major challenge in the chemical preparation of materials for palynological study. [[Acetolysis]] was developed by Gunnar Erdtman and his brother to remove these fine cellulose materials by dissolving them.<ref name="BirksOthers2018a">{{cite journal| last1=Birks|first1=H. J. B|last2=Berglund|first2=B.|title=One hundred years of Quaternary pollen analysis 1916–2016|journal=Vegetation History and Archaeobotany| volume=27|pages=271–390|doi=10.1007/s00334-017-0630-2| date=2018| issue= 2|bibcode=2018VegHA..27..271B |hdl=1956/19365|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In acetolysis the specimen is treated with [[acetic anhydride]] and [[sulfuric acid]], dissolving [[cellulose|cellulistic]] materials and thus providing better visibility for palynomorphs.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Erdtman | first= G. | title=Uber die Verwendung von Essigsaureanhydrid bei Pollenuntersuchungen | journal= Sven. Bot. Tidskr. | volume=28 | pages=354–358|year=1934|lang=de}}</ref>
Some steps of the chemical treatments require special care for safety reasons, in particular the use of HF which diffuses very fast through the skin and, causes severe chemical burns, and can be fatal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monash.edu.au/ohs/topics/hazard-alerts/hydrofluoric-acid-fatality.html |title=Hydrofluoric acid fatality in Perth - hazard alert |date=1995-03-06 |access-date=2011-12-18}} </ref>
Another treatment includes kerosene flotation for [[chitin]]ous materials.
===Analysis=== Once samples have been prepared chemically, they are mounted on [[microscope]] slides using silicon oil, glycerol or glycerol-jelly and examined using light [[microscopy]] or mounted on a stub for [[Scanning electron microscope|scanning electron microscopy]].
Researchers will often study either modern samples from a number of unique sites within a given area, or samples from a single site with a record through time, such as samples obtained from [[peat]] or lake sediments. More recent studies have used the modern analog technique in which paleo-samples are compared to modern samples for which the parent vegetation is known.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Overpeck |first=J. T. |author2=T. Webb |author3=I. C. Prentice |date=1985 |title=Quantitative interpretation of fossil pollen spectra: Dissimilarity coefficients and the method of modern analogs |journal=Quaternary Research |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=87–108 |doi=10.1016/0033-5894(85)90074-2|bibcode = 1985QuRes..23...87O |s2cid=129797797 }}</ref>
When the slides are observed under a microscope, the researcher counts the number of grains of each pollen taxon. This record is next used to produce a [[pollen diagram]]. These data can be used to detect [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] effects, such as logging,<ref> {{cite journal |last=Niklasson |first=Mats |author2=Matts Lindbladh |author3=Leif Björkman |title=A long-term record of ''Quercus'' decline, logging and fires in a southern Swedish ''Fagus-Picea'' forest |journal=Journal of Vegetation Science |date=2002 |volume=13 |pages=765–774 |doi=10.1111/j.1654-1103.2002.tb02106.x |issue=6 |jstor=3236922 |bibcode=2002JVegS..13..765N |s2cid=84934798 }}</ref> traditional patterns of land use<ref> {{cite journal |last=Hebda |first=R.J. |author2=R.W. Mathewes |title=Holocene history of cedar and native cultures on the North American Pacific Coast |journal=Science |volume=225 |pages=711–713 |date=1984 |doi=10.1126/science.225.4663.711 |pmid=17810290 |issue=4663|bibcode = 1984Sci...225..711H |s2cid=39998080 }}</ref> or long term changes in regional climate<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heusser |first= Calvin J. |author2=L.E. Heusser |author3=D.M. Peteet |title=Late-Quaternary climatic change on the American North Pacific coast |journal=Nature |volume=315 |pages=485–487 |date=1985 |doi=10.1038/315485a0 |issue=6019|bibcode = 1985Natur.315..485H |s2cid= 4345551 }}</ref>
== Applications == Palynology can be applied to problems in many scientific disciplines including [[geology]], [[botany]], [[paleontology]], [[archaeology]], [[pedology (soil study)]], and [[physical geography]]:
* [[Biostratigraphy]] and [[geochronology]]. Geologists use palynological studies in biostratigraphy to correlate [[stratum|strata]] and determine the relative age of a given bed, horizon, formation or [[stratigraphy|stratigraphical]] sequence. Because the distribution of [[acritarchs]], [[chitinozoa]]ns, [[dinoflagellate cysts]], [[pollen]] and [[spore]]s provides evidence of [[stratigraphy|stratigraphical correlation]] through [[biostratigraphy]] and [[palaeoenvironment]]al reconstruction, one common and lucrative application of palynology is in [[hydrocarbon exploration]]. * [[Paleoecology]] and [[Climate change (general concept)|climate change]]. Palynology can be used to reconstruct past [[vegetation]] (land plants) and [[ocean|marine]] and [[Freshwater phytoplankton]] communities, and so infer past [[natural environment|environmental]] ([[paleoenvironment|palaeoenvironment]]al) and [[paleoclimatology|palaeoclimatic]] conditions in an area [[geologic timescale|thousands or millions of years]] ago, a fundamental part of research into climate change. * Organic [[palynofacies]] studies, which examine the preservation of the particulate organic matter and [[#Palynomorphs|palynomorph]]s provides information on the depositional environment of sediments and depositional palaeoenvironments of [[sedimentary|sedimentary rocks]]. * [[Geothermal activity|Geothermal]] alteration studies examine the [[color|colour]] of palynomorphs extracted from rocks to give the thermal alteration and [[hydrocarbon|maturation]] of [[sedimentary]] sequences, which provides estimates of maximum [[paleotemperatures|palaeotemperatures]]. * [[Limnology]] studies. Freshwater palynomorphs and animal and plant fragments, including the [[prasinophyte]]s and [[desmid]]s ([[green alga]]e) can be used to study past lake levels and long term [[climate change]]. * [[scientific classification|Taxonomy]] and [[evolution|evolutionary studies]]. Involving the use of pollen morphological characters as source of taxonomic data to delimit plant species under same family or genus. Pollen apertural status is frequently used for differential sorting or finding similarities between species of the same taxa. This is also called Palynotaxonomy. * [[Forensic palynology]]: the study of [[pollen]] and other palynomorphs for evidence at a crime scene. * [[Allergy]] studies and [[pollen counting]]. Studies of the geographic distribution and seasonal production of pollen, can be used to forecast pollen conditions, helping sufferers of allergies such as [[hay fever]]. * [[Melissopalynology]]: the study of pollen and spores found in honey. * [[Archaeological]] palynology examines human uses of plants in the past. This can help determine seasonality of site occupation, presence or absence of agricultural practices or products, and 'plant-related activity areas' within an archaeological context. [[Bonfire Shelter]] is one such example of this application.
==See also== * {{annotated link|Aperture (botany)}} * {{annotated link|Aeroplankton}} * {{annotated link|Microbiology}}
== References == {{Reflist|30em}}
== Sources == *Moore, P.D., et al. (1991), ''Pollen Analysis'' (Second Edition). Blackwell Scientific Publications. {{ISBN|0-632-02176-4}} *Traverse, A. (1988), ''Paleopalynology''. Unwin Hyman. {{ISBN|0-04-561001-0}} *Roberts, N. (1998), ''The Holocene an environmental history'', Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|0-631-18638-7}}
==External links== * [http://www.palynology.org/ The AASP - The Palynological Society] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050324000056/http://geo.arizona.edu/palynology/ifps.html International Federation of Palynological Societies] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060519091602/http://www.ifpindia.org/Palaeoenvironments-in-South-India.html Palynology Laboratory, French Institute of Pondicherry, India] * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20040818150213/http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/palyn.html The Palynology Unit, Kew Gardens, UK]}} * [http://www.paldat.org/ PalDat, palynological database hosted by the University of Vienna, Austria] * [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/tms/ The Micropalaeontological Society] * [https://cimp.weebly.com/ Commission Internationale de Microflore du Paléozoique (CIMP), International Commission for Palaeozoic Palynology] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20000422160127/http://www.shef.ac.uk/uni/academic/N-Q/palysc/index.html Centre for Palynology, University of Sheffield, UK] * [http://www.linnean.org Linnean Society Palynology Specialist Group (LSPSG)] * [http://www.scirpus.ca/cap/cap.shtml Canadian Association of Palynologists] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050527035527/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/polident.html Pollen and Spore Identification Literature] * [http://www.palynologischekring.nl Palynologische Kring, The Netherlands and Belgium] * [http://www.equisetites.de/palbot/palynology/palynology.html#Palynofacies Palynofacies], an annotated link directory. * Acosta ''et al''., 2018. Climate change and peopling of the Neotropics during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana. http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/368-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/7001/1857-7001-1-Acosta {{History of botany}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Palynology| ]] [[Category:Earth sciences]] [[Category:Archaeological science]] [[Category:Subfields of paleontology]] [[Category:Microfossils]] [[Category:Branches of botany]] [[Category:Sedimentology]]