Nephalia

{{About|the Hellenic religious offering|the moth genus|Chilo (moth)}} {{short description|Type of Hellenic religious offerings}} {{Ancient Greek religion}} In the [[Ancient Greek religion|Hellenic religion]], '''nephalia''' ({{langx|grc|{{wikt-lang|en|italics=no|νηφάλια}}}}, ''nēphália'', 'calm'; {{IPA|grc|neː.pʰá.li.a}}) was the religious name for [[libation]]s, in which wine was not offered or the use of wine was explicitly forbidden. Liquids, such as water, milk, honey or oil in any combination, were used with a mixture of honey and water or milk ({{langx|grc|μελίκρατον|translit=melíkraton|label=none}}), being one of the most common nēphália offerings. Nephalia were performed as both independent rituals and in conjunction with other sacrifices, such as animal sacrifices. The use of nēphália is documented in the works of [[Aeschylus]] and [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]].

==Etymology== [[File:Omphalos pushkin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Apollo]] pouring a libation from a ''[[Phiale (libation vessel)|phiale]]'' onto the [[omphalos]], with his sister [[Artemis]] attending; a [[bucranium]] hangs above]]

Nephalia ({{langx|grc|{{wikt-lang|en|italics=no|νηφάλια}}}}, ''nifália'', 'calm') is believed to originate from ''nifálios'' ({{langx|grc|νηφάλιος|label=none}}), itself derived from the verb ''nḗphō'' ({{langx|grc|νήφω|label=none}}),<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Strong's #3525 - νήφω|url=https://www.studylight.org/lexicons/greek/3525.html|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Old / New Testament Greek Lexical Dictionary}}</ref> meaning to be sober or to drink no wine (and, by extension, to be self-controlled).

The term ''[[Nephalist|nephalism]]'' in English dates back to 1862, referring to the practice of completely abstaining from all alcohol. The verb ''nēphalieúō'' ({{langx|grc|νηφαλιεύω|label=none}}) means to offer nephalia libations, as in alcohol-free offerings.<ref>Gödde, Susanne (Münster). 2006. "[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/nephalia-e820200?s.num=241&s.rows=50&s.start=200 Nephalia]." In ''[[Brill's New Pauly]]'' (English ed.), edited by C. F. Salazar.</ref>

There is a documented history of honey-based libations ({{langx|grc|μελίσπονδα|label=none|translit=melísponda}}), including libations of mead ({{langx|grc|μέθυ|label=none|translit=méthy}}) or other honey-based drinks ({{langx|grc|μελίτειον|label=none|translit=melíteion}}).

==Libations in Ancient Greece== Spondê ({{Langx|grc|σπονδή|}}, {{IPA|grc|spondɛ̌ː|}}) was a central and vital aspect of [[ancient Greek religion]], and one of the simplest and most common forms of religious practice.<ref>Louise Bruit Zaidman and Pauline Schmitt Pantel, ''Religion in the Ancient Greek City'', translated by Paul Cartledge (Cambridge University Press, 1992, 2002, originally published 1989 in French), p. 28.</ref> It is one of the basic religious acts which defined piety in ancient Greek culture, dating back to the [[Bronze Age Greece|Bronze Age]] and even [[prehistoric Greece]].<ref>[[Walter Burkert]], ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press, 1985, originally published 1977 in German), pp. 70, 73.</ref> Libations were a part of daily life, and the pious might perform them every day in the morning and evening, as well as to begin meals.<ref>[[Hesiod]], ''Works and Days'' 724–726; Zaidman and Pantel, ''Religion in the Ancient Greek City'', p. 39.</ref> A libation most often consisted of mixed wine and water, but could also be unmixed wine, honey, oil, water, or milk.<ref>Zaidman and Pantel, ''Religion in the Ancient Greek City'', p. 40; Burkert, ''Greek Religion,'' pp. 72–73.</ref>

The typical form of libation, {{Lang|grc-Latn|spondȇ}}'','' is the ritualized pouring of wine from a jug or bowl held in the hand. The most common ritual was to pour the liquid from an ''[[Oenochoe|oinochoē]]'' into a ''[[Phiale (libation vessel)|phiale]]''. After the wine was poured from the ''phiale'', the remainder of the ''oinochoē's'' contents were drunk by the celebrant.<ref>Zaidman and Pantel, ''Religion in the Ancient Greek City'', p. 40.</ref> A libation was poured any time wine was to be drunk, a practice which was recorded as early as the [[Homeric epics]]. The etiquette of the [[Symposium (ancient Greece)|symposium]] required that when the first bowl ''([[krater]])'' of wine was served, a libation was made to [[Zeus]] and the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian gods]]. [[Greek hero cult|Heroes]] received a libation from the second ''krater'' served, and {{Lang|grc-Latn|Zeús Téleios}} ({{Lang|grc|Ζεύς Tέλειος}}, <small>lit.</small> 'Zeus who Finishes') from the third, which was supposed to be the last. An alternative practice offered a libation from the first bowl to the [[Agathos Daimon]] and from the third bowl to [[Hermes]]. An individual at the symposium could also make an invocation of and libation to a god of his choice.

Libation generally accompanied prayer.<ref>Burkert, ''Greek Religion'', pp. 70–71.</ref> The Greeks stood when they prayed, either with their arms uplifted or in the act of libation with the right arm extended to hold the ''phiale''.<ref>William D. Furley, "Prayers and Hymns," in ''A Companion to Greek Religion'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), p. 127; Jan N. Bremmer, "Greek Normative Animal Sacrifice," p. 138 in the same volume.</ref>

In [[animal sacrifice]], wine is poured onto the offered animal as part of the ritual sacrifice and preparation, and then onto the ash and flames.<ref>Zaidman and Pantel, ''Religion in the Ancient Greek City'', p. 36; Burkert, ''Greek Religion'', p. 71.</ref> Such scenes are commonly depicted in [[ancient Greek art|Greek art]], including either the sacrificers or the gods themselves holding the ''phiale''.<ref name="Burkert, p. 71">Burkert, ''Greek Religion'', p. 71.</ref>

[[File:Bell-krater sacrifice Pothos Painter Louvre G496.jpg|thumb|left|Scene of sacrifice, with a libation poured from a jug ([[Pothos Painter]], [[Attic red-figure vase|Attic red-figure]] [[krater]], 430–420 BC)]] The Greek verb {{lang|grc-Latn|spéndō}} (σπένδω), meaning 'pour a libation' or 'conclude a pact', derives from the [[Indo-European]] root {{lang|ine-x-proto|spend-}}, 'make an offering, perform a rite, engage oneself by a ritual act'. The noun form, {{Lang|grc-Latn|spondȇ}} (plural: {{Lang|grc-Latn|spondaí}}), simply means 'libation'. In the [[middle voice]], the verb means 'enter into an agreement', in the sense that the gods are called to guarantee action.<ref>D.Q. Adams and J.P. Mallory, entry on "Libation," in ''Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'' (Taylor & Francis, 1997), p. 351. From the same root derives the Latin verb {{lang|la|spondeo}}, "promise, vow."</ref> While blood sacrifice was performed to begin a war; {{Lang|grc-Latn|spondaí}} marked the conclusion of hostilities and is often thus used to mean 'armistice, treaty'. The formula "we the [[polis]] have made libation" was a declaration of peace or the "Truce of God," which was observed also when the various city-states came together for the [[Panhellenic Games]], the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]], or the festivals of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]. This form of libation is "bloodless, gentle, irrevocable, and final."<ref name="Burkert, p. 71"/>

Libations poured onto the earth were intended as offerings for the dead and the [[chthonic]] gods. In the Book of the Dead in the ''[[Odyssey]]'', [[Odysseus]] digs an offering pit around which he pours in order honey, wine, and water. For the form of libation called {{lang|grc-Latn|choē}} ({{lang|grc|χεῦμα}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|cheuma}}, 'that which is poured'; from IE {{lang|ine-x-proto|gheu-}}),<ref>Adams and Mallory, "Libation," p. 351.</ref> a larger vessel is tipped over and emptied onto the ground for the [[chthonic]] gods, who may also receive ''spondaic'' libations.<ref>Burkert, ''Greek Religion'', p. 70.</ref> Divined mortals might receive blood libations if they had participated in the bloodshed of war, for instance [[Brasidas]] the [[Sparta]]n.<ref>Gunnel Ekroth, "Heroes and Hero-Cult," in ''A Companion to Greek Religion'', p. 107.</ref> In rituals of caring for the dead at their tombs, libations would include milk and honey.<ref>D. Felton, "The Dead," in ''A Companion to Greek Religion,'' p. 88.</ref>

''[[Oresteia#The Libation Bearers|The Libation Bearers]]'' is the English title of the center [[Greek tragedy|tragedy]] from the ''[[Oresteia|Orestes Trilogy]]'' of [[Aeschylus]], in reference to the offerings [[Electra]] brings to the tomb of her dead father [[Agamemnon]].<ref name="Burkert, p. 71"/> [[Sophocles]] gives one of the most detailed descriptions of libation in [[ancient Greek literature|Greek literature]] in ''[[Oedipus at Colonus]]'', performed as atonement in the [[sacred grove|grove]] of the [[Erinyes|Eumenides]]:

<blockquote> First, water is fetched from a freshly flowing spring; cauldrons which stand in the sanctuary are garlanded with wool and filled with water and honey; turning towards the east, the sacrificer tips the vessels towards the west; the olive branches which he has been holding in his hand he now strews on the ground at the place where the earth has drunk in the libation; and with a silent prayer he departs, not looking back.<ref>Summary by Burkert, ''Greek Religion'', p. 72.</ref></blockquote>

[[Hero of Alexandria]] described a method of constructing "an altar such that, when a fire is raised on it, figures at the side shall offer libations", the mechanism being the forcing of liquid through pipes in the figures by the expansion of the air inside the altar when heated by the fire.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria|author=Hero of Alexandria|translator-first=Bennet|translator-last=Woodcroft|location=London|publisher=Taylor Walton and Maberly|year=1851|orig-year=c. 70|page=26|url=https://archive.org/details/pneumaticsofhero0000hero/page/26/mode/2up}}</ref>

==References== {{Reflist}}

[[Category:Cultural history of Greece]] [[Category:Ancient Greek religion]]