Nickel silver

{{Short description|Shiny alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc}} {{For|the animal|Alpaca}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} thumb|upright=1.4|"German silver" hair comb, made 1984

'''Nickel silver''', '''maillechort''', '''German silver''',<ref name="PoM">{{Cite book |title=Principles of Metallurgy |publisher = Forgotten Books |isbn=978-1-4400-5699-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSR1U4R0e84C&pg=PA62 |page = 62 }}</ref> '''argentan''',<ref name="PoM"/> '''new silver''',<ref name="PoM"/> '''nickel brass''',<ref>{{cite book |author1 = Gayle, Margot |author2 = Look, David W. |author3 = Waite, John G. |date = April 1993 |title = Metals in America's Historic Buildings: Uses and preservation 5reatments |section = Pt. 1, A Historical Survey of Metals; Pt. 2, Deterioration and Methods of Preserving Metals |isbn = 978-0-16-061655-6 |publisher = U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service |department = Cultural Resources, Preservation Assistance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CtD5ucVtLMcC&pg=PA35 |via=Google books |page = 35 }}</ref> '''albata''',<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary''</ref> or '''alpacca'''<ref>{{cite web |title = Marks of Alpacca and Alpacca-Silver II products |series = Marks of Berndorf Metalware Factory in Austria |website = Association of Small Collectors of Antique Silver (ASCAS) (Ascasonline.org) |url=http://www.ascasonline.org/articoloDICEM104.html |access-date = 2013-12-19 }}</ref> is a cupronickel (copper with nickel) alloy with the addition of zinc. The usual formulation is 60% copper, 20% nickel and 20% zinc.<ref>{{cite book |first = Tim |last = McCreight |title = The Complete Metalsmith }}</ref> Nickel silver does not contain silver, but resembles it, which can make it attractive as a cheaper and more durable substitute. It is also well suited for plating with silver because of its very similar colour, which makes any areas where the silver plating inevitably becomes worn through with use, much less obvious.

A naturally occurring ore composition in China was smelted into the alloy known as '''{{Lang-zh|p=paktong|labels=no}}''' or '''{{Lang-zh|p=báitóng|labels=no}}''' ({{Lang|zh|白銅}}) ('white copper' or cupronickel).{{citation needed|date=September 2024|reason=needs quotation to show this is a nickel-silver alloy and not a more general cupronickel}}<ref>{{cite book |first = Keith |last = Pinn |title = Paktong: The Chinese alloy in Europe }}</ref><ref name="Joseph Needham 1974">{{cite book |first1 = Joseph |last1 = Needham |author1-link=Joseph Needham |first2 = Ling |last2 = Wang |first3 = Gwei-Djen |last3 = Lu |first4 = Tsuen-hsuin |last4 = Tsien |author4-link=Tsuen-hsuin Tsien |first5 = Dieter |last5 = Kuhn |first6 = Peter J. |last6 = Golas |year = 1974 |title = Science and Civilisation in China |publisher = Cambridge University Press |ISBN = 0-521-08571-3 |pages = 237–250 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BYixSmXUCuMC&pg=PA237 }}</ref> The name ''German Silver'' refers to the artificial recreation of the natural ore composition by German metallurgists.<ref name="Rose">{{cite book |first = Samuel J. |last = Rosenberg |title = Nickel and its alloys |publisher = National Bureau of Standards |series = Monograph |volume = 106 |page = 8.6}}</ref> All modern, commercially important, nickel silvers (such as those standardized under ASTM B122) contain zinc and are sometimes considered a variety of brass.<ref>{{cite web |title = Nickel Silver |website = makeitfrom.com |url = http://www.makeitfrom.com/data/?material=Nickel_Silver |access-date=19 April 2010 }}</ref>

==History== thumb|Tracing a cross onto a piece of crude nickel silver at a workshop in San Miguel Allende, Guanajuato, Mexico Nickel silver was first used in China, where it was smelted from readily available unprocessed ore.<ref name="Joseph Needham 1974"/><ref>{{cite book |last1 = Oberg | first1 = Erik | last2= Jones |first2= Franklin Day |year = 1917 |title = Machinery's Encyclopedia |publisher = The Industrial Press |page = 412 |quote = The alloy came originally from China, where its composition is said to have been known. |url = https://archive.org/details/machinerysencyc00jonegoog }}</ref> During the Qing dynasty, it was "smuggled into various parts of the East Indies", despite a government ban on the export of nickel silver.<ref>{{cite book |last = Dana |first = James Dwight |year = 1869 |title = Manual of Mineralogy |page = 265 |quote = smuggled into various parts of the East Indies ... and is not allowed to be carried out of the empire}}</ref> It became known in the West from imported wares called {{Transliteration|cmn|baitong}} (Mandarin) or {{Transliteration|yue|paktong}} (Cantonese) (白銅, literally "white copper"), for which the silvery metal colour was used to imitate sterling silver. According to Berthold Laufer, it was identical to ''khar sini'', one of the seven metals recognized by Jābir ibn Hayyān.<ref>{{cite book |last = Holmyard |first = E.J. |year = 1957 |title = Alchemy |page = 80 |place = New York, NY |publisher = Dover }}</ref>

In Europe, consequently, it was at first called {{Transliteration|yue|paktong}}, which is about the way {{Transliteration|cmn|baitong}} is pronounced in the Cantonese language. The earliest European mention of {{Transliteration|yue|paktong}} occurs in the year 1597. From then until the end of the eighteenth century there are references to it as having been exported from Canton to Europe.<ref name=Derk>{{cite book |first = Derk |last = Bodde |author-link=Derk Bodde |title=China's gifts to the West |publisher=Columbia University |place = New York, NY |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/readings/inventions_gifts.htm#Minerals }}</ref>

German artificial recreation of the natural {{Transliteration|yue|paktong}} ore composition, however, began to appear from about 1750 onward.<ref name="Derk"/> In 1770, the Suhl metalworks were able to produce a similar alloy.<ref>{{cite book | author = Neumann, Bernhard | year = 1904 | title = Die Metalle: Geschichte, Vorkommen und Gewinnung, nebst ausführlicher Produktions - und Preis - Statistik. Vom "Verein zur Beförderung des Gewerbefleisses" preisgekrönte Arbeit | publisher = W. Knapp | isbn = 9785877316324 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vBFKAAAAMAAJ | page =327 }}</ref> In 1823, a German competition was held to perfect the production process: the goal was to develop an alloy that possessed the closest visual similarity to silver. The brothers Henniger in Berlin and Ernst August Geitner in Schneeberg independently achieved this goal. The manufacturer Berndorf (founded in 1843<ref>{{Cite web |title=Geschichte |url=https://www.berndorf.at/geschichte |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Berndorf |language=de}}</ref>) named the trademark brand ''Alpacca'', which became widely known in northern Europe for nickel silver. In 1830, the German process of manufacture was introduced into England, while exports of {{Transliteration|yue|paktong}} from China gradually stopped. In 1832, a form of German silver was also developed in Birmingham, England.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Neumann | first1 = B. | year = 1903 | title = Die Anfänge der Argentan- (Neusilber)-Industrie und der technischen Nickelerzeugung | journal = Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie | volume = 16 | issue = 10 | page = 225 | doi = 10.1002/ange.19030161004 | bibcode = 1903AngCh..16..225N | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1424435 }}</ref>

After the modern process for the production of electroplated nickel silver was patented in 1840 by George Richards Elkington and his cousin Henry Elkington in Birmingham, the development of electroplating caused nickel silver to become widely used. It formed an ideal, strong and bright substrate for the plating process. It was also used unplated in applications such as cutlery.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}

==Uses== {{More citations needed|section|date=June 2022}} thumb|Nickel silver pieces from the Ruth Cortez Rodriguez workshop in Mexico Nickel silver first became popular as a base metal for silver-plated cutlery and other silverware, notably the electroplated wares called EPNS (electroplated nickel silver). It is used in zippers, costume jewelry, for making musical instruments (e.g., flutes, clarinets), and is preferred for the track in electric model railway layouts, as its oxide is conductive{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}. Better quality keys and lock cylinder pins are made of nickel silver for durability under heavy use. The alloy has been widely used in the production of coins (e.g. Portuguese escudo and the former GDR marks). Its industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and plumbing fixtures for its corrosion resistance,{{cn|date=May 2026}} and heating coils for its high electrical resistance.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/49512/49512-h/49512-h.htm|via=Project Gutenberg|title=Hawkins' Electrical Guide|volume=4|first=Nehemiah|last=Hawkins|display-authors=etal|publisher=Theo. Audel|location=NY, NY|year=1914|at="Wires and wire calculation" chapter}}</ref>

In the nineteenth century, particularly after 1868, North American Plains Indian metalsmiths were able to easily acquire sheets of German silver. They used them to cut, stamp, and cold hammer a wide range of accessories and also horse gear. Presently, Plains metalsmiths use German silver for pendants, pectorals, bracelets, armbands, hair plates, ''conchas'' (oval decorative plates for belts), earrings, belt buckles, necktie slides, stickpins, ''dush-tuhs'', and tiaras.<ref>Dubin, Lois Sherr. ''North American Indian Jewelry and Adornment: From Prehistory to the Present.'' New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1999. {{ISBN|0-8109-3689-5}}., pp. 290–293.</ref> Nickel silver is the metal of choice among contemporary Kiowa and Pawnee in Oklahoma. Many of the metal fittings on modern higher-end equine harness and tack are of nickel silver.

Early in the twentieth century, Nickel silver was widely used for decorative automobile parts and fittings, many having polished nickel silver radiators.The famous Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost introduced in 1907 being one example. Nickel silver has good malleability and can easily be soft soldered which makes it very suitable for this type of component. Unfortunately whilst very corrosion resistant, nickel silver tends to oxidise and become dull with exposure to the atmosphere and needs frequent polishing to remain bright and shiny. Once lower maintenance chromium plating became widely available at the beginning of the 1930s, chrome plated brass or steel quickly began to replace nickel silver for car radiator shells and other brightwork. After about 1920, it became widely used for pocketknife bolsters, due to its machinability and corrosion resistance. Prior to this, the most common metal was iron.

thumb|left|upright|19th century banjos used German silver rims over wood for tonal quality and appearance Musical instruments, including the flute, saxophone, trumpet, and French horn, string instrument frets, and electric guitar pickup parts, can be made of nickel silver. Many professional-level French horns are entirely made of nickel silver.<ref>[http://www.cgconn.com/content/detail.php?model=8D] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210141018/http://www.cgconn.com/content/detail.php?model=8D|date=10 February 2012}}</ref> Some saxophone manufacturers, such as Keilwerth,<ref>[http://www.schreiber-keilwerth.com/englisch/keilwerth/instruments/bari_sx90r_shadow.htm]{{dead link|date=December 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.saxophones.co.uk/keilwerth_saxophones.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081104122329/http://www.saxophones.co.uk/keilwerth_saxophones.htm|date=4 November 2008}}</ref> offer saxophones made of nickel silver (Shadow model); these are far rarer than traditional lacquered brass saxophones. Student-level flutes and piccolos are also made of silver-plated nickel silver,<ref>[http://www.pearlflute.com/_english/pro_quantz505.html Quantz505 – Pearl Flute Worldwide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207023442/http://www.pearlflute.com/_english/pro_quantz505.html |date=7 February 2012 }}. Pearlflute.com. Retrieved on 2013-12-19.</ref> although upper-level models are likely to use sterling silver.<ref>[http://www.pearlflute.com/_english/pro_elegante.html Elegante – Pearl Flute Worldwide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207023508/http://www.pearlflute.com/_english/pro_elegante.html |date=7 February 2012 }}. Pearlflute.com. Retrieved on 2013-12-19.</ref> Nickel silver produces a bright and powerful sound quality; an additional benefit is that the metal is harder and more corrosion resistant than brass.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20111006061951/http://www.holton-horns.com/frenchhorns/product.php?model=H-177]}}</ref> Because of its hardness, it is used for most clarinet, flute, oboe and similar wind instrument keys, normally silver-plated. It is used to produce the tubes (called staples) onto which oboe reeds are tied.

Many parts of brass instruments are made of nickel silver, such as tubes, braces or valve mechanism. Trombone slides of many manufacturers offer a lightweight nickel silver (LT slide) option for faster slide action and weight balance.<ref>[http://www.bachbrass.com/instruments/product.php?model=LT16M&category=Trombones Bach > Professional Bb Tenor Trombones > Viewing Model LT16M] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016134120/http://www.bachbrass.com/instruments/product.php?model=LT16M&category=Trombones |date=16 October 2011 }}. Bachbrass.com. Retrieved on 2013-12-19.</ref> The material was used in the construction of the National tricone resophonic guitar. The frets of guitar, mandolin, banjo, bass, and related string instruments are typically nickel silver. Nickel silver is sometimes used as ornamentation on the great highland bagpipe.

thumb|upright|Willem Lenssinck, ''Formula 1 Racing Horse'' Nickel silver is also used in artworks. The Dutch sculptor Willem Lenssinck has made several pieces from German silver. Outdoors art made from this material easily withstands all kinds of weather.

Nickel silver, known as alpaca silver, is the most frequent material used in the fabrication of bombillas, an utensil for drinking mate.

==References== {{Reflist}}

==External links== {{EB1911 poster|German Silver}} * {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=German Silver|short=x}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305074311/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/home-garden//1983/05/05/considering-silvers-sterling-qualities-price-is-no-object/1ad85ec0-2a20-4543-92bf-c0df898c1d37/ Silver's Sterling Qualities]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nickel Silver}} Category:Chinese inventions Category:Copper alloys Category:Nickel alloys Category:Economy of the Qing dynasty Category:Silver