Ovambo language

{{Short description|Bantu language}} {{distinguish|Lala-Bisa language{{!}}Ambo language (Zambia)|Ambo language (Nigeria)}} {{Infobox language |name=Owambo |nativename=''Oshiwambo'' |states=[[Angola]], [[Namibia]] |ethnicity=[[Ovambo people|Owambo]] |speakers=1,441,000 |date=1990 |ref=e18 |familycolor=Niger-Congo |fam2=[[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]] |fam3=[[Volta–Congo languages]] |fam4=[[Benue–Congo languages|Benue–Congo]] |fam5=[[Bantoid languages]] |fam6=[[Southern Bantoid languages|Southern Bantoid]] |fam7=[[Bantu languages|Bantu]] |fam8=[[Kavango – Southwest Bantu languages|Kavango – Southwest]] |fam9=[[Kavango – Southwest Bantu languages|Southwest Bantu]] |stand1=[[Kwanyama dialect|Kwanyama]] |stand2=[[Ndonga dialect|Ndonga]] |official=[[Namibia]] |lc1=kua |ld1=[[Kwanyama dialect|Kwanyama]] |lc2=ndo |ld2=[[Ndonga dialect|Ndonga]] |lc3=kwm|ld3=[[Kwambi dialect|Kwambi]] |lc4=lnb|ld4=[[Mbalanhu dialect|Mbalanhu]] (Central Wambo) |lc5=nne|ld5=[[Ngandjera dialect|Ngandjera]] |guthrie=R.20 (R.21–24,211–218,241–242) |glotto=ndon1253 |glottorefname=Ndonga (R.20) }} {{Infobox NC name|Omuwambo|Aawambo, Ovawambo|Oshiwambo|Owambo, Ouwambo|Ambo}} [[File: Distribution of Oshiwambo in Namibia.png|thumb|Modern-day distribution of Oshiwambo speakers in [[Namibia]]]] [[File:WIKITONGUES- Hannah speaking Oshiwambo.webm|thumb|An Ovambo speaker, recorded in [[Namibia]].]]

The '''Ovambo''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|pron|ɒ|ˈ|v|æ|m|b|oʊ}}) language or '''Oshiwambo''', also known as the '''Namibian''' language,{{cn|date=March 2026}} is a [[Dialect continuum|dialect cluster]] spoken by the [[Ovambo people]] in southern [[Angola]] and northern [[Namibia]], of which the written standards are [[Kwanyama dialect|Kwanyama]] and [[Ndonga dialect|Ndonga]].

The native name for the language is ''Oshiwambo'' (also written ''Oshivambo''), which is also used specifically for the Kwanyama and Ndonga dialects. It is the largest spoken local language in Namibia,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Namibia – People |url=http://www.newafricanfrontiers.com/countries/namibia/people-of-namibia.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130065849/http://newafricanfrontiers.com/countries/namibia/people-of-namibia.htm |archive-date=January 30, 2009 |access-date=May 16, 2009 |website=New African Frontiers}}</ref> particularly by the [[Ovambo people]].

The language is closely related to that of the [[Herero people|Herero]] and [[Himba people|Himba]], the [[Herero language]] (''Otjiherero''). An obvious sign of proximity is the prefix used for language and dialect names, [[Proto-Bantu language|Proto-Bantu]] ''*ki-'' (class 7, as in the name of the [[Swahili language]], ''Kiswahili''), which in Herero has evolved to ''Otji-'' and in Ovambo further to ''Oshi-''.

==History== {{main article|Ovamboland}} After Namibia's independence in 1990, the area previously known as [[Ovamboland]] was divided into the [[Ohangwena Region|Ohangwena]], [[Omusati Region|Omusati]], [[Oshana Region|Oshana]] and [[Oshikoto Region]]s. The population, estimated at between 700,000 and 750,000, fluctuates remarkably. This is because of the indiscriminate border drawn up by the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and [[German colonial empire|German Empires]] during colonial rule, which cut through the Oukwanyama tribal area, placing some in [[Angola]] and others in Namibia. This results in regular cross-border movement.

There are approximately one million Oshiwambo speakers in Namibia and Angola.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Oshiwambo (Ndonga) |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=1114 |access-date=2021-03-11 |via=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |archive-date=2021-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415042931/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=1114 |url-status=live }}</ref> Though it is mainly spoken in the northern regions of Namibia, it is widely spoken across the rest of the country by populations of migrant workers from Ovamboland. These workers comprise a large part of the population in many towns, particularly in the south, where there are jobs in the mining industry. For example, in [[Lüderitz]], an 18-hour drive from Ovamboland, at least 50% of the population speaks Oshiwambo.

==Name== The names ''Ambo'' and ''Ovambo'' appear to have originally been exonyms. Despite extensive speculation, their origin remains unknown.

The country was called ''Ovamboland'' and ''Amboland'' by the [[German Empire|German]] colonial authorities. In English, ''Ovamboland'' predominates, though ''Ambo country'' is sometimes used, and in English publications from [[Namibia]], ''Owamboland, Wamboland,'' and ''Owambo'' are seen. The endemic forms are ''Owambo kingdoms are'' Ndonga, Kwanyama and Kwambi.

The people are generally called the ''Ovambo'' or ''Ambo'' in English. The endemic forms are ''Aawambo'' (Ndonga) and ''Ovawambo'' (Kwanyama); the singular in both cases is ''Omuwambo''. The language is generally called ''Ovambo, Ambo,'' or ''Oshiwambo'' in English; the endonym in both standards is ''Oshiwambo.''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saarelma-Maunumaa |first=Minna |title=Edhina Ekogidho – Names as Links: The Encounter between African and European Anthroponymic Systems among the Ambo People in Namibia |date=2003 |publisher=SKS Finnish Literature Society |isbn=978-951-746-529-8 |location=Helsinki |language=en |doi=10.21435/sflin.11 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Ovambo tribes and dialects == There are eight dialects, including the two written standards Kwanyama and Ndonga. Oshiwambo culture is more dominant in the northern part of the country.

The following table contains the names, areas, dialect names and the locations of the Ovambo dialects according to T. E. Tirronen's ''Ndonga-English Dictionary''. The table also contains information concerning which [[noun class]] of Proto-Bantu the words belong to.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tirronen |first=Toivo Emil |title=Ndonga–English Dictionary |date=1986 |publisher=Oshinyanyangidho shongeleki ELCIN |location=Oniipa, Namibia}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" !width=200|Area !width=130| Tribe !width=130|Dialect !width=250|Location |- | '''Classes 9''' (*ny > on-), '''11''' (uu-/ou-) || '''Class 2''' (*wa-, a-) || '''Class 7''' (*ki > oshi-) || |- |[[Ondonga]] || Aa-ndonga || [[Ndonga dialect]] || Southern [[Ovamboland]] |- |[[Uukwambi|Uu-kwambi]] || Aa-kwambi || [[Kwambi dialect]] || Central Ovamboland |- |[[Ongandjera|O-ngandjera]] || Aa-ngandjera || Otshi-ngandjera || Central Ovamboland |- |Uu-kwaluudhi || Aa-kwaluudhi || Otshi-kwaluudhi || Western Ovamboland |- |O-mbalantu || Aa-mbalantu || Oshi-mbalantu || Western Ovamboland |- |Uu-kolonkadhi || Aa-kolonkadhi || Otshi-kolonkadhi || Western Ovamboland |- |[[Oukwanyama]] || Ova-kwanyama || [[Kwanyama dialect]] || Northern and Eastern Ovamboland, [[Angola]] |- |Eunda|| Unda || Oshi-unda|| northwest, Epalela vicinity |}

Maho (2009) lists the following as distinct languages in the Ovambo cluster:<ref name="Guthrie"/>

{{tree list}} *'''Ovambo''' **Kwanyama ***Kafima ***Evale ***Mbandja ***Mbalanhu ***Ndongwena ***Kwankwa ***Dombondola ***Esinga **Ndonga **Kwambi **Ngandjera **Kwaluudhi ***Kolonkadhi-Eunda {{tree list/end}}

== Sample text in Ovambo (Kwanyama) == ''Omupangi umwe okwa li a nyeka nge embo olo, ndele ta lesha oshipalanyole shalo, nokupula nge ta kondjifa ngeenge ohandi ka ninga umwe womEendombwedi daJehova ile hasho.''

'''Translation'''

A nurse grabbed the book from me, looked at the cover, and demanded to know whether I was going to become one of Jehovah's Witnesses.

==References== {{Reflist|2}}

==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070526114142/http://www.panafril10n.org/wikidoc/pmwiki.php/PanAfrLoc/Oshiwambo PanAfrican L10n page on Oshiwambo]

[[Category:Ovambo language| ]]