Nheengatu

{{Short description|Tupi language of northwestern Brazil}} {{for|the Titãs album|Nheengatu (album)}} {{Multiple issues|{{Peacock|date=July 2023}} {{Cleanup reorganize|date=August 2024}}{{Parenthetical referencing|date=January 2026}}}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}} {{Infobox language | name = Nheengatu | altname = Modern Tupi, Amazonic Tupi | nativename = | states = Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela | speakers = <10,000 | date = 2025 | ref = <ref name=":0numbspeak"/> | familycolor = tupian | fam1 = Tupian | fam2 = Tupi–Guarani | fam3 = Tupi languages | fam4 = Tupi | script = Latin | nation = Amazonas<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-21 |title=Amazonas passa a ter 16 línguas indígenas oficiais; saiba quais são |url=https://g1.globo.com/am/amazonas/noticia/2023/07/21/amazonas-passa-a-ter-16-linguas-indigenas-oficiais-saiba-quais-sao.ghtml |access-date=2026-04-18 |website=G1 |language=pt-BR}}</ref> São Gabriel da Cachoeira and Monsenhor Tabosa | iso3 = yrl | glotto = nhen1239 | glottorefname = Nhengatu | notice = IPA | map = Lingua nheengatu.png | pronunciation = | ancestor = Old Tupi and Amazonian General Language | ld1 = Karipúna (retired) | lc1 = kgm | lc2 = | ld2 = | region = Guainía Department, Amazonas (Brazil), Amazonas (Venezuela) }}

'''Nheengatu''', also known as '''Modern Tupi'''{{sfn |Navarro |2005 |p=13}} and '''Amazonic Tupi''',<ref name=":0" /> is a Tupi–Guarani language. It is spoken throughout the Rio Negro region among the Baniwa, Baré, and Warekena people in the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, and the state of Amazonas, Brazil.

The language has been one of Amazonas' official languages since 2002.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-21 |title=Amazonas state now has 17 official languages |url=https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/en/geral/noticia/2023-07/amazonas-state-now-has-17-official-languages |access-date=2025-11-11 |website=Agência Brasil |language=en}}</ref> Outside of the Rio Negro region, the Nheengatu language is spoken across the Baixo Amazonas region among the Sateré-Mawé, Maraguá, and Mura people. In the Baixo Tapajós and the state of Pará, Nheengatu is mainly spoken among the Borari and the Tupinambá peoples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jesus |first=Hudson Romário Melo de |date=31 January 2022 |title=Yâdé Kiirîbawa Yepé Wasú! Uma reflexão sobre a luta Tupinambá em defesa de seu território |url=https://periodicos.sbu.unicamp.br/ojs/index.php/rap/article/view/8666579 |journal=Revista Arqueologia Pública |language=pt |volume=17 |pages=e022001 |doi=10.20396/rap.v17i00.8666579 |issn=2237-8294 |s2cid=248760708 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

A 2010 study by UNESCO estimated the number of Nheengatu speakers at around 10,000.<ref name="Moseley_2010"/> {{as of|2025|08|alt=In 2025}}, Thomas Finbow, a professor at the University of São Paulo, estimated that there were between 5,000 - 7,000 speakers in Brazil, and fewer than 10,000 globally, including communities in Venezuela and Colombia.<ref name=":0numbspeak">{{cite news |last=Quinto |first=Antonio Carlos |date=22 August 2025 |title=Projeto baseado em IA atua na preservação da língua indígena nheengatu, no Alto Rio Negro, no Amazonas |trans-title=AI-based project works on the preservation of the Indigenous Nheengatu language in the Upper Rio Negro, in Amazonas |url=https://jornal.usp.br/diversidade/projeto-baseado-em-ia-atua-na-preservacao-da-lingua-indigena-nheengatu-no-alto-rio-negro-no-amazonas/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250826073213/https://jornal.usp.br/diversidade/projeto-baseado-em-ia-atua-na-preservacao-da-lingua-indigena-nheengatu-no-alto-rio-negro-no-amazonas/ |archive-date=26 August 2025 |access-date=12 October 2025 |work=Jornal da USP |language=Portuguese}}</ref> Nheengatu is a useful study on language change, on account of its long history of documentation that spans several centuries.<ref name=":0numbspeak"/> Due to its former role as a lingua franca, Nheengatu is one of the most significant minority languages in Brazil.{{sfn |Navarro |Ávila |Trevisan |2017 |p=10}}

== Name == The name of the language derives from the words {{lang|yrl|nhẽẽga}} (meaning "language" or "word") and {{lang|yrl|katu}} (meaning "good").<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=FERREIRA |first=A. B. H. |title=Novo dicionário da língua portuguesa |publisher=Nova Fronteira |year=1986 |edition=2 |location=Rio de Janeiro |pages=1}}</ref> Nheengatu is referred to by a wide variety of names in literature, including ''Nhengatu'', ''Tupi Costeiro'', ''Geral'', ''Yeral'' (in Venezuela), ''Tupi Moderno'',{{sfn |Navarro |2005}}{{rp|pages=13}} ''Nyengato'', ''Nyengatú'', ''Waengatu'', ''Neegatú'', ''Is'engatu'', ''Língua Brasílica'', ''Tupi Amazônico'',<ref name=":0" /> ''Ñe'engatú'', ''Nhangatu'', ''Inhangatu'', ''Nenhengatu'',<ref name=":1" />'' Yẽgatú'', ''Nyenngatú'', ''Tupi'', and ''Lingua Geral''. It is also commonly referred to as the {{lang|pt|{{ill|Amazonian General Language|pt|Língua Geral Amazônica|lt=Língua geral amazônica}}}} (LGA) in Brazil.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

== Classification == Nheengatu descended from the extinct Tupinambá language and belongs to the Tupi–Guarani branch of the Tupi language family.{{sfn |Moore |Facundes |Pires |1994}} The Tupi–Guarani language family is a large and diverse group of languages, including Xeta, Siriono, Arawete, Kaapor, Kamayura, Guaja, and Tapirape. Many of these languages were spoken years before the Portuguese colonization of what is now Brazil. Over time, the term "Tupinamba" was used to describe groups that were "linguistically and culturally related".

{| class="wikitable" ! colspan="3" | ! Portuguese ! Ancient Tupi ! Yẽgatu (Nheengatu from Rio Negro) ! Traditional Nheengatu ! Tapajoawaran Nheengatu |- ! rowspan="3" | 1st person ! colspan="2" | singular | {{lang|pt|eu}} | {{lang|tpn|xe, ixé}} | {{lang|yrl|se, ixé}} | {{lang|yrl|çe, ixé}} | {{lang|yrl|se, ixé}} |- ! rowspan="2" | plural ! exclusive | rowspan="2" | {{lang|pt|nós}} | {{lang|tpn|oré}} | | | |- ! inclusive | {{lang|tpn|îandé}} | {{lang|yrl|yãné, yãdé}} | {{lang|yrl|yãné, yãdé}} | {{lang|yrl|yãné, yãdé}} |- ! rowspan="2" | 2nd person ! colspan="2" | singular | {{lang|pt|tu}} | {{lang|tpn|ne/nde, endé}} | {{lang|yrl|ne, ῖdé}} | {{lang|yrl|ne, ῖdé}} | {{lang|yrl|ne, ῖdé}} |- ! colspan="2" | plural | {{lang|pt|vós}} | {{lang|tpn|pe, peẽ}} | {{lang|yrl|pe, pẽye}} | {{lang|yrl|pe, pẽnhé}} | {{lang|yrl|pe, penhẽ}} |- ! rowspan="2" | 3rd person ! colspan="2" | singular | {{lang|pt|ele, ela}} | {{lang|tpn|i, a'e}} | {{lang|yrl|i, ae}} | {{lang|yrl|i, aé}} | {{lang|yrl|i, aé}} |- ! colspan="2" | plural | {{lang|pt|eles, elas}} | {{lang|tpn|i, a'e}} | {{lang|yrl|i/ta, aῖta}} | {{lang|yrl|aῖtá}} | {{lang|yrl|i/ta, aῖta}} |}

Eduardo de Almeida Navarro, a Brazilian philologist specializing in Nheengatu, argues that with its current characteristics, Nheengatu would have only emerged in the 19th century as a natural evolution of the Tupi language. {| class="wikitable" !English !Portuguese !Ancient Tupi !Yẽgatu (Nheengatu from Rio Negro) !Traditional Nheengatu !Tapajoawaran Nheengatu |- |bird |{{lang|pt|pássaro}} |{{lang|tpn|gûyrá}} |{{lang|yrl|wira}} |{{lang|yrl|wirá}} |{{lang|yrl|wirá}} |- |man |{{lang|pt|homem}} |{{lang|tpn|abá}} |{{lang|yrl|apiawawa}} |{{lang|yrl|apigá}} |{{lang|yrl|apigá}} |- |woman |{{lang|pt|mulher}} |{{lang|tpn|kunhã}} |{{lang|yrl|kuyã}} |{{lang|yrl|kunhã}} |{{lang|yrl|kunhã}} |- |happiness |{{lang|pt|alegria}} |{{lang|tpn|toryba}} |{{lang|yrl|surisa}} |{{lang|yrl|çuriçawa}} |{{lang|yrl|surisawa}} |- |city |{{lang|pt|cidade}} |{{lang|tpn|tabusu}} |{{lang|yrl|tawasu}} |{{lang|yrl|mairí}} |{{lang|yrl|tawasú}} |- |hammock |{{lang|pt|rede}} |{{lang|tpn|iny}} |{{lang|yrl|makira}} |{{lang|yrl|makira, gapõna}} |{{lang|yrl|makina}} |- |water |{{lang|pt|água}} |{{lang|tpn|'y}} |{{lang|yrl|ii}} |{{lang|yrl|yy}} |{{Lang|yrl|i}} |}In addition to the now extinct general language of São Paulo, Nheengatu is closely related to ancient Tupi, and to Guarani of Paraguay. Ancient Nheengatu and Guarani were mutually intelligible.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nheengatu language |url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/nheengatu.htm |access-date=2026-03-18 |website=www.omniglot.com}}</ref>

== History == Belonging to the Tupi–Guarani linguistic family, Nheengatu emerged in the 18th century, descending from the now extinct Amazonian Tupinambá, a regional Tupi variant that originated in the Odisseia Tupínambá. The exodus of that nation, fleeing from Portuguese invaders on the Bahia coast, entered the Amazon and settled first in Maranhão, and from there to the Guajará Bay (Belém), the mouth of the Tapajós river, to the Tupinambarana island (Parintins), between the borders of Pará and Amazonas. The language of the Tupinambás became a lingua franca, hence why the Arawak peoples of the Parintins region came to be called Tupinambaranas (meaning "fake Tupinambá").

By the early 17th century, the Portuguese had conquered the Amazon and established the colonial state of Grão-Pará and Maranhão, whose capital, Belém, was known as Cidade dos Tupinambás or Tupinambá Marií. In pursuit of catechism, Franciscan and Jesuit priests codified the grammar and orthography of the local lingua franca, which over time developed into the Northern General Language, also known as the Amazonian General Language. Its development occurred in parallel with that of the São Paulo General Language. Nheengatu subsequently spread throughout the Amazon as a tool of colonization, Portuguese dominion, and linguistic standardization. Many peoples came to adopt it as their primary language at the expense of their own; the Hanera, better known as the Baré, are one such example; their shift to Nheengatu ultimately led to the extinction of their native tongue. The Maraguá people, themselves longstanding Nheengatu speakers, have more recently{{When|date=April 2026}} undertaken efforts to revitalize their own language, and today Maraguá is taught alongside Nheengatu in local schools.

Speakers of other languages vastly outnumbered the Portuguese settlers in the Amazon, to the point that the Portuguese themselves adapted to the native language. A Portuguese colonist stated: "To speak or converse in the colony of Grão Pará, I had to use Nheengatu; if not, I would be talking to myself, since no one used Portuguese, except in the government palace in Belém and among the Portuguese themselves."{{sfn |Rodrigues |1996}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=FREIRE |first=José Ribamar Bessa |title=A história das línguas na Amazônia |publisher=Rio Babel |year=2011 |edition=2 |location=Rio de Janeiro: EDUERJ |language=pt}}</ref>

The General Language was established as the official language from 1689 to 1727 in Grão Pará and Maranhão. In order to erase the Amazonian identity, the Portuguese language was promoted, but did not see much success. In the mid-18th century, the Amazonian General Language, along with the related São Paulo General Language, was used throughout the colony. At this point, Tupinambá remained intact, but as a chiefly liturgical language, while the General Language was used for commmunication. By the mid-18th century, the Amazon and Tupinambá General Languages were already distinct.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Denny |author-link=Denny Moore |title=Iberian Imperialism and Language Evolution in Latin America |date=22 May 2014 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226125671 |editor-last=Mufwene |editor-first=Salikoko |editor-link=Salikoko Mufwene |chapter=4: Historical Development of Nheengatu (Língua Geral Amazônica) |chapter-url=https://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/biblio%3Amoore-2014-nheengatu/Moore_2014_Historical_Development_of_Nheengatu.pdf}}</ref>

Nheengatu continued to evolve as it expanded into the Alto Rio Negro region through contact with other languages such as Marawá, Baníwa, Warekana, Tucano, and Dâw.

The General Language evolved into two branches, the Northern General Language (Amazonian) and the Southern General Language (Paulista), which at its height became the dominant language of the vast Brazilian territory.

An anonymous manuscript from the 18th century is emblematically titled ''Dictionary of the general language of Brazil, spoken in all the towns, places, and villages of this vast State, written in the city of Pará, year 1771''.

If Nheengatu was the major obstacle for the cultural and linguistic domination of Portuguese in the region, the colonizers saw that it was necessary to take it away from the people and impose the Portuguese language, which at first was not successful since the general language was very well rooted both among indigenous people and in the speech of blacks and whites themselves. The language  was banned by Pombal's government, who intended to impose the Portuguese language in Brazil. Hence, many places had their names changed from the Northern General language to names of places and cities in Portugal, such as Santarém, Aveiro, Barcelos, Belém, Óbidos, Faro, Alenquer, and Moz.

A regional ban on the Northern General language came right after the Cabanagem separatist revolts; after the rebels were defeated in 1860, the regencial Brazilian government imposed a harsh persecution on the speakers of Nheengatu. Half of the male population of Grão-Pará was murdered and anyone who was caught speaking in Nheengatu was punished. The imposition of the Portuguese language this time had an effect and with the advent of Portuguese schools, the population was shepherded to the new language.{{citation needed|date=January 2026}}

Also in the 20th century, economic and political events like the Amazon Rubber Boom, which brought huge waves of government encouraged settlers from the Northeast to the Amazon, led to an increased Portuguese presence. This again forced indigenous peoples to move or be subjected to forced labor. The language was again influenced by the increased presence of Portuguese speakers.

Nheengatu remained mainly among the most distant inhabitants of the urban centers, in the families descended from the ''cabanos'' and among unconquered peoples. Furthermore, "tapuios"{{citation needed|date=January 2026}} (ribeirinhos) kept their accent and part of their speech tied to their language. Until 1920 it was common for Nheengatu to be used in traditional commercial centers in Manaus, Santarém, Parintins, and Belém.

== Current use == Nheengatu is spoken in the Alto Rio Negro region, in the state of Amazonas, in the Brazilian Amazon and in neighboring parts of Colombia and Venezuela. There are potentially as many as 19,000 Nheengatu speakers worldwide,<ref name="Nhengatu"/> although some journalists have reported as many as 30,000.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rohter |first=Larry |date=28 August 2005 |title=Language Born of Colonialism Thrives Again in Amazon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/28/world/americas/language-born-of-colonialism-thrives-again-in-amazon.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529194245/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/28/world/americas/language-born-of-colonialism-thrives-again-in-amazon.html |archive-date=May 29, 2015 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A língua do Brasil |url=https://super.abril.com.br/cultura/a-lingua-do-brasil/ |access-date=28 November 2021 |website=Super |language=pt-BR}}</ref> Currently, it is still spoken by around 73.31% of the 29,900 inhabitants of São Gabriel da Cachoeira (IBGE 2000 Census), around 3,000 people in Colombia, and around 2,000 people in Venezuela, especially in the Rio Negro river basin (Uaupés and Içana rivers).<ref name="Nhengatu">{{Cite web |title=Nhengatu |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yrl |access-date=28 November 2021 |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref> Furthermore, it is the native language of the rural caboclo population of the area and is a common language of communication between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples, or between Indigenous peoples of different languages. It is also an instrument of ethnic affirmation of Amazonian indigenous peoples who have lost their native languages, such as Barés, Arapaços, Baniuas, Uarequenas, and others.

''Ethnologue'' rates Nheengatu as "changing" with a rating of 7 on the Gradual Intergenerational Interruption Scale (GIDS) (Simons and Fennig 2017). According to this scale, this classification suggests that "the population of children may use the language among themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children". According to the UNESCO Atlas of Endangered Languages of the World, Nheengatu is classified as "severely endangered".<ref name="Moseley_2010">{{Cite book |last1=Moseley |first1=Christopher |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026 |title=Atlas of the world's languages in danger |last2=Nicolas |first2=Alexandre |publisher=UNESCO |year=2010 |isbn=978-92-3-104096-2 |location=Paris |pages=17}}</ref> The language has recently regained some recognition and prominence after being suppressed for many years.

In December 2002, Nheengatu gained official language status alongside Portuguese in the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira in accordance with local law 145/2002.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Alves |first=Ozias Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JUPtyqY7hHkC |title=Parlons Nheengatu: Une langue tupi du Brésil |publisher=L'Harmattan |year=2010 |isbn=978-2-296-13259-7 |publication-place=Paris |chapter="Ñe'engatu" em guarani significa "falar demais" ou alguém que fala demais}}</ref> Now Nheengatu is one of the four official languages of the municipality.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 June 2012 |title=Novo em Folha - Línguas ameaçadas de extinção no Brasil - São Gabriel… |url=http://treinamento.folhasp.com.br/linguasdobrasil/saogabriel.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120604042024/http://treinamento.folhasp.com.br/linguasdobrasil/saogabriel.html |archive-date=4 June 2012 |access-date=28 November 2021 |website=archive.md}}</ref>

In 1998, University of São Paulo professor Eduardo de Almeida Navarro founded the ''Tupi Aqui'' organization dedicated to promoting the teaching of historical Tupi and Nheengatu in high schools in São Paulo and elsewhere in Brazil.<ref name=":0"/> Professor Navarro wrote a textbook for teaching Nheengatu that Tupi Aqui makes available, along with other teaching materials, on a website hosted by the University of São Paulo.{{sfn |Navarro |2011}}

== Revitalization == In 2007, USP established the first Brazilian university extension course dedicated to the study of Nheengatu. In 2012, the language was incorporated into the graduate program in translation studies. Consequently, in 2016 Graciliano Ramos's {{lang|pt|A terra dos meninos pelados}} was translated into Nheengatu.{{sfn |Navarro |Ávila |Trevisan |2017 |p=19}} Translations contribute to lexical revitalization; this translation of Ramos's work included linguistic and lexical research on Nheengatu, allowing for the use of obsolete words remembered only by the elders or already completely forgotten and replaced by borrowings from Portuguese,{{sfn |Navarro |Ávila |Trevisan |2017 |p=20}} although borrowings adopted more than a century ago—now fully integrated into the language's tradition—were also employed.{{sfn |Navarro |Ávila |Trevisan |2017 |p=27}} In 2017, ''The Little Prince'' was also translated as part of a master's dissertation supervised by USP professor Eduardo de Almeida Navarro. Likewise, in many instances the translation employed equivalent terms, adaptations, neologisms, and the revival of archaic words; for example, the tiger was replaced with {{Wikt-lang|yrl|yawareté-pinima}} (jaguar) and wheat with {{Wikt-lang|yrl|awatí}} (corn), and the very title revived an old expression which served "to connect a word that had fallen out of use with the naming of a character in the book who was mysterious and little known".<ref>{{cite news |last=Ferreira |first=Ivanir |date=19 April 2017 |title="O Pequeno Príncipe" ganha tradução para o tupi |trans-title="The Little Prince" receives a translation into Tupi |url=https://jornal.usp.br/ciencias/ciencias-humanas/o-pequeno-principe-ganha-traducao-para-o-tupi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250121130709/https://jornal.usp.br/ciencias/ciencias-humanas/o-pequeno-principe-ganha-traducao-para-o-tupi/ |archive-date=21 January 2025 |access-date=13 October 2025 |work=Jornal da USP |language=Portuguese}}</ref>

In 2021, "Nheengatu App" was launched, becoming the first application for teaching an Indigenous language in Brazil. It teaches the Tapajoara variant of the language.<ref name=":3">{{cite news |last=Yamaguti |first=Bruna |date=31 March 2023 |title='Nheengatu App': conheça o 1º aplicativo voltado para o ensino de língua indígena no Brasil |trans-title='Nheengatu App': meet the 1st application aimed at teaching an indigenous language in Brazil |url=https://g1.globo.com/df/distrito-federal/noticia/2024/03/31/nheengatu-app-conheca-o-1o-aplicativo-voltado-para-o-ensino-de-lingua-indigena-no-brasil.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124015013/https://g1.globo.com/df/distrito-federal/noticia/2024/03/31/nheengatu-app-conheca-o-1o-aplicativo-voltado-para-o-ensino-de-lingua-indigena-no-brasil.ghtml |archive-date=24 January 2025 |access-date=15 October 2025 |work=g1 |language=Portuguese}}</ref> Its release was supported by the {{interlanguage link|Aldir Blanc Law|pt|Lei Aldir Blanc}} and the Secretariat of Culture of Pará.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Jansen |first=Roberta |date=20 January 2022 |title=Academia quer reviver o nheengatu, a língua perdida dos indígenas da Amazônia |trans-title=Academy wants to revive Nheengatu, the lost language of the indigenous people of the Amazon |url=https://www.estadao.com.br/brasil/academia-quer-reviver-o-nheengatu-a-lingua-perdida-dos-indigenas-da-amazonia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519101656/https://www.estadao.com.br/brasil/academia-quer-reviver-o-nheengatu-a-lingua-perdida-dos-indigenas-da-amazonia/ |archive-date=19 May 2024 |access-date=15 October 2025 |work=Estadão |language=Portuguese}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite news |last=Costa |first=Lara |date=14 April 2024 |title=Futuro ancestral: desenvolvedora cria app que ensina língua indígena do Brasil |trans-title=Ancestral future: developer creates app that teaches an indigenous language of Brazil |url=https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/euestudante/trabalho-e-formacao/2024/04/6830966-futuro-ancestral-desenvolvedora-cria-app-que-ensina-lingua-indigena-do-brasil.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328003500/https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/euestudante/trabalho-e-formacao/2024/04/6830966-futuro-ancestral-desenvolvedora-cria-app-que-ensina-lingua-indigena-do-brasil.html |archive-date=28 March 2025 |access-date=15 October 2025 |work=Correio Braziliense |language=Portuguese}}</ref> According to its creator Suellen Tobler, the app was used in Indigenous schools in the Lower Tapajós region, and by September 2023 approximately 2,200 users had registered.<ref name=":3" /> In March 2024, the project was presented at Campus Party Brasília.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /> Other Brazilian Indigenous groups showed interest in the initiative, and Tobler went on to co-author two other apps for teaching native Brazilian languages.<ref name=":5" />

In 2023, the Brazilian Constitution was translated into Nheengatu, marking the first time it was rendered into an Indigenous language—until then, it had been translated only into Spanish and English.<ref name=":1reveff" /><ref name=":2reveff">{{cite news |last=Gandra |first=Alana |date=25 August 2023 |title=Biblioteca Nacional recebe Constituição de 1988 em nheengatu |trans-title=National Library receives 1988 Constitution in Nheengatu |url=https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/geral/noticia/2023-08/biblioteca-nacional-recebe-constituicao-de-1988-em-nheengatu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207063724/https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/geral/noticia/2023-08/biblioteca-nacional-recebe-constituicao-de-1988-em-nheengatu |archive-date=7 December 2024 |access-date=12 October 2025 |work=Agência Brasil |language=Portuguese}}</ref><ref name=":1león">{{cite news |last=León |first=Lucas Pordeus |date=19 July 2023 |title=Constituição brasileira é traduzida pela 1ª vez para língua indígena |trans-title=Brazilian Constitution is translated for the 1st time into an Indigenous language |url=https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/justica/noticia/2023-07/constituicao-brasileira-e-traduzida-pela-1a-vez-para-lingua-indigena |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250718120409/https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/justica/noticia/2023-07/constituicao-brasileira-e-traduzida-pela-1a-vez-para-lingua-indigena |archive-date=18 July 2025 |access-date=13 October 2025 |work=Agência Brasil |language=Portuguese}}</ref> The translation was carried out by 15 bilingual Indigenous individuals from the Upper Negro River and Middle Tapajós regions,{{efn|Including Dadá Baniwa, Edson Baré, Edilson Martins Baniwa, Melvino Fontes Olímpio, Sidinha Gonçalves Tomas, Dime Pompilho Liberato, Gedeão Arapyú, Frank Bitencourt Fontes, Francisco Cirineu Martins, George Borari, and Cauã Borari.<ref name=":1reveff">{{cite news |date=19 July 2023 |title=Funai participa do lançamento histórico da Constituição Federal na língua indígena Nheengatu |trans-title=Funai participates in the historic launch of the Federal Constitution in the Nheengatu Indigenous language |url=https://www.gov.br/funai/pt-br/assuntos/noticias/2023/funai-participa-do-lancamento-historico-da-constituicao-federal-na-lingua-indigena-nheengatu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250403190835/https://www.gov.br/funai/pt-br/assuntos/noticias/2023/funai-participa-do-lancamento-historico-da-constituicao-federal-na-lingua-indigena-nheengatu |archive-date=3 April 2025 |access-date=13 October 2025 |work=Fundação Nacional dos Povos Indígenas |language=Portuguese}}</ref>}} through a project sponsored by the Supreme Federal Court (STF) and the National Council of Justice, within the framework of the United Nations's International Decade of Indigenous Languages.<ref name=":1reveff" /><ref name=":1león" /> They worked for at least three hours a day over the course of three months; project curator and then National Library president Marco Lucchesi stated the work was intense with specialists available around the clock to answer any questions.<ref>{{cite news |last=Serra |first=Paolla |date=17 July 2023 |title=Constituição Federal ganha versão em nheengatu, língua indígena que vem do tupi antigo |trans-title=Federal Constitution gains version in Nheengatu, an indigenous language that comes from Old Tupi |url=https://oglobo.globo.com/brasil/noticia/2023/07/17/constituicao-federal-ganha-versao-em-nheengatu-lingua-indigena-que-vem-do-tupi-antigo.ghtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731154835/https://oglobo.globo.com/brasil/noticia/2023/07/17/constituicao-federal-ganha-versao-em-nheengatu-lingua-indigena-que-vem-do-tupi-antigo.ghtml |archive-date=31 July 2023 |access-date=13 October 2023 |work=O GLOBO |language=Portuguese}}</ref> Then STF president Rosa Weber attended the launch event in São Gabriel da Cachoeira{{efn|As well as other prominent authorities, namely Sonia Guajajara, Cármen Lúcia, Joenia Wapichana, Lelio Bentes Corrêa, Marco Lucchesi, and José Ribamar Bessa Freire.<ref name=":1reveff"/>}} and stated Nheengatu was chosen because of its significance to the Amazon region.<ref name=":1león" /> Later, Weber presented a copy to Lucchesi at the National Library, the first time in 100 years that a head of the judiciary had visited it.<ref name=":2reveff" /><ref>{{cite news |date=25 August 2023 |title=Presidente do STF entrega exemplar da Constituição traduzida para o Nheengatu à Biblioteca Nacional |trans-title=President of the STF delivers a copy of the Constitution translated into Nheengatu to the National Library |url=https://noticias.stf.jus.br/postsnoticias/presidente-do-stf-entrega-exemplar-da-constituicao-traduzida-para-o-nheengatu-a-biblioteca-nacional/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251013005822/https://noticias.stf.jus.br/postsnoticias/presidente-do-stf-entrega-exemplar-da-constituicao-traduzida-para-o-nheengatu-a-biblioteca-nacional/ |archive-date=13 October 2025 |access-date=13 October 2025 |work=Supremo Tribunal Federal |language=Portuguese}}</ref>

== Documentation == Over the course of its evolution since its beginnings as Tupinambá, extensive research has been done on Nheengatu. There have been studies done at each phase of its evolution, but much has been focused on how aspects of Nheengatu, such as its grammar or phonology, have changed upon contact over the years. (Facundes et al. 1994 and Rodrigues 1958, 1986).

The first documents that were produced were by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries, such as {{lang|yrl|Arte da Grammatica da Lingoa mais usada na costa do Brasil}} by Father José de Anchieta (1595) and {{lang|yrl|Arte da Língua Brasilíca}} by Luis Figueira (1621). These were detailed grammars that served their religious purposes. Multiple dictionaries have also been written over the years (Mello 1967, Grenand and Epaminondas 1989, Barbosa 1951). More recently,{{When|date=April 2026}} Stradelli (2014) also published a Portuguese-Nheengatu dictionary.

There have also been several linguistic studies of Nheengatu, such as Borges (1991)’s thesis on Nheengatu phonology and Cruz (2011)’s detailed paper on the phonology and grammar of Nheengatu. She also studied the rise of number agreement in modern Nheengatu by analyzing how grammaticalization occurred over the course of its evolution from Tupinambá (Cruz 2015). Cruz (2014) also studies reduplication in Nheengatu in detail, as well as morphological fission in bitransitive constructions. A proper textbook for the conducting of Nheengatu classes has also been written.{{sfn |Navarro |2011}} Lima and Sirvana (2017) provides a sociolinguistic study of Nheengatu in the Pisasu Sarusawa community of the Baré people, in Manaus, Amazonas.

In 2023, the Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil (Brazilian Constitution), promulgated in 1988, was translated into Nheengatu for the first time.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Mundu Sa Turusu Waá : Ubêuwa Mayé Míra Itá Uikú Arãma Purãga Iké Braziu Upé |publisher=Supremo Tribunal Federal, Conselho Nacional de Justiça |year=2023 |isbn=978-65-5972-113-9 |language=pt, yrl}}</ref>

=== Language documentation projects === Language documentation agencies (such as SOAS, Museu do Índio, Museu Goeldi, and Dobes) are currently{{As of?|date=April 2026}} not engaged in any language documentation project for Nheengatu. However, research on Nheengatu by Moore (1994) was supported by Museu Goeldi and the Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq), and funded by the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas (SSILA) and the Inter-American Foundation. In this study, Moore focused on the effects of language contact and how Nheengatu evolved over the years with the help of a Nheengatu-speaking informant.{{sfn |Moore |Facundes |Pires |1994}} Moore urges for the "location and documentation of modern dialects of Nheengatu", due to their risk of becoming extinct.<ref name=":4" />

== Phonology == === Consonants ===

Parentheses mark marginal phonemes occurring only in few words, or with otherwise unclear status.{{sfn |Moore |Facundes |Pires |1994}}

{| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" |Bilabial ! rowspan="2" |Alveolar ! rowspan="2" |Post- alveolar ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Palatal ! colspan="2" |Velar ! rowspan="2" |Glottal |- !plain !lab. |- align="center" ! rowspan="3" |Plosive !plain |{{IPA link|p}} |{{IPA link|t}} |({{IPA link|tʃ}}) | colspan="2" | |{{IPA link|k }} |{{IPA link|kʷ}} |({{IPA link|ʔ}}) |- align="center" !voiced |({{IPA link|b}}) | | | colspan="2" | |({{IPA link|ɡ}}) | | |- align="center" !prenasal |{{IPA link|ᵐb}} |{{IPA link|ⁿd}} | | colspan="2" | |{{IPA link|ᵑɡ}} | | |- align="center" ! colspan="2" |Fricative | |{{IPA link|s}} |{{IPA link|ʃ}} | colspan="2" | | | | |- align="center" ! colspan="2" |Nasal |{{IPA link|m}} |{{IPA link|n}} | | colspan="2" | | | | |- align="center" ! colspan="2" |Trill | |{{IPA link|r}} | | colspan="2" | | | | |- align="center" ! colspan="2" |Approximant |{{IPA link|w}} | | |{{IPA link|j}} |{{IPA link|j̃}} | | | |}

=== Vowels === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! !Front !Central !Back |- !Close |{{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|ĩ}} | |{{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|ũ}} |- !Mid |{{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|ẽ}} | |{{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|õ}} |- !Open | |{{IPA link|a}} {{IPA link|ã}} | |}

== Morphology == There are eight word classes in Nheengatu: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, postpositions, pronouns, demonstratives, and particles.{{sfn |Moore |Facundes |Pires |1994}} === Pronouns === There are two types of pronouns in Nheengatu: personal or interrogative. Nheengatu follows the same pattern as Tupinambá, in that the same set of personal pronouns is adopted for the subject and object of a verb.{{sfn |Moore |Facundes |Pires |1994}}

{| class="wikitable" ! !Singular !''Sg Prefix'' !Plural !''Pl Prefix'' |- align="center" !1 |{{lang|yrl|isé}} |{{lang|yrl|se-}} |{{lang|yrl|yãndé}} |{{lang|yrl|yane-}} |- align="center" !2 |{{lang|yrl|ĩndé}} |{{lang|yrl|ne-}} |{{lang|yrl|pẽỹẽ}} |{{lang|yrl|pe-}} |- align="center" !3 |{{lang|yrl|aʔé}} |{{lang|yrl|i-}} {{lang|yrl|s-}} |{{lang|yrl|aẽtá}} |{{lang|yrl|ta-}} |}

Examples of Personal Pronouns in use:

{{interlinear|lang=yrl|indent=2 |inde re-kuntai amu nheenga |2SG 2sgA-speak other.entity language |"You speak another language."}}

{{interlinear | lang = yrl | indent = 2|isé se-ruri a-iku.|1SG 1sgE-be.happy 1sgA.be|"I am happy." }}

In Nheengatu, personal pronouns can also take the form of prefixes. These prefixes are necessary in the usage of verbs as well as postpositions. In the latter case, free forms of the pronouns are not permitted. Moore illustrates this with the following:

{{interlinear | lang = yrl | indent = 2|i) se-irũ ii) *isé-irũ|{} 1SG(prefix)-with {} 1SG-with|{} {‘with me’} {} {‘with me’}| }}

The free form of the first person singular pronoun cannot be combined with the postposition word for 'with'.<ref name=":4" />

The second set of pronouns are interrogative, and are used in question words.

{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" style="border-collapse:collapse" |- |   ||{{lang|yrl|mãʔã}}||||'what, who, whom' |- | ||{{lang|yrl|awá}}||||'who, whom' |}

=== Verbal affixes === According to Moore, throughout the evolution of Nheengatu, processes such as compounding were greatly reduced. Moore cites a summary by Rodrigues (1986), stating that Nheegatu lost Tupinambá's system of five moods (indicative, imperative, gerund, circumstantial, and subjunctive), converging into a single indicative mood. Despite such changes alongside influences from Portuguese, however, derivational and inflectional affixation was still intact from Tupinambá. A select number of modern affixes arose via grammaticization of what used to be lexical items, such as the former lexical item {{lang|yrl|etá}} 'many'. Over time and grammaticization, this word became to plural suffix {{lang|yrl|-itá}}.<ref name=":4" />

Apart from the pronominal prefixes shown in Table (3), there are also verbal prefixes.{{sfn |Moore |Facundes |Pires |1994}} Verbs in Nheengatu fall into three mutually exclusive categories: intransitive, transitive, and stative. By attaching verbal prefixes to these verbs, a sentence can be considered well-formed.

{| class="wikitable" ! !Singular !Plural |- !1 |{{lang|yrl|a-}} |{{lang|yrl|ya-}} |- !2 |{{lang|yrl|re-}} |{{lang|yrl|pe-}} |- !3 |{{lang|yrl|u-}} |{{lang|yrl|aẽtá-ú}} |}

Examples of verbal prefixes:

{{interlinear | lang = yrl | indent = 2|i) a-puraki ii) a-mũỹã|{} 1sg-work {} 1sg-make|{} {‘I work.’} {} {I make (an object).’}| }}

In these examples, the verbal first person singular prefix {{lang|yrl|a-}} is added to the intransitive verb for 'work' and transitive verb for 'make' respective. Only when prefixed with this verbal clitic can they be considered well-formed sentences.<ref name=":4" />

=== Reduplication === Another morphological feature of Nheengatu is reduplication, which Cruz (2011) explains in her grammar to be employed differently based on the community of Nheengatu speakers. This is a morphological process that was originally present in Tupinambá, and it tends to be used to indicate a repeated action.{{sfn |Moore |Facundes |Pires |1994}}

{{interlinear | lang = yrl | indent = 2|u-tuka~tuka ukena|3SG-REDUP~knock door|"He is knocking on the door (repeatedly)." }}

In this example, the reduplicated segment is {{lang|yrl|tuka}}, which is the Nheengatu verb for 'knock'. This surfaces as a fully reduplicated segment. However, partial reduplication also occurs in this language. In the following example elicited by Cruz, the speaker reduplicates the first two syllables (a CVCV sequence) of the stem word.

{{interlinear | lang = yrl | indent = 2|Apiga ita sasi~sasiara.|men PL REDUP~BE.sad|"The men are sad." }}

Another point to note from the above example is the usage of the plural word {{lang|yrl|ita}}. Cruz (2011) highlights that there is a distinction in the usage of reduplication between communities. The speakers of Içana and the upper region of the Rio Negro use Nheengatu as their main language, and reduplication occurs in the stative verbs, expressing intensity of a property, and the plural word {{lang|yrl|ita}} doesn't necessarily need to be used. In Santa Isabel do Rio Negro and the more urbanized areas of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, bilingualism is common, with Portuguese serving as the primary language. In this context, these speakers also employ reduplication to indicate the intensity of a property, but the plural {{lang|yrl|ita}} must be used if the subject is plural.

== Sample texts == ; Pedro Luiz Sympson (1876) : {{lang|yrl|A! xé ánga, hu emoté i Iára. / Xé abú iu hu rori ána Tupã recé xá ceiépi. / Maá recé hu senú i miaçúa suhi apipe abasáua: / ahé recé upáem miraitá hu senecáre iché aié pepasáua. / Maá recé Tupã hu munha iché áramau páem maá turuçusáua, / i r'ira puranga eté. / Y ahé icatusáua xé hu muçaim ramé, r'ira péaca upáem r'iapéaca ramé, maá haé aitá hu sequéié.}}

; Pe. Afonso Casanovas (2006) : {{lang|yrl|Aikwé paá yepé tetama puranga waá yepé ipawa wasú rimbiwa upé. Kwa paá, wakaraitá retama. Muíri akayú, paá, kurasí ara ramé, kwá uakaraitá aywã ta usú tawatá apekatú rupí. Muíri viaje, tausú rundé, aintá aría waimí uyupuí aitá piripiriaka suikiri waá irũ, ti arã tausaã yumasí tauwatá pukusawa.}}

; Eduardo de Almeida Navarro (2011) : {{lang|yrl|1910 ramé, mairamé aé uriku 23 akaiú, aé uiupiru ana uuatá-uatá Amazônia rupi, upitá mími musapíri akaiú pukusaua. Aé ukunheséri ana siía mira upurungitá uaá nheengatu, asuí aé umunhã nheengarisaua-itá marandua-itá irũmu Barbosa Rodrigues umupinima ana uaá Poranduba Amazonense resé.}}

; Aline da Cruz (2011) : {{lang|yrl|A partir di kui te, penhe nunka mais pesu pekuntai aitekua yane nheenga. Yande kuri, mira ita, yasu yakuntai. Ixe kuri asu akuntai perupi. Ixe kua mira. Ixe asu akuntai perupi. Penhe kuri tiã pesu pekuntai. Pepuderi kuri penheengari yalegrairã yane felisidaderã.}}

; Sample from book ''Yasú Yapurũgitá Yẽgatú'' (2014) : {{lang|yrl|Se mãya uyutima nãnã kupixawa upé. Nãnã purãga yaú arama yawẽtu asuí purãga mĩgaú arama yuiri. Aikué siya nãnã nũgaraita. Purãga usemu mamé iwí yumunaniwa praya irũmu.}}

; Roger Manuel López Yusuino (Venezuelan Nheengatu) (2013) : {{lang|yrl|Tukana aé yepé virá purangava asoi orikú bando ipinima sava, ogustari oyengari kuemaite asoi osemo ara ramé osikari arama ombaó vasaí iyá. Tukana yepé virá porangava yambaó arama asoi avasemo aé kaáope asoi garapé rimbiva ropí.}}{{Fix|text=Where are the English glosses for the texts?}}

== Notes == {{notelist|30em}}

==References== {{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography=== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite journal |last=Navarro |first=Eduardo de Almeida |author-link=Eduardo de Almeida Navarro |last2=Ávila |first2=Marcel Twardowsky |last3=Trevisan |first3=Rodrigo Godinho |date=2017 |title=O Nheengatu entre a vida e a morte: a tradução literária como possível instrumento de sua revitalização lexical |trans-title=Nheengatu between life and death: literary translation as a possible instrument of its lexical revitalization |url=https://revistas.editora.ufcg.edu.br/index.php/RLR/article/view/1619/1542 |url-status=live |journal=Revista Letras Raras |language=Portuguese |volume=6 |issue=2 |doi=10.35572/rlr.v6i2.768 |issn=2317-2347 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250121143904/https://revistas.editora.ufcg.edu.br/index.php/RLR/article/view/1619/1542 |archive-date=21 January 2025 |access-date=14 October 2025 |doi-access=free}} * {{Cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Denny |author-link1=Denny Moore |url=http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/survey-reports/survey-report-8.07-moore-etal.pdf |title=Nheengatu (Língua Geral Amazônica), its History, and the Effects of Language Contact |last2=Facundes |first2=Sidney |last3=Pires |first3=Nádia |publisher=University of California |year=1994 |series=Survey of California and Other Indian Languages |location=Berkeley |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206160711/http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/survey-reports/survey-report-8.07-moore-etal.pdf |archive-date=Dec 6, 2017 |url-status=dead}} * {{cite journal |last=Rodrigues |first=Aryon |year=1996 |title=As línguas gerais sul-americanas |url=http://www.etnolinguistica.org/artigo:rodrigues-1996 |journal=Papia |edition=2 |publisher=Etnolinguística |volume=4 |pages=6–18}} * {{Cite book |last=Navarro |first=Eduardo De Almeida |author-link=Eduardo de Almeida Navarro |title=Método moderno de tupi antigo: a língua do Brasil dos primeiros séculos |publisher=Global |year=2005 |edition=3 |location=São Paulo |language=pt}} * {{Cite book |last=Navarro |first=Eduardo De Almeida |author-link=Eduardo de Almeida Navarro |url=https://tupi.fflch.usp.br/sites/tupi.fflch.usp.br/files/CURSO%20DE%20LÍNGUA%20GERAL%20(NHEENGATU).pdf |title=Curso de Língua Geral (Nheengatu ou Tupi Moderno) a língua das origens da civilização Amazônica |year=2011 |isbn=978-85-912620-0-7 |edition=1 |location=São Paulo |language=pt}} * {{citation |last=da Cruz |first=Aline |title=Fonologia e Gramática do Nheengatú: A língua geral falada pelos povos Baré, Warekena e Baniwa |year=2011 |url=http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/004280/bookpart.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307093829/https://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/004280/bookpart.pdf |archive-date=Mar 7, 2014 |url-status=dead |publisher=Lot Publications |language=pt |isbn=978-94-6093-063-8}} * {{citation |last=Lima Schwade |first=Michéli Carolíni de Deus |title=Descrição Fonético-Fonológica do Nheengatu Falado no Médio Rio Amazonas |date=2014 |url=https://tede.ufam.edu.br/bitstream/tede/4610/2/Disserta%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20-%20Mich%C3%A9li%20C%20de%20D%20Schwade.pdf |location=Manaus |publisher=Federal University of Amazonas}} {{refend}}

== External links == {{Incubator|code=yrl}} {{div col}} *{{Citation |last=Silva |first=Beto |title=Nativos digitais |year=2021 |url=https://www.istoedinheiro.com.br/nativos-digitais/ |publisher=ISTOÉ Dinheiro}}. *{{Cite web |title=Luso-brazilian documentary film called "Nheengatu", it shows indigenous and native speak Nheengatu in daily life |url=https://www.rtp.pt/play/p9726/nheengatu-a-lingua-da-amazonia}}. * {{Citation |title=Nhengatu |url=http://www.archive.org/details/nheengatu |publisher=Archive}}. * {{Cite web |title=Pres.casa-lllegues |url=http://www10.gencat.net/pres_casa_llengues/AppJava/frontend/llengues_detall.jsp?id=178&idioma=5 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120084852/http://www10.gencat.net/pres_casa_llengues/AppJava/frontend/llengues_detall.jsp?id=178&idioma=5 |archive-date=20 November 2012 |access-date=29 November 2021 |publisher=Gencat}} * {{Cite web |title=Nheengatu |url=http://chs.inpa.gov.br/nheengatu.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709123256/http://chs.inpa.gov.br/nheengatu.php |archive-date=9 July 2009 |access-date=29 March 2006 |publisher=INPA — Núcleo de Pesquisas em Ciências Humanas e Sociais |location=Brazil}}. * {{Cite web |title=Nheengatu e dialeto caipira |url=http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215070133/http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm |archive-date=15 December 2018 |access-date=29 March 2006 |publisher=Sosaci}}. * {{Citation |title=Amazon |date=28 August 2005 |journal=The New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/28/international/americas/28amazon.html?ei=5090&en=2dbb31357d010164&ex=1282881600&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=all}}. *[https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLx_dYMdXrl39njfZHnEY0WkxVhBuS1OOg Playlist with video classes by Prof Eduardo Navarro and support material in PDF in the description of the playlist] *[https://www.jw.org/yrl Website of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nheengatu, with texts, videos and audios] {{div col end}}

Category:Endangered Tupian languages Category:Indigenous languages of Northern Amazonia Category:Languages of Colombia Category:Languages of Venezuela Category:Tupi language Category:Tupi–Guarani languages Category:Tupian languages Category:Languages of Brazil Category:Languages of South America Category:Languages of the Americas Category:Indigenous languages of South America Category:Indigenous languages of the Americas Category:Endangered languages of South America Category:Endangered Indigenous languages of the Americas Category:Indigenous languages of Western Amazonia