Netarts Bay

{{Short description|Bay in Oregon}} {{Use American English|date=July 2025}} thumbnail|right|Aerial view of Netarts Bay thumb|Netarts Bay in February 2009 '''Netarts Bay''' is an estuarine bay on the northern Oregon Coast of the U.S. state of Oregon, located about 5 miles (8.0 km) southwest of Tillamook. The unincorporated community of Netarts is located on the north end of the bay and Netarts Bay Shellfish Preserve, managed by Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, is located on the south side of the bay.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dfw.state.or.us/mrp/shellfish/seacor/findings_netarts_bay.asp|title=SEACOR – Findings, Netarts|website=Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife}}</ref> The sand spit on the west side of Netarts bay is part of Cape Lookout State Park.

The bay is approximately 5 by 1.5 miles (8.0 by 2.4 km) and totals 2,325 acres (9.41 km2) in area, making it Oregon's seventh largest bay.<ref name=":0">Advisory Committee to the State Land Board (July 1972). [http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/dspace/bitstream/1957/3790/1/Netarts_Bay_Estuary_ocr.pdf "An Inventory of Filled Lands in Netarts Bay Estuary"] (pdf). Oregon State University Scholars Archive. p. 2. Retrieved 2008-07-25.</ref> Of that, 812 acres (3.29 km2) are permanently submerged—the balance of 1,513 acres (6.12 km2) is intertidal land.<ref name=":0" /> It experiences a maximum tidal range of 9 feet (3 m).

The bay is part of a watershed of 13 square miles (34 km2)<ref name=":0" /> that is fed by at least 16 small creeks. From north to south, there is Fall Creek, Hodgdon Creek, O'Hara Creek, Rice Creek, two unnamed creeks, Yager Creek, three unnamed creeks, Whiskey Creek, an unnamed creek, Austin Creek, two unnamed creeks, and Jackson Creek.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mapper.acme.com/?ll=45.40713,-123.94501&z=14&t=T|title=ACME Mapper 2.1|website=mapper.acme.com|access-date=2017-02-24}}</ref>

==Physical characteristics ==

=== Tidal dynamics ===

Like other estuaries along the Oregon Coast, Netarts Bay experiences semi-diurnal tides (two high tides and two low tides per day). At mean low water (the lower low tide), the bay contains approximately 113 million cubic feet of water. Contrasting that with that a mean higher high tide volume of approximately 450 million cubic feet, the bay's tidal prism is about 33 million cubic feet. The tidal range varies between 1.5 and 3 meters<ref name=":14">{{cite journal | last1 = Davis | first1 = M. | last2 = McIntire | first2 = C. | year = 1983 | title = Effects of physical gradients on the production dynamics of sediment-associated algae | journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series| volume = 13 | issue = 2–3| pages = 103–114 | doi=10.3354/meps013103| bibcode = 1983MEPS...13..103D | doi-access = free }}</ref>(5 – 9 feet), which can vary the amount of water (40–90%) flushed out of the estuary during each tidal cycle. With a mean tidal period of 745 minutes,<ref name=":13">Glanzman, C., Glenne, Bard, Burgess, Fred, & Oregon State University. Engineering Experiment Station. (1971). ''Tidal hydraulics, flushing characteristics and water quality in Netarts Bay, Oregon : Final report''. Corvallis, Or.: Engineering Experiment Station, Oregon State University.</ref> bay waters turn over, on average, twice a day. Mixing within the estuary is dependent on local winds and tides. Horizontal mixing is limited,<ref name=":14" /> although vertical mixing is strong.<ref name=":13" /> Little to no vertical variations in temperature and salinity prevent density-driven current velocities, indicating that Netarts Bay is a well-mixed estuary. This has been further corroborated by water quality and dye studies.<ref name=":13" /> thumb|http://www.dfw.state.or.us/mrp/shellfish/seacor/findings_netarts_bay.asp

=== Sediment input and erosion ===

Annually, around 2500 tons of sediment are deposited into the bay.<ref name=":14" /> An observed 10% decrease in mean high water volume between 1957 and 1969<ref name=":13" /> in conjunction with high sedimentation rates suggests that the bay is gradually filling with sediment over time.<ref>Dicken, S., Hanneson, Bill, & Johannessen, Carl L. (1961). ''Some recent physical changes of the Oregon coast''. Eugene: Dept. of Geography, University of Oregon.</ref> LIDAR data has shown the strong erosional response of the Netarts Littoral Cell (a 14-km long stretch of beach tucked between the neighboring Cape Meares and Cape Lookout Headlands)<ref>Revell, D., Komar, P., & Sallenger, A. (2001). Application of LIDAR to erosion hotspots in the netarts littoral cell, Oregon. ''Illumina Conference Papers Index - Unstructured,'' Illumina Conference Papers Index - unstructured.</ref> to ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) forcing. During strong El Niño events (e.g. 1997–98), as much as 70,000 cubic meters of sand can be transported.<ref name=":15">{{cite journal | last1 = Komar | first1 = P | year = 2002 | title = An Application of LIDAR to Analyses of El Niño Erosion in the Netarts Littoral Cell, Oregon | journal = Journal of Coastal Research | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 792–801 }}</ref> Waves propagating from the southwest erode the southern portion of the spit and transport sediment northward, resulting in northward movement of the bay inlet. This erosion-deposition pattern is amplified by rip currents that create erosional "hot spots" along the spit. Cape Lookout State Park, situated within one of these hotspots, is subject to this intense erosional forcing.<ref name=":15" />

=== Geology ===

Within the last 5 million years, differential erosion patterns on the neighboring Cape Meares and Cape Lookout headlands formed the embayment in which Netarts Bay now sits.<ref name=":14" /> Sediment cores obtained from within the bay have provided geological evidence for the existence of large, regularly occurring megathrust earthquakes throughout northwestern Oregon and the larger Cascadia Subduction Zone. Carbon-14 dating of the sediments suggest recurrence rates for these earthquakes to be between 400 and 600 years,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pnsn.org/outreach/earthquakesources/csz|title=Cascadia Subduction Zone {{!}} Pacific Northwest Seismic Network|website=Pacific Northwest Seismic Network|language=en|access-date=2017-03-01}}</ref> and that at least 4 major quakes occurred within the last 3000 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hawkes|first1=Andrea D.|last2=Scott|first2=David B.|last3=Lipps|first3=Jere H.|last4=Combellick|first4=Rod|title=Evidence for possible precursor events of megathrust earthquakes on the west coast of North America|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|volume=117|issue=7|doi=10.1130/b25455.1|year=2005|page=996|bibcode=2005GSAB..117..996H}}</ref> Sharp sand-layer contacts in the sediment record (deposited by earthquake-generated tsunami waves) indicate post-quake sinking of the marsh.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Atwater|first1=Brian F.|last2=Nelson|first2=Alan R.|last3=Clague|first3=John J.|last4=Carver|first4=Gary A.|last5=Yamaguchi|first5=David K.|last6=Bobrowsky|first6=Peter T.|last7=Bourgeois|first7=Joanne|last8=Darienzo|first8=Mark E.|last9=Grant|first9=Wendy C.|s2cid=128758542|date=2012-07-31|title=Summary of Coastal Geologic Evidence for Past Great Earthquakes at the Cascadia Subduction Zone|journal=Earthquake Spectra|language=EN|volume=11|issue=1|pages=1–18|doi=10.1193/1.1585800}}</ref> This phenomenon, known as coseismic subsidence, provides strong geological evidence for the regular occurrence of major earthquakes occurring within the Cascadia Subduction Zone.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Long | first1 = A. | last2 = Shennan | first2 = I. | year = 1998 | title = Models of rapid relative sea-level change in Washington and Oregon, USA | journal = Holocene | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 129–142 | doi=10.1191/095968398666306493| bibcode = 1998Holoc...8..129L | s2cid = 129364612 }}</ref> Remnants of fire hearths from Native American settlements along nearby Nehalem and Salmon Rivers provide additional evidence of land subsidence (1–2 meters) resultant from subduction-zone earthquakes.<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last1=Minor|first1=Rick|last2=Grant|first2=Wendy C.|year=1996|title=Earthquake-Induced Subsidence and Burial of Late Holocene Archaeological Sites, Northern Oregon Coast|journal=American Antiquity|volume=61|issue=4|pages=772–781|doi=10.2307/282017|jstor=282017}}</ref>

== Biology ==

=== Shellfish ===

thumb|upright|Olympia oyster on the half shell Olympia oysters are the only native oyster to the West Coast of North America. The establishment of a commercial fishery in the 1860s<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last1=Groth|first1=Scott|last2=Rumrill|first2=Steve|s2cid=55511421|date=2009-03-01|title=History of Olympia Oysters (Ostrea lurida Carpenter 1864) in Oregon Estuaries, and a Description of Recovering Populations in Coos Bay|journal=Journal of Shellfish Research|volume=28|issue=1|pages=51–58|doi=10.2983/035.028.0111|issn=0730-8000}}</ref> confirms a historical population within Netarts bay, with evidence of harvesting along the West Coast of North America by humans going back 4000 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2002-01-01|title=Books in Review|jstor=10.1525/gfc.2002.2.2.103|journal=Gastronomica|volume=2|issue=2|pages=103–117|doi=10.1525/gfc.2002.2.2.103}}</ref> Due to over harvesting, increased consumption, and the export of adult oysters to San Francisco Bay, oyster populations declined in the late 1800s and the commercial fishery collapsed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kirby|first=Michael Xavier|date=2004-08-31|title=Fishing down the coast: Historical expansion and collapse of oyster fisheries along continental margins|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|language=en|volume=101|issue=35|pages=13096–13099|doi=10.1073/pnas.0405150101|issn=0027-8424|pmc=516522|pmid=15326294|bibcode=2004PNAS..10113096K|doi-access=free}}</ref> The last known naturally occurring population of Olympia oysters in Netarts was surveyed in 1954.<ref>{{Cite report|last=D.|first=Marriage, Lowell|date=1958-01-01|title=The Bay Clams of Oregon: Their Identification, Relative Abundance, and Distribution|language=en-US|hdl=1957/59730}}</ref> Subsequent field surveys in 1979 and 1992 did not find any Olympia oysters within the bay.<ref name=":20" /> Potential factors preventing population recovery post fishery collapse include: habitat degradation, sedimentation by increased motorized boat use, suffocation by burrowing shrimp, pollution, predation by invasive Japanese oyster drill and parasitism by non-native flat worm<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trimble|first1=Alan C.|last2=Ruesink|first2=Jennifer L.|last3=Dumbauld|first3=Brett R.|s2cid=84339161|date=2009-03-01|title=Factors Preventing the Recovery of a Historically Overexploited Shellfish Species, Ostrea lurida Carpenter 1864|journal=Journal of Shellfish Research|volume=28|issue=1|pages=97–106|doi=10.2983/035.028.0116|issn=0730-8000}}</ref> After their 1992 survey, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife began a large scale restoration attempt in Netarts, setting out 9 million spat between 1993-1998.<ref name=":20" /> Olympia oyster populations did not return to historical levels, but surveys in 2004 detected low populations of transplanted oysters in the bay.<ref name=":21">{{Cite thesis |author=Archer, Pamela Emily |date=2008-08-06|title=Re-establishment of the native oyster, Ostrea conchaphila, in Netarts Bay, Oregon, USA |access-date=2021-11-22 |url=https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/zs25xd822 |hdl=1957/9542}}</ref><ref name=":20" /> Anecdotal observations from residents also suggest small pockets of naturally occurring oysters subsist in the southwest corner of the bay.<ref name=":21" /> Juvenile oysters planted on adult oyster shell as substrate demonstrated that Olympia oysters can grow and reproduce in the bay.<ref name=":21" /> Small scale, investigative restoration projects run by The Nature Conservancy were undertaken in 2005 and 2006<ref name=":21" /> to rebuild populations of Olympia oysters in Netarts Bay by adding shell cultch with set Olympia oysters to the bay in hopes of increasing settlement substrate and broodstock. Early monitoring of these sites found reproductive tissue and brooded larvae in adults and recruitment of larvae on shell substrate, but monitoring of the site ceased in 2007.<ref name=":21" /> Restoration interests are driven by culinary interest in Olympia oysters, the potential economic benefits of a commercial fishery, and the significant ecosystem services that Olympia oysters provide, including filtering the water and providing substrate for other organisms.<ref name=":21" />

Four species of bay clam are also found in Netarts Bay.<ref name=":12"/>

=== Marine flora ===

The main primary producers of the bay are eelgrass (''Zostera marina,'' a type of seagrass), microscopic diatoms, and sea lettuce (''Ulva enteromorpha,'' a type of macroalgae). Most of these species are found on mudflats, which account for about two-thirds of the total area of Netarts Bay.<ref name=":5">McIntire, C.D., Davis, M.W., Kentula, M.E., Whiting, M. (1983). Benthic Autotrophy in Netarts Bay, Oregon. Report prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR, USA.</ref> thumb|Eelgrass bed (''Zostera marina)'' Eelgrass beds are found in the intertidal and subtidal mudflats, and biologically interact with oyster beds in a few ways: The pseudofeces and feces of bivalves have been found to fertilize seagrass by increasing bioavailable macronutrients such as ammonium and phosphate in sediments.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal | last1 = Peterson | first1 = B. | last2 = Heck Jr | first2 = K.L. | year = 2001 | title = Positive interactions between suspension-feeding bivalves and seagrass – a facultative mutualism | journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series | volume = 213 | pages = 143–55 | doi=10.3354/meps213143| bibcode = 2001MEPS..213..143P | doi-access = free }}</ref> Bivalves also filter phytoplankton from the water column, a process which reduces water turbidity, allows more light to penetrate through the water column,<ref name=":11">{{cite journal | last1 = Tallis | first1 = H.M. | last2 = Ruesink | first2 = J.L. | last3 = Dumbauld | first3 = B. | last4 = Hacker | first4 = S. | last5 = Wisehart | first5 = L.M. | s2cid = 83707787 | year = 2009 | title = Oysters and aquaculture affect eelgrass density and productivity in a pacific northwest estuary | journal = Journal of Shellfish Research | volume = 28 | issue = 2| pages = 251–61 | doi=10.2983/035.028.0207}}</ref> and reduces the number of epiphytes living on seagrass leaves.<ref name=":6" /> Eelgrass is important as food for waterfowl, habitat for juvenile fish, and as physical shapers of the bay.<ref name=":7">Stout, H. (1976). ''The natural resources and human utilization of Netarts Bay, Oregon''. Corvallis: Oregon State University.</ref> The growing season is from April to October.<ref name=":7" />

Diatoms are found in benthic and pelagic environments of the bay, and also as epiphytes living on other marine plants.<ref name=":5" /> There is a total of 336 diatom taxa identified in the bay, 50 of which are planktonic, 123 of which are epiphytic, and 282 of which are benthic (about 111 taxa overlap the epiphytic and benthic categories).<ref name=":12" /> Benthic diatom assemblage distributions correspond to sediment type, grain size, and wave energy.<ref name=":12" />

Sea lettuce, a macroalgae otherwise known as green nori, grows usually only in the summer.<ref name=":5" /> Seasonal upwelling along the Pacific North American coast has been correlated to increased sea lettuce productivity and decreased eelgrass productivity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hessing-Lewis | first1 = M. L. | last2 = Hacker | first2 = S. D. | year = 2013 | title = Upwelling-influence, macroalgal blooms, and seagrass production; temporal trends from latitudinal and local scales in northeast Pacific estuaries | journal = Limnology & Oceanography | volume = 58 | issue = 3| pages = 1103–12 | doi=10.4319/lo.2013.58.3.1103 | doi-access=free| bibcode = 2013LimOc..58.1103H }}</ref>

Japanese eelgrass (''Zostera japonica'') is an introduced species found in bays and estuaries ranging from Oregon to British Columbia, Canada.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Shafer | first1 = D. J. | last2 = Kaldy | first2 = J. E. | last3 = Gaeckle | first3 = J. L. | s2cid = 12614488 | year = 2014 | title = Science and management of the introduced seagrass ''Zostera japonica'' in North America | journal = Environmental Management | volume = 53 | issue = 1| pages = 147–62 | doi=10.1007/s00267-013-0172-z| pmid = 24100942 | bibcode = 2014EnMan..53..147S }}</ref> It was likely brought over by Pacific oyster seed shipments that began in the early 20th century used by commercial shellfisheries along the Pacific northwest coast.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Harrison | first1 = P. G. | last2 = Bigley | first2 = R. E. | year = 1982 | title = The recent introduction of the seagrass ''Zostera japonica'' Aschers. and Graebn. to the Pacific Coast of North America | journal = Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences | volume = 39 | issue = 12| pages = 1642–8 | doi=10.1139/f82-221}}</ref>

== Native Americans and Netarts Bay == Netarts Bay and sand spit are within the historic territory of the Tillamook Indians, which ranged from Tillamook head in the north to the Nestucca River in the south and from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Coast Range summit in the east.<ref name=":3">Bonacker, G., Martin, Robert C., Frenkel, Robert E., & Oregon. Natural Area Preserves Advisory Committee. (1979). [https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/21394/PreserveanalysisNetartsSandSpit.pdf?sequence=3 ''Preserve analysis : Netarts Sand Spit''. Salem, Or.]: Oregon Natural Area Preserves Advisory Committee.</ref> Cape Lookout State Park contains 13 suspected archaeological sites, including 6 on Netarts sand spit representing at least one and perhaps up to three major villages.<ref name=":3" /> Archaeological excavations of Netarts Sandspit Village (35-TI-1) show evidence of a major Tillamook village that was occupied at least three separate times between 1300–1700 A.D.<ref name=":9">Newman, T. (1959). Tillamook prehistory and its relation to the Northwest coast culture area. University of Oregon.</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Losey|first=Robert|s2cid=161764749|year=2005|title=House Remains at the Netarts Sandspit Village, Oregon|journal=Journal of Field Archaeology|volume=30|issue=4|pages=401–417|doi=10.1179/009346905791072215}}</ref> Excavations revealed semisubterranean cedar plank structures with single pitched roofs, numerous hearths and fire pits, and middens around all house pits.<ref name=":82"/><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":9" /> The village contained at least 13 house pits<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":2" /> and may have contained up to 30–40 house pits.<ref name=":82" /> It has been described as "the most impressive house pit site on State Park lands along the Oregon Coast."<ref name=":82" />

Numerous artifacts were found during excavation of 35-Ti-1 in the 1950s.<ref name=":9" /> Some of the bone and antler objects found include: wedges, adzes, awls, needles, bi-pointed pins, blades, harpoon barbs, chisels, digging stick handles, and bone carvings with faces, perhaps from clubs or wand handles. One house pit included whalebone objects including a 1.5m x 0.3m (~5 ft x 1 ft) seat and a possible whale vertebrae seat surrounded by fire pits.<ref name=":9" /> Numerous stone artifacts were also found at the site, including: projectile points, blades, scrapers, gravers, core choppers, modified flakes, double pitted cobbles, hammerstones, and whetstones.<ref name=":9" /> The most recent occupation layer also contained trade goods including: rusted iron (perhaps knife blades), a copper pendant, and many sherds of Chinese porcelain.<ref name=":82" /><ref name=":9" />

Closer examination of the middens surrounding major house pits identified middens that were up to 1.3m deep, and in some cases over 2m deep.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal | last1 = Losey | first1 = Yamada | last2 = Largaespada | year = 2004 | title = Late-Holocene Dungeness crab ( Cancer magister) harvest at an Oregon coast estuary | url = https://naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=38200&content=PDF| journal = Journal of Archaeological Science | volume = 31 | issue = 11| pages = 1603–1612 | doi=10.1016/j.jas.2004.04.002| url-access = subscription }}{{dead link|date=June 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Over 67,000 vertebrate specimens, in total, of at least 59 species have been recovered from test pits at the site including bones from birds, fish, shellfish, sea lions, sea otters, seals, porpoises, whales, elk, deer, and beavers.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10" /> Initial attempts to describe midden composition determined a rough 50:50 split between shells of blue clams and cockles, with butter clams and bent-nosed clams making up the rest.<ref name=":9" /> However, future investigations found over 14,000 Dungeness crab fragments in roughly 4m3 of excavated midden sediment.<ref name=":10" /> It was determined that Native Americans harvested a large size range of Dungeness crabs, including many juvenile crabs, from the bay. It is suspected crabs were collected along with cockles using a rake-like tool during low tide.<ref name=":10" /> It seems all major shellfish species found in the middens could be harvested throughout the course of a tidal cycle.<ref name=":10" />

== Early European settlement == It is suspected that contact between Europeans and Indians became more numerous and consistent in the late 1700s.<ref name=":9" /> By the time Lewis & Clark arrived in 1806, Indians had firearms and metal implements.<ref name=":9" /> The first European settlers arrived in Netarts Bay in 1865, and records suggest native Olympia oysters were abundant in the bay. In fact, there are indications oyster harvests by European settlers began as early as 1868 and that at least some of these oysters were exported to San Francisco.<ref name=":4">Shabica, S. et al. 1976. [https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/handle/1957/3301 The natural resources and human utilization of Netarts Bay, Oregon]. (An interdisciplinary student -originated study funded by the NSF under Grant No. EPP 75- 08901). Oregon State Univ., Corvallis.</ref> Historic accounts indicate a shanty town, named Oysterville, was present in the bay during this time, and the bay was sometimes called "Oyster Bay."<ref name=":4" /> By 1903 virtually all shore line of the spit was claimed and occupied.<ref name=":3" /> Despite early claims, residential use of Netarts sand spit had mostly disappeared by 1920 and subsequent growth concentrated in Netarts along the northeast bay.<ref name=":4" /> A commercial oyster cultivating industry was present from 1930-1957; however, the accidental introduction of the Japanese oyster drill led to the collapse of this industry in 1957.<ref name=":4" />

== Ocean acidification == The oyster industry along the West Coast of North America relies almost exclusively on the Pacific Oyster, ''Crassostrea gigas''. There are only three locations on the West Coast of North America where natural recruitment of ''C. gigas'' takes place: Willapa Bay, WA, Hood Canal WA, and British Columbia, Canada.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|title=Introduction of Non-Native Oysters: Ecosystem Effects and Restoration Implications|journal = Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics|volume = 36|pages = 643–689|last1=Ruesink|first1=Jennifer L.|last2=Lenihan|first2=Hunter S.|date=2005-11-10|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152638|last3=Trimble|first3=Alan C.|last4=Heiman|first4=Kimberly W.|last5=Micheli|first5=Fiorenza|last6=Byers|first6=James E.|last7=Kay|first7=Matthew C.}}</ref> Recruitment elsewhere is limited by cold water temperatures that inhibit spawning<ref name=":22" /> and low residence time of water that flushes out larvae,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Banas|first1=N. S.|last2=Hickey|first2=B. M.|author-link2=Barbara Hickey|last3=Newton|first3=J. A.|last4=Ruesink|first4=J. L.|date=2007-07-04|title=Tidal exchange, bivalve grazing, and patterns of primary production in Willapa Bay, Washington, USA|journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series|volume=341|pages=123–139|doi=10.3354/meps341123|bibcode=2007MEPS..341..123B|doi-access=free}}</ref> making the oyster industry dependent on hatcheries to raise larvae. Whiskey Creek Shellfish Hatchery, located in Netarts Bay, is one of the largest providers of larvae for the industry.<ref name=":17">{{cite magazine |url=https://seagrant.oregonstate.edu/sites/seagrant.oregonstate.edu/files/confluence/confluence-2-1-web.pdf |author=Gilles, N. |date=2013 |title=The Whiskey Creek Shellfish Acid Tests |magazine=Confluence |pages=3–8 |access-date=2021-11-22}}</ref> In the late summer of 2007, the hatchery saw massive die offs in larvae, resulting in zero production for multiple months on end.<ref name=":17" /> Similar die offs and production failures occurred at other Pacific Northwest hatcheries and oyster farms.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://grist.org/food/2011-08-17-the-great-oyster-crash/|title=The great oyster crash|date=2011-08-18|work=Grist|access-date=2017-03-22|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://adaptationstories.com/2013/09/04/cracking-the-case-of-the-vanishing-oyster-larvae/|title=Cracking the Case of the Vanishing Oyster Larvae|date=2013-09-04|website=Great American Adaptation Road Trip|access-date=2017-03-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/oysters-in-deep-trouble-is-pacific-oceans-chemistry-killing-sea-life/|title=Oysters in deep trouble: Is Pacific Ocean's chemistry killing sea life?|date=2009-06-14|work=The Seattle Times|access-date=2017-03-22|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://apps.seattletimes.com/reports/sea-change/2013/sep/11/oysters-hit-hard/|title=Oysters dying as coast is hit hard {{!}} Sea Change {{!}} The Seattle Times|work=The Seattle Times|access-date=2017-03-22}}</ref> Water samples from Whiskey Creek Shellfish Hatchery tested positive for a bacterium, Vibrio tubiashii, and this pathogen was suspected to be the cause of the mortality.<ref name=":17" /> However, after installing a new system to clean the water, another round of die-offs occurred.<ref name=":17" /> thumb|Oyster at Whiskey Creek Shellfish Hatchery. Photo by Oregon State University. Researchers from Oregon State University and Hatchery employees were able to work together to make the connection between early larval mortality and upwelling conditions that negatively impacted the entire west coast shellfish industry.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last1=Barton|first1=Alan|last2=Hales|first2=Burke|last3=Waldbusser|first3=George G.|last4=Langdon|first4=Chris|last5=Feely|first5=Richard A.|date=2012-05-01|title=The Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, shows negative correlation to naturally elevated carbon dioxide levels: Implications for near-term ocean acidification effects|journal=Limnology and Oceanography|language=en|volume=57|issue=3|pages=698–710|doi=10.4319/lo.2012.57.3.0698|bibcode=2012LimOc..57..698B|issn=1939-5590|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last1=Barton|first1=Alan|last2=Hatchery|first2=Whiskey Creek Shellfish|last3=Waldbusser|first3=George|last4=Feely|first4=Richard|last5=Weisberg|first5=Stephen|last6=Newton|first6=Jan|last7=Hales|first7=Burke|last8=Cudd|first8=Sue|last9=Eudeline|first9=Benoit|title=Impacts of Coastal Acidification on the Pacific Northwest Shellfish Industry and Adaptation Strategies Implemented in Response|journal=Oceanography|volume=25|issue=2|pages=146–159|doi=10.5670/oceanog.2015.38|year=2015|doi-access=free}}</ref> Using Hatchery records of larval performance and monitoring of incoming tidal water from Netarts Bay, low aragonite saturation states at the time of spawning were correlated with the high levels of larval mortality that heavily reduced hatchery production and negatively impacted the west coast oyster industry<ref name=":18" /> Further research from OSU, supported by Whiskey Creek, helped to identify the first 48 hours of larval life, in which the initial shell is built, as a window of vulnerability to ocean acidification due to the rapid rate of calcification and limited energetic budget.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Waldbusser|first1=George G.|last2=Brunner|first2=Elizabeth L.|last3=Haley|first3=Brian A.|last4=Hales|first4=Burke|last5=Langdon|first5=Christopher J.|last6=Prahl|first6=Frederick G.|date=2013-05-28|title=A developmental and energetic basis linking larval oyster shell formation to acidification sensitivity|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=40|issue=10|pages=2171–2176|doi=10.1002/grl.50449|bibcode=2013GeoRL..40.2171W|issn=1944-8007|doi-access=free}}</ref> Experiments decoupling PCO2, pH demonstrated that aragonite saturation has the greatest impact on shell development of early bivalve larvae.<ref name=":8" /> These conclusions supported buffering of incoming water and chemical monitoring approach used by Whiskey Creek Hatchery to improve survival of larval oysters.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Waldbusser|first1=George G.|last2=Hales|first2=Burke|last3=Langdon|first3=Chris J.|last4=Haley|first4=Brian A.|last5=Schrader|first5=Paul|last6=Brunner|first6=Elizabeth L.|last7=Gray|first7=Matthew W.|last8=Miller|first8=Cale A.|last9=Gimenez|first9=Iria|date=2015-06-10|title=Ocean Acidification Has Multiple Modes of Action on Bivalve Larvae|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=10|issue=6|article-number=e0128376|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0128376|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4465621|pmid=26061095|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1028376W|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":18" /> Research at Whiskey Creek Hatchery contributed to the body of knowledge around ocean acidification and the immediate impacts it has on calcifying organisms.<ref name=":19" />

=== Water quality monitoring systems ===

Real-time water quality monitoring systems now exist to help shellfish farmers, scientists, and others invested in oyster aquaculture track changes in aragonite saturation state, pCO2 and pH.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2014/20141119_iooswebportal.html|title=NOAA, partners provide real-time ocean acidification data to Pacific coast shellfish growers|website=www.noaanews.noaa.gov|access-date=2017-03-10}}</ref> An online portal with this information was funded by the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS), and regional ocean observing systems continuously contribute to the data stream.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.ipacoa.org/|title=IPACOA: Home|website=www2.ipacoa.org|access-date=2017-03-15}}</ref> One such regional system, the Northwest Association of Networked Ocean Observing Systems (NANOOS),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nanoos.org/home.php|title=NANOOS|website=www.nanoos.org|access-date=2017-03-15}}</ref> aims to develop predictive data products for use by local and national stakeholders in shellfish aquaculture, as well as the general public.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nvs.nanoos.org/Disclaimer|title=NVS: Disclaimer|website=nvs.nanoos.org|access-date=2017-03-10}}</ref> Water quality data are provided by analytical gas monitoring systems known as "burkolators," named for the OSU researcher who invented them, Dr. Burke Hales. Burkolators resolve PCO2 and TCO2 (total dissolved carbon dioxide) measurements within water samples at high spatial resolution, allowing for accurate calculations of total alkalinity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bandstra|first1=Leah|last2=Hales|first2=Burke|last3=Takahashi|first3=Taro|date=2006-06-01|title=High-frequency measurements of total CO2: Method development and first oceanographic observations|journal=Marine Chemistry|volume=100|issue=1–2|pages=24–38|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2005.10.009}}</ref> Initially implemented as a scientific tool, burkolators are now used at 5 shellfish hatcheries along the U.S. West Coast to monitor incoming water quality.<ref name=":16" /> Live feeds of burkolator data at the hatcheries can be found on the NANOOS website.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nvs.nanoos.org/ShellfishGrowers?action=oiw:fixed_platform:WCSH_Whiskey1:observations:H1_OmegaAragSat|title=NVS: Shellfish Growers|website=nvs.nanoos.org|access-date=2017-03-15}}</ref>

=== Impact on shellfish industry ===

Most shellfish growers have observed effects of ocean acidification on their businesses. In a survey of 86 shellfish growers located in California, Oregon, and Washington, 85% identified ocean acidification as a problem affecting them today, and 95% identified ocean acidification as a problem that will affect future generations.<ref>Mabardy, R. A., Conway, F. D. L., Waldbusser, G. G., Olsen, C. S. (2016). & Oregon State University. Sea Grant College Program, issuing body. (2016). The U.S. West Coast Shellfish Industry's Perception of and Response to Ocean Acidification: Understanding an ocean stakeholder (ORESU-S ; 16-001). Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon Sea Grant.</ref> Bivalve larvae are generally more susceptible than adult bivalves to decreased pH and saturation states,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kroeker|first1=Kristy J.|last2=Kordas|first2=Rebecca L.|last3=Crim|first3=Ryan|last4=Hendriks|first4=Iris E.|last5=Ramajo|first5=Laura|last6=Singh|first6=Gerald S.|last7=Duarte|first7=Carlos M.|last8=Gattuso|first8=Jean-Pierre|date=2013-06-01|title=Impacts of ocean acidification on marine organisms: quantifying sensitivities and interaction with warming|journal=Global Change Biology|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=1884–1896|doi=10.1111/gcb.12179|issn=1365-2486|pmc=3664023|pmid=23505245|bibcode=2013GCBio..19.1884K}}</ref> so early stages of oyster seeding may be more vulnerable the bioenergetic stress of ocean acidification. Spatial and temporal variations in ocean chemistry require continual adaptation,<ref name=":18" /> and shellfish growers are subject to greater uncertainty in the face of climate change.

== References == {{Reflist}}

Category:Bays of Oregon Category:Oregon Coast Category:Bodies of water of Tillamook County, Oregon