Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy

{{Short description|Stance in occupied countries in World War II}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}} {{WWII timeline}} {{See also|Axis powers|Collaboration with Imperial Japan|List of World War II puppet states}} In [[World War II]], many governments, organizations and individuals [[Wartime collaboration|collaborated]] with the [[Axis powers]], "out of conviction, desperation, or under coercion".{{sfn|Darcy|2019|p=75}} [[Nationalist]]s sometimes welcomed German or Italian troops which they believed would liberate their countries from [[colonization]]. The Danish, Belgian and [[Vichy French]] governments attempted to appease and bargain with the invaders in hopes of mitigating harm to their citizens and economies.

Some countries' leaders, such as [[Henrik Werth]] of Axis member Hungary, cooperated with Italy and Germany because they wanted to regain territories lost during and after [[World War I]], or which their nationalist citizens simply coveted. Others such as France already had their own burgeoning fascist movements and/or [[antisemitic]] sentiment, which the invaders validated and empowered. Individuals such as [[Hendrik Seyffardt]] in the Netherlands and [[Theodoros Pangalos]] in Greece saw collaboration as a path to personal power in the politics of their country. Others believed that Germany would prevail, and wanted to be on the winning side or feared being on the losing one.

Axis military forces recruited many volunteers, sometimes at gunpoint, more often with promises that they later broke, or from among prisoners-of-war trying to escape appalling and frequently lethal conditions in their detention camps. Other volunteers willingly enlisted because they shared Nazi or fascist ideologies.

== Terminology == [[Stanley Hoffmann]] in 1968 used the term ''collaborationist'' to describe those who collaborated for ideological reasons.<ref name="Hoffmann">{{cite journal |last=Hoffmann |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Hoffmann |title=Collaborationism in France during World War II |journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=40 |issue=3 |year=1968 |page=376 |doi=10.1086/240209 |jstor=1878146 |s2cid=144309794| issn = 0022-2801}}</ref> Bertram Gordon, a professor of modern history, also used the terms ''collaborationist'' and ''collaborator'' for [[ideological]] and non-ideological collaboration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gordon |first=Bertram N. |title=Collaborationism in France during the Second World War |title-link=Collaborationism in France during the Second World War |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-8014-1263-9 |page=18 }}</ref> ''Collaboration'' described cooperation, sometimes passive, with a victorious power.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Armstrong |first=John A. |author-link=John A. Armstrong |title=Collaborationism in World War II: The Integral Nationalist Variant in Eastern Europe |jstor=1878147 |journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=40 |issue=3 |year=1968 |pages=396–410 |doi=10.1086/240210 |s2cid=144135929 }}</ref>

Hoffmann saw collaboration as either involuntary, a reluctant recognition of necessity, or voluntary, [[opportunistic]], or greedy. He also categorized collaborationism as "servile", attempting to be useful, or "ideological", full-throated advocacy of the occupier's ideology.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

== Western Europe == === Belgium === {{Main|German occupation of Belgium during World War II#Collaboration}} [[File:WardHermans.jpg|thumb|A [[Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond]] (VNV) meeting in [[Ghent]] in 1941]] Belgium was [[German invasion of Belgium (1940)|invaded by Nazi Germany in May 1940]]<ref>[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/german-invasion-of-western-europe-may-1940 German Invasion of Western Europe, May 1940], Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</ref> and [[German occupation of Belgium during World War II|occupied]] until the end of 1944.

Political collaboration took separate forms across the [[Communities, regions, and language areas of Belgium|Belgian language divide]]. In Dutch-speaking [[Flanders]], the [[Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond]] (Flemish National Union or VNV), clearly authoritarian, anti-democratic and influenced by fascist ideas,<ref name=BWWII>B. De Wever, [https://www.belgiumwwii.be/belgique-en-guerre/articles/vlaams-nationaal-verbond-vnv.html Vlaams Nationaal Verbond (VNV)] at Belgium-WWII, ("Au sein de la direction du parti, on retrouve deux tendances: une aile fasciste et une aile modérée.")</ref> became a major player in the German occupation strategy as part of the pre-war [[Flemish Movement]]. VNV politicians were promoted to positions in the Belgian civil administration.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=i5ITDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP286 ''Hitler's Foreign Executioners: Europe's Dirty Secret''], Christopher Hale, The History Press, 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-7524-6393-3}} "by June the plum jobs in the Belgian administration had been grabbed by VNV men"</ref> VNV and its comparatively moderate stance was increasingly eclipsed later in the war by the more radical and pro-German [[DeVlag]] movement.<ref name="bosworth">{{cite book |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-fascism-9780199594788 |title=The Oxford handbook of fascism |last1=Bosworth |first1=R. J. B. |year=2009 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-929131-1 |page=483}}</ref>

In French-speaking [[Wallonia]], [[Léon Degrelle]]'s [[Rexist Party]], a pre-war authoritarian and [[Christian fascism|Catholic Fascist]] political party,<ref name=SP112>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gerard |editor1-first=Emmanuel |editor2-last=Van Nieuwenhuyse |editor2-first=Karel |title=Scripta Politica: Politieke Geschiedenis van België in Documenten (1918–2008) |year=2010 |publisher=Acco |location=Leuven |isbn=978-90-334-8039-3 |page=112|edition=2e herwerkte dr.}}</ref> became the VNV's Walloon equivalent, although Rex's [[Belgian nationalism]] put it at odds with the Flemish nationalism of VNV and the German ''[[Flamenpolitik]]''. Rex became increasingly radical after 1941 and declared itself part of the ''[[Waffen-SS]]''.

Although the [[Belgian government in exile|pre-war Belgian government]] went into exile in 1940, the Belgian civil service remained in place for much of the occupation. The [[Committee of Secretaries-General]], an administrative panel of civil servants, although conceived as a purely [[technocracy|technocratic]] institution, has been accused of helping to implement German occupation policies. Despite its intention of mitigating harm to Belgians, it enabled but could not moderate German policies such as the [[The Holocaust in Belgium|persecution of Jews]] and [[Forced labour under German rule during World War II|deportation of workers]] to Germany. It did manage to delay the latter to October 1942.<ref name=Gotovich408>Gotovitch, José; Aron, Paul, eds. (2008). Dictionnaire de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale en Belgique. Brussels: André Versaille ed. p. 408. {{ISBN|978-2-87495-001-8}}.</ref> Encouraging the Germans to delegate tasks to the Committee made their implementation much more efficient than the Germans could have achieved by force.{{sfn|Dumoulin|Witte|2006|pp=20–26}} Belgium depended on Germany for food imports, so the committee was always at a disadvantage in negotiations.{{sfn|Dumoulin|Witte|2006|pp=20–26}}

The [[Belgian government in exile]] criticized the committee for helping the Germans.<ref name=Gotovich410>{{cite book|editor1-last=Gotovitch| editor1-first=José| editor2-last=Aron|editor2-first=Paul|title=Dictionnaire de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale en Belgique|year=2008|trans-title=Dictionary of the Second World War in Belgium |publisher=André Versaille éd.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNxoAAAAMAAJ |location=Brussels|isbn=978-2-87495-001-8|page=410}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Grosbois|first=Thierry|title=Pierlot, 1930–1950|year=1998|location=Brussels|publisher=Racine|isbn=2-87386-485-0|pages=271–272}}</ref> The Secretaries-General were also unpopular in Belgium itself. In 1942, journalist [[Paul Struye]] described them as "the object of growing and almost unanimous unpopularity."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jacquemyns|first1=Guillaume|last2=Struye|first2=Paul|author-link2=Paul Struye|title=La Belgique sous l'Occupation Allemande: 1940–1944|year=2002|publisher=Éd. Complexe|location=Brussels|isbn=2-87027-940-X|page=141|edition=Rev.}}</ref> As the face of the German occupation authority, they became unpopular with the public, which blamed them for the German demands they implemented.<ref name=Gotovich410/>

After the war, several of the Secretaries-General were tried for collaboration. Most were quickly acquitted. {{Interlanguage link|Gérard Romsée|fr}}, the former secretary-general for internal affairs, was sentenced to twenty years imprisonment, and Gaston Schuind, Judicial Police of Brussels,<ref>[https://portal.ehri-project.eu/institutions/be-002173 Ministerie van Justitie. Commissariaat-generaal van de gerechtelijke politie / Ministère de la Justice. Commissariat-général de la police judiciaire], [https://www.ehri-project.eu/project-overview European Holocaust Research Infrastructure]</ref>{{rs?|date=February 2024}} was sentenced to five.<ref name=Gotovich412-3>{{cite book|editor1-last=Gotovitch| editor1-first=José| editor2-last=Aron|editor2-first=Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNxoAAAAMAAJ |title = Dictionnaire de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale en Belgique| trans-title=Dictionary of the Second World War in Belgium | year=2008| publisher=André Versaille éd. |location=Brussels|isbn=978-2-87495-001-8|pages=412–413}}</ref> Many former secretaries-general had careers in politics after the war. [[Victor Leemans]] served as a [[Senate (Belgium)|senator]] from the centre-right [[Christian Social Party (Belgium, defunct)|Christian Social Party]] (PSC-CVP) and became president of the [[European Parliament]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Beke|first=Wouter|title=De Ziel van eel Zuil: de Christelijke Volkspartij 1945–1968|publisher=Catholic University of Leuven|year=2005|location=Leuven|page=363|isbn=90-5867-498-3}}</ref>

Belgian police have also been accused of collaborating, especially in the [[the Holocaust in Belgium|Holocaust]].<ref name="bosworth"/>

Towards the end of the war, militias of collaborationist parties actively carried out reprisals for resistance attacks or even assassinations.<ref name=Moore46-7/> Those assassinations included leading figures suspected of resistance involvement or sympathy,<ref name=Conway19>{{cite book|last=Conway|first=Martin|title=The Sorrows of Belgium: Liberation and Political Reconstruction, 1944–1947|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-969434-1|page=19}}</ref> such as [[Alexandre Galopin]], head of the ''[[Société Générale de Belgique|Société Générale]]'', assassinated in February 1944. Among the retaliatory massacres of civilians<ref name=Moore46-7/> were the [[Courcelles massacre]], in which 20 civilians were killed by the Rexist paramilitary for the assassination of a [[Burgomaster]], and a massacre at [[Tielt-Winge|Meensel-Kiezegem]], where 67 were killed.<ref>{{cite news|last=Laporte|first=Christian|title=Un Oradour flamand à Meensel-Kiezegen|url=http://archives.lesoir.be/debut-aout-1944-les-collaborateurs-avaient-tue-67-civil_t-19940810-Z08DZ8.html|access-date=22 June 2013|newspaper=[[Le Soir]]|date=10 August 1994}}</ref>

===Channel Islands=== {{Main|Civilian life under the German occupation of the Channel Islands}} The [[Channel Islands]] were the only British-controlled territory in Europe to be occupied by Nazi Germany. The policy of the islands' governments was what they called "correct relations" with the German occupiers. There was no armed or violent resistance by islanders to the occupation.<ref>Bunting, Madeleine (1995), ''The Model Occupation: The Channel Islands under German Rule, 1940–1945'', London: Harper Collins Publisher, pp. 51, 316</ref> After 1945 allegations of collaboration were investigated.{{clarify|by whom|date=July 2023}} In November 1946, the UK Home Secretary informed the UK House of Commons<ref name="hansard"/> that most allegations lacked substance. Only twelve cases of collaboration were considered for prosecution, and the [[Director of Public Prosecutions]] ruled them out for insufficient grounds. In particular, it was decided that there were no legal grounds for proceeding against those alleged to have informed the occupying authorities against their fellow citizens.<ref name="cruickshank"/>{{page needed|date=July 2023}}

On the islands of [[Jersey]] and [[Guernsey]], laws<ref name="profits"/><ref name="guernsey"/> were passed to retrospectively confiscate the financial gains made by [[war profiteer]]s and black marketeers. After liberation, British forces had to intervene to prevent revenge attacks on women thought to have [[Horizontal collaboration|fraternized with German soldiers]].<ref name="occupation9"/>

=== Denmark === {{Main|German occupation of Denmark}} [[File:Frikorps danmarks afrejse til oestfronten hellerup station 1941 (1).jpg|thumb|250px|Members of [[Free Corps Denmark]] leaving for the Eastern Front from [[Copenhagen]]'s [[Hellerup station]]]] When on 9 April 1940, German forces invaded [[neutral country|neutral]] Denmark, they violated a treaty of non-aggression signed the year before, but claimed they would "respect Danish sovereignty and territorial integrity, and neutrality."<ref name="resistance"/> The Danish government quickly [[Surrender (military)|surrendered]] and remained intact. The [[Folketing|parliament]] maintained control over domestic policy.<ref name="collaboration"/> Danish public opinion generally backed the new government, particularly after the [[Fall of France]] in June 1940.<ref name="danskerne"/>

Denmark's government cooperated with the German occupiers until 1943,<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Why Norden? Why now? A geopolitical foregrounding |title=Geopolitics, Northern Europe, and Nordic Noir: What Television Series Tell Us About World Politics |author= Robert A. Saunders |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-429-76960-3}}</ref> and helped organize sales of industrial and agricultural products to Germany.<ref name=ref /> The Danish government enacted a number of policies to satisfy Germany and retain the social order. Newspaper articles and news reports "which might jeopardize German-Danish relations" were outlawed{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} and on 25 November 1941, Denmark joined the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]].{{sfn|Voorhis|1972|p=174}} The Danish government and King [[Christian X of Denmark|Christian X]] repeatedly discouraged sabotage and encouraged informing on the resistance movement. Resistance fighters were imprisoned or executed; after the war informants were sentenced to death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/statsminister-vilhelm-buhls-s-antisabotagetale-2-september-1942/ |title=Statsminister Vilhelm Buhls Antisabotagetale 2 September 1942 |publisher=[[Aarhus University]] |language=da |access-date=12 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/samarbejdspolitikken-under-besaettelsen-1940-45/|title=Samarbejdspolitikken under besættelsen 1940–45|publisher=[[Aarhus University]] |language=da |access-date=5 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Danmark besat og befriet – Bind II |last=Frisch |first=Hartvig |url=https://www.bogtorvet.net/danmark-besat-og-befriet-bd-1-2-3_frisch-hartvig-v-buhl-hedtoft-hansen-ejler-jensen-red_1867684|page=390 |year=1945 |publisher=Forlaget Fremad}}</ref>

Prior to, during and after the war, Denmark enforced a restrictive refugee policy; it handed over to German authorities at least 21 Jewish refugees who managed to cross the border;<ref name=ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25834694 | title=Rescue, Expulsion, and Collaboration: Denmark's Difficulties with It's World War II Past | first1=Vilhjálmur Örn | last1=Vilhjálmsson | first2=Bent | last2=Blüdnikow | journal=Jewish Political Studies Review | volume=18 | issue=3/4 | date=Fall 2006 | pages=3–29 | publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs | access-date=14 February 2023}}</ref> 18 of them died in concentration camps, including a woman and her three children.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://folkedrab.dk/sw64290.asp |title=Danmark og de jødiske flygtninge 1938–1945: Flygtningestop |publisher=Dansk Institut for Internationale Studier |language=da |access-date=12 September 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122057/http://folkedrab.dk/sw64290.asp }}</ref> In 2005 prime minister [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] officially apologized for these policies.<ref>{{cite web |last=Weiss |first=Jakob |date=5 May 2005 |language=da |title=Anders Fogh siger undskyld |trans-title=Anders Fogh apologizes |work=[[Berlingske]] |url=https://www.berlingske.dk/samfund/anders-fogh-siger-undskyld |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802142625/https://www.berlingske.dk/samfund/anders-fogh-siger-undskyld |archive-date=2 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Schalburgerblegdamsvej.jpg|thumb|upright|HQ of the [[SS-Schalburg Corps|SS-Schalburgkorps]] in Copenhagen in 1943]]Following the German [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion of the Soviet Union]] on 22 June 1941, German authorities demanded the arrest of Danish communists. The Danish government complied, directing the police to arrest 339 communists listed on secret registers. Of these, 246, including the three communist members of the Danish parliament, were imprisoned in the [[Horserød camp]], in violation of the Danish constitution. On 22 August 1941, the Danish parliament passed the [[Communist Law]], outlawing the [[Communist Party of Denmark]] and also communist activities, in another violation of the Danish constitution. In 1943, about half of the imprisoned communists were transferred to [[Stutthof concentration camp]], where 22 of them died.

Industrial production and trade were, partly due to geopolitical reality and economic necessity, redirected towards Germany. Many government officials saw expanded trade with Germany as vital to maintaining social order in Denmark{{sfn|Voorhis|1972|p=175}} and feared that higher [[unemployment]] and poverty could lead to civil unrest, resulting in a crackdown by the Germans.<ref name="historie"/> Unemployment benefits could be denied if jobs were available in Germany, so an average of 20,000 Danes worked in German factories through the five years of the war.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mennesker for kul |last=Jørgensen |first=Hans |page=23 |year=1998 |publisher=Forlaget Fremad |isbn=978-87-557-2201-9}}</ref>

The Danish cabinet, however, rejected German demands for legislation discriminating against Denmark's Jewish minority. Demands for a death penalty were likewise rebuffed and so were demands to give German military courts jurisdiction over Danish citizens and for the transfer of Danish army units to the German military.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

===France===

{{Also|German military administration in occupied France during World War II}}

====Vichy France==== {{main|Vichy France}}[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25217, Henry Philippe Petain und Adolf Hitler.jpg|thumb|Leader (''Chef'') of [[Vichy France]] Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]] meeting [[Hitler]] at [[Montoire]], 24 October 1940. (Hitler's interpreter, Dr [[Paul Schmidt (interpreter)|Paul Schmidt]], stands between them, while [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]], the German foreign minister, stands to the right.)]] After the [[Battle of France|defeat of France]] in June 1940, the [[French Third Republic]] collapsed and was replaced by the authoritarian [[French State]] (''État Français''), led by [[World War I|First World War]] hero Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]].<ref> [https://www.france24.com/en/20200516-why-did-france-lose-to-germany-in-1940 Why did France lose to Germany in 1940?], Stéphanie Trouillard, France24, 16 May 2020</ref> The new government was based in [[Vichy]] rather than Paris. Prime Minister [[Paul Reynaud]] had resigned rather than sign the armistice with Germany, after which the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] granted Pétain full powers to draft a new constitution. Instead, he used these powers to establish a regime based on authoritarian and conservative principles.<ref>Mark Mazower: Dark Continent (p. 73), Penguin books, {{ISBN|0-14-024159-0}}</ref>

[[Pierre Laval]] and other Vichy ministers initially focused on preserving French sovereignty and repatriating prisoners of war.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/defeat-and-division/wisdom-of-a-great-leader/AE20F82CAED259834E4FFE0C7D05BBD6 |author=Douglas Porch|title= Defeat and Division: France at War, 1939–1942 |chapter="The Wisdom of a Great Leader" |series=Armies of the Second World War | pages=279–337 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 2022|doi=10.1017/9781107239098.007 |isbn=978-1-107-04746-4 }}</ref> The regime sought to maintain an illusion of autonomy and avoid direct German military rule. In occupied Paris, German authorities tolerated the activities of several collaborationist groups that publicly criticised Vichy for not going far enough. This served as a pressure tactic, implicitly threatening to replace Vichy leaders who resisted German demands. Until the final months of the occupation, the French State actively supported the economic and strategic objectives of the German authorities.<ref name="Lloyd 2003 p.79">{{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoyDDAAAQBAJ |title=Collaboration and Resistance in Occupied France: Representing Treason and Sacrifice |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-230-50392-2 |page=29}}</ref>

==== Collaborationist movements ==== {{See also|History of far-right movements in France#Between the wars}}{{See also|Breton nationalism and World War II#Collaboration with Germany|}} [[File:Chefs de parti LVF 1941.jpg|thumb|Leaders of the main French collaborationist parties. From left to right: [[Pierre Costantini|Costantini]], [[Marcel Déat|Déat]], [[Eugène Deloncle|Deloncle]] and [[Jacques Doriot|Doriot]].]] The four main political factions which emerged as leading proponents of radical collaborationism in France were: * the [[National Popular Rally|National People's Rally]] ({{Lang|fr|Rassemblement National Populaire}}, RNP), led by the [[Neosocialism|Neo-Socialist]] [[ Marcel Déat]]; * the [[French Popular Party|French People's Party]] ({{Lang|fr|Parti Populaire Français}}, PPF), founded by the ex-Communist [[Jacques Doriot]]; * the [[Social Revolutionary Movement]] ({{Lang|fr|Mouvement Social Révolutionnaire}}, MSR), founded by [[Eugène Deloncle]], who had led the pre-war vigilante ''[[La Cagoule|Cagoule]]''; and * [[Pierre Costantini]]'s [[French League]] ({{Lang|fr|Ligue Française}}).{{sfn|Davey|1971|p=29}} These groups were small in size: between 1940 and 1944 fewer than 220,000 people in France and [[French North Africa]] joined collaborationist movements.<ref name="Jackson 2003 p. 194">{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtLSly2RN2wC&pg=PA194 |title=France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-162288-5 |series=Modern World Series |page=194}}</ref><ref name="Millington 2020 p. 123">{{cite book |last=Millington |first=C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LpwyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 |title=A History of Fascism in France: From the First World War to the National Front |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-350-00654-6 |page=123}}</ref> In the last six months of the occupation, Déat and Doriot, together with [[Joseph Darnand]], who led the paramilitary ''[[Milice]]'', became members of the Vichy government-in-exile at the [[Sigmaringen enclave]] in southwestern Germany.<ref name="Lloyd 2003 p.24"/>

==== Uniformed collaboration ==== {{see also|1=Milice|2=National Police (France)|3=Police collaboration in Vichy France}}{{See also|4=#French military volunteers|5=Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism|6=SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade France|7=National Socialist Motor Corps#French NSKK|8=Charlemagne Division of the Waffen-SS}} [[File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B10816%2C_Frankreich%2C_Paris%2C_Judenverfolgung.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px|Foreign Jews arrested by the Paris police are put into buses, August 1941]]The collaboration of the [[Law enforcement in France|French police]] was decisive for the implementation of [[the Holocaust]] in occupied France. Germany used French police to maintain order and repress the resistance. The French police were responsible for the census of Jews, their arrest and their assembly in camps from where they were sent abroad to extermination camps. To do this the police requisitioned buses and used the rail network of [[SNCF]] trains.<ref name="[">{{cite web |last=["Berlière |first=Jean-Marc"] |date=2007-04-27 |title=L'impossible pérennité de la police républicaine sous l'Occupation |url=https://documentation.insp.gouv.fr/insp/doc/CAIRN/_b64_b2FpLWNhaXJuLmluZm8tVklOR18wOTRfMDE4Mw%3D%3D/l-impossible-perennite-de-la-police-republicaine-sous-l-occupation?_lg=fr-FR |website=Centre de ressources et d'ingénierie documentaires de l'INSP |language=fr}}</ref> In January 1943, Laval established the [[Milice]], a [[paramilitary]] police force led by Joseph Darnand that assisted the [[Gestapo]] in fighting [[Resistance during World War II|the Resistance]] and persecuting Jews; it counted 30,000 members both male and female.<ref name="Lloyd 2003 p.24" />[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1989-107-24, Frankreich, Einsatz gegen die Resistance.jpg|thumb|French [[milice]] (in uniform with guns) escorting Resistance prisoners in July 1944]]

In July 1941, the collaborationist parties cooperated in organising and recruiting the [[Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism]] (LVF), to fight alongside German forces on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]. From July 1941, a total of 5,800 French volunteers served with the LVF until its disbanding in November 1944. On 18 August 1943, German authorities also established the [[SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade France]] (Französisches SS-Freiwilligen-Regiment), composed of French recruits for the Waffen-SS.{{sfn|Bene|2012|p=539}} On 13 November 1944, the surviving members of the Sturmbrigade were joined with former LVF fighters, men from the [[National Socialist Motor Corps]]' Motorgruppe Luftwaffe, [[Kriegsmarine]] detachments, and [[Organisation Todt|Todt Organsation]] workers, forming the core of the new [[33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne|Waffen-Grenadier-Brigade der SS "Charlemagne"]].{{sfn|Porch|2024|p=473}} In February 1945, this brigade was elevated to division status and deployed to eastern Europe and Berlin, with a strength of 7,340 men.<ref name="Littlejohn 1981 pp. 170-172">{{cite book |last=Littlejohn |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=atnWlgEACAAJ |title=Foreign Legions of the Third Reich: Norway, Denmark, France |publisher=R.J. Bender |year=1981 |pages=170–172}}</ref> According to French historian Pierre Giolitto, around 30,000 Frenchmen (including non-combatants) served in German military units during the war.<ref name="Lloyd 2003 p.24" />

==== Communist party ==== {{Further|History of the French Communist Party#World War II (1939–1945)}} Until the [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion of Russia]] on 21 June 1941, the national leadership of the [[French Communist Party]] (PCF) remained close to the line defined by the [[Communist International|Comintern]] and the [[Soviet Union]], claiming that "the only legitimate struggle is the revolutionary struggle and not the pseudo-resistance of the Gaullists, pawns of British capitalism".<ref name="Lormier 2013 p. 1-PT138">{{cite book |last=Lormier |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZFut87E3OcC&pg=RA1-PT138 |title=La Résistance Pour les Nuls |publisher=edi8 |year=2013 |isbn=978-2-7540-5365-5 |page=1-PT138 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="Muracciole 2020 p. 19">{{cite book |last=Muracciole |first=J.F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=slsEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT19 |title=Histoire de la Résistance en France |publisher=Humensis |year=2020 |isbn=978-2-7154-0508-0 |page=19 |language=fr}}</ref> Following this logic, relations with the occupier were ambiguous. [[Ronald Tiersky]] has described the actions of the French communists during that period as "actively collaborating in certain respects".<ref name="Tiersky 1974 p. 107">{{cite book |last=Tiersky |first=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3SI6YJA_8wC&pg=PA107 |title=French Communism, 1920–1972 |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-231-51609-9 |page=107}}</ref> [[File:Otto Abetz.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Otto Abetz]], German ambassador to France]] During the early days of the [[German Occupation of France|German occupation]], the clandestine edition of newspaper ''[[L'Humanité]]'' called on French workers to fraternise with German soldiers, presenting them not as enemies of the nation but as "class brothers".<ref name="Winock 2021 p. 83">{{cite book |last=Winock |first=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AV4kEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT83 |title=La France libérée (1944–1947) |publisher=Place des éditeurs |year=2021 |isbn=978-2-262-07989-5 |page=83 |language=fr}}</ref> In June 1940, under instructions from the party leadership, French communist leaders contacted the [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II#Propaganda|German authorities]]<ref name="Broche Muracciole 2017 pp. 117–160">{{cite book |last1=Broche |first1=François |url=https://www.cairn.info/histoire-de-la-collaboration--9791021022645-page-117.htm |title=Histoire de la Collaboration |last2=Muracciole |first2=Jean-François |date=2017 |publisher=Tallandier |isbn=979-10-210-2264-5 |publication-place=Paris |pages=117–160 |language=fr |chapter=Chapitre III. L'engagement dans la Collaboration}}</ref> and were received by [[Otto Abetz]], the German ambassador in Paris.<ref name="Pike 1993 pp. 465–485">{{cite journal |last=Pike |first=David Wingeate |year=1993 |title=Between the Junes: The French Communists from the Collapse of France to the Invasion of Russia |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |publisher=Sage Publications, Ltd. |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=465–485 |doi=10.1177/002200949302800304 |issn=0022-0094 |jstor=260642|s2cid=161622751 }}</ref> They requested the permission to republish ''L'Humanité'', which had been suspended in August 1939 by the [[Édouard Daladier|Daladier]] government because of its support for the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|German-Soviet Pact]];<ref name="Ross 2022 p. 13">{{cite book |last=Ross |first=G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hqxhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |title=Workers and Communists in France: From Popular Front to Eurocommunism |publisher=University of California Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-520-30489-5 |page=13}}</ref> They also demanded the legalisation of the French Communist Party, dissolved in September 1939.<ref name="Pesnot Denantes Kern Billoud 2021 d786">{{cite web |last1=Pesnot |first1=Patrick |last2=Denantes |first2=Rebecca |last3=Kern |first3=Christine |last4=Billoud |first4=Michèle |last5=Fauquet |first5=Marie-Hélène |date=2021-04-04 |title=Juin 1940: les négociations entre le PCF et les Allemands |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/podcasts/rendez-vous-avec-x/juin-1940-les-negociations-entre-le-pcf-et-les-allemands-5756070 |website=France Inter |language=fr}}</ref> The negotiations were not successful due to the hostility of the German military command and the visceral anti-communism of the Pétain government.<ref name="Broche Muracciole 2017 pp. 117–160" /> Throughout that summer, ''L'Humanité'' and the entire communist underground press continued to publish articles preaching "Franco-German brotherhood," denouncing "British imperialism," and depicting [[Charles de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] as a reactionary and war-mongering soldier.<ref name="Broche Muracciole 2017 pp. 117–160"/>

Following the Wehrmacht invasion of Russia a year later, the PCF completely changed its stance and became one of the key players of the French Resistance.<ref name="Hanley Kerr Kerr Waites 2005 p. 151">{{cite book |last1=Hanley |first1=D.L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cmuIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 |title=Contemporary France: Politics and Society Since 1945 |last2=Kerr |first2=A.P. |last3=Kerr |first3=A.P. |last4=Waites |first4=N.H. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-134-97423-8 |page=151}}</ref><ref name="Cobb 2009 p.2">{{cite book |last=Cobb |first=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UImAAAAQBAJ |title=The Resistance: The French Fight Against the Nazis |publisher=Simon & Schuster UK |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-84737-759-3 |page=2}}</ref>

====French workers for Germany==== {{main|Service du travail obligatoire}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-J14405, Paris, Abreise französischer Kriegsarbeiter nach Deutschland.jpg|thumb|Departure of STO workers from the Paris-Nord station in 1943]] Vichy initially agreed, for every repatriated French prisoner-of-war, to send three French volunteers to work in German factories. When this program (known as [[Service du travail obligatoire#Relève volunteer work program|la relève]]) didn't draw enough workers to please the Reich, Vichy began in February 1943 to conscript young Frenchmen (aged 18–20) into the ''[[Service du travail obligatoire]]'' (STO or Obligatory Labour Service), a compulsory two-year labour draft that resulted in the deportation to German labor camps of 800,000 Frenchmen.<ref name="Murphy 1998 p. 83">{{cite book |last=Murphy |first=F.J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mqBkXz9WH3QC&pg=PA83 |title=Père Jacques: Resplendent in Victory |publisher=ICS Publications |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-935216-64-6 |page=83 |language=fr}}</ref>

Very unpopular, the STO provoked growing hostility towards the policy of collaboration and led to a great number of young men joining the [[French Resistance]] rather than report for it. People began to disappear into forests and mountain wildernesses to join the ''[[Maquis (World War II)|maquis]]'' (rural Resistance).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ashdown |first1=Paddy |author-link=Paddy Ashdown |title=The Cruel Victory |date=2014 |publisher=William Collins |location=London |isbn=978-0-00-752081-7 |pages=18–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/STO/145262 |title=STO | publisher=Larousse |language=fr}}</ref>

====Vichy collaboration in the Holocaust==== {{See also|Vichy anti-Jewish legislation|Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs|Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline|Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps|Union générale des israélites de France}}[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25719, Paris, Ministerpräsident Pierre Laval und SS-Obergruppenführer Carl Oberg.jpg|thumb|right|French premier [[Pierre Laval]] in Paris with [[Carl Oberg]], the Senior [[SS and Police Leader]] in France and Oberg's assistant, [[Gestapo]] commander [[Herbert Hagen]]]]In the early twentieth century, many Jews viewed France as a nation of justice and opportunity, particularly in light of the eventual exoneration of [[Alfred Dreyfus]].{{sfn|Zuccotti|2019|p=1}} Holocaust historian [[Susan Zuccotti]] notes that some Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe even chose France over the United States because they believed it to be a country where the rule of law could prevail, even against [[antisemitism]].{{sfn|Zuccotti|2019|p=3}} By 1940, approximately 330,000 Jews were living in France, and while antisemitic sentiment existed, many Jewish families felt relatively secure and integrated into French society.{{sfn|Zuccotti|2019|p=4}}

This sense of security collapsed following France's defeat and the establishment of the Vichy regime, which played a central role in the implementation of the Holocaust. Acting independently of German orders, it introduced antisemitic laws beginning with the [[Vichy anti-Jewish legislation|Statut des Juifs]] on 3 October 1940, followed the next day by a decree authorising the internment of foreign Jews in both occupied and unoccupied zones.{{sfn|Megargee|White|2018|p=95}} Internment camps such as [[Drancy internment camp|Drancy]], [[Pithiviers internment camp|Pithiviers]], [[Beaune-la-Rolande internment camp|Beaune-la-Rolande]] and [[Gurs internment camp|Gurs]] were administered by French authorities and served as key transit points for deportations to Auschwitz.{{sfn|Megargee|White|2018|pp=95–96}}[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-N0619-506, Paris, Jüdische Frauen mit Stern.jpg|thumb|left|150 px|Two Jewish women in occupied Paris wearing the [[Yellow badge|compulsory yellow star]]]]The [[Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs]], created in March 1941, was tasked with preparing and enforcing racial laws, including the seizure of Jewish property.{{sfn|Megargee|White|2018|p=95}} French police under Secretary General [[René Bousquet]] organised arrests, beginning with the [[Green ticket roundup]], the first large roundup of foreign Jews in Paris on 14 May 1941.{{sfn|Megargee|White|2018|p=95}} In August 1942, the Bousquet–Oberg accords formalised police cooperation with the SS, and French forces handed over 10,000 stateless Jews from the Southern Zone.{{sfn|Megargee|White|2018|p=96}} That same summer, Prime Minister [[Pierre Laval]] proposed that children be deported with their families, claiming that "children should remain with their parents".{{sfn|Megargee|White|2018|p=96}} Deportations from both zones accelerated targeting primarily foreign-born or stateless Jews.{{sfn|Megargee|White|2018|p=96}}

In 1995, President [[Jacques Chirac]] officially recognized the responsibility of the French state for the deportation of Jews during the war, in particular, the more than 13,000 victims of the [[Vel' d'Hiv Roundup]] of July 1942.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/vichy-government-france-world-war-ii-willingly-collaborated-nazis-180967160/ | title=Was Vichy France a Puppet Government or a Willing Nazi Collaborator? | first=Lorraine | last=Boissoneault | work=Smithsonian Magazine | date=9 November 2017 | access-date=18 February 2023}}</ref>

Of the approximately 330,000 Jews living in France in 1940, around 76,000 were deported to Nazi camps.{{sfn|Zuccotti|2019|p=360}}{{sfn|Megargee|White|2018|p=96}} According to [[Serge Klarsfeld]], out of the 75,721 Jews deported from France to death camps in [[occupied Poland|Poland]], only 2,567 survived.<ref name="Lloyd 2003 p.24">{{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoyDDAAAQBAJ |title=Collaboration and Resistance in Occupied France: Representing Treason and Sacrifice |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-230-50392-2 |page=29}}</ref> The overall survival rate of Jews in France, around 76 percent, was unusually high compared to other Nazi-occupied countries.{{sfn|Zuccotti|2019|pp=360–361}} Historians attribute this unusually high survival rate to several factors, including Vichy's early focus on foreign Jews, delays in targeting French citizens, and the geographic dispersion of the Jewish population.{{sfn|Zuccotti|2019|pp=360–361}}

====Aftermath==== {{Main|Épuration sauvage|Épuration légale}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1971-041-10, Paris, der Kollaboration beschuldigte Französinnen.jpg|thumb|350 px|The Resistance parades women through the streets of Paris — branded, barefoot, bald, and stripped — for consorting with German occupiers ("[[horizontal collaboration]]").]]

As the [[Liberation of France|Liberation]] spread across France in 1944–45, so did the so-called Wild Purges (''l'[[Épuration sauvage]]''). Resistance groups took summary reprisals, especially against suspected informers and members of Vichy's [[anti-partisan]] paramilitary, the [[Milice]]. [[Kangaroo court|Unofficial courts]] tried and punished thousands of people accused (sometimes unjustly) of collaborating or consorting with the enemy. Estimates of the numbers of victims differ, but historians agree that the number will never be fully known.<ref>For example, Alfred Cobban, ''A History of Modern France: Volume 3: 1871–1962'', [[Penguin Books]], 1965, p. 200: "The official figure of some three or four thousand is a gross understatement which must be multiplied by at least ten."</ref>

Not every prominent collaborationist survived to see the Liberation. Pétain's former deputy, Admiral [[François Darlan]], was assassinated in December 1942 after coming to terms with the Allies invading North Africa. (See [[#French North Africa]] below.) In January 1944. [[Eugène Deloncle]], the former leader of ''[[La Cagoule]]'' and MSR, who had turned towards the German resistance, died in a shoot-out with the [[Sicherheitsdienst|German Security Service (SD)]]. In June 1944 (just after D-Day), the Resistance in Paris killed the pro-Axis broadcaster [[Philippe Henriot]] in front of his family. And in February 1945, near the very end of the European war, the Germans pressed [[Jacques Doriot]] of the PPF to reconcile with his bitter rival, [[Marcel Déat]] of the RNP, but Doriot died when the car taking him to meet Déat was strafed by Allied aircraft.<ref>Robert J. Soucy, "The Nature of Fascism in France" in Volume 1 no. 1 of the ''[[Journal of Contemporary History]]'', ([[Harper & Row]], New York, 1966), p. 31, footnote 4</ref> Déat himself, however, escaped to Italy, where he died in 1955.

As formal legal order returned to France, the informal purges were replaced by ''l'[[Épuration légale]]'' (legal purge). The most notable, and most demanded, convictions were those of [[Pierre Laval]], tried and executed in October 1945, and Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]], whose 1945 death sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment in the island fortress of [[Île d'Yeu|Yeu]] in Brittany, where he died in 1951. [[Joseph Darnand]], the ''Milice'' leader, was convicted and executed in October 1945.

Several decades later, a few surviving ex-collaborators such as [[Paul Touvier]] were tried for crimes against humanity. [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-027-1475-38, Marseille, deutsch-französische Besprechung.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[René Bousquet]] (holding cigarette) and local Vichy officials with German [[SS]] and [[Sicherheitspolizei|SiPo]] commanders during the [[Marseille roundup]] of January 1943.]][[René Bousquet]] was rehabilitated and regained some influence in French politics, finance and journalism, but was nonetheless investigated in 1991 for deporting Jews. He was assassinated in 1993 just before his trial would have begun. [[Maurice Papon]] served as prefect of the Paris police under President [[Charles de Gaulle]] (thus bearing ultimate responsibility for the [[1961 Paris massacre]]) and, 20 years later, as Budget Minister under President [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]], before Papon's 1998 conviction and imprisonment for crimes against humanity in organizing the deportation of 1,560 Jews from the [[Bordeaux]] region to [[Drancy internment camp|the French internment camp at Drancy]].

=== Luxembourg === {{Main|Luxembourgish collaboration with Nazi Germany|German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II}} [[Luxembourg]] was invaded by Nazi Germany in May 1940 and [[German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II|remained under German occupation]] until early 1945. Initially, the country was governed as a distinct region as the Germans prepared to assimilate its [[Luxembourgers|Germanic population]] into Germany itself. The ''[[Volksdeutsche Bewegung]]'' (VdB) was founded in Luxembourg in 1941 under the leadership of [[Damian Kratzenberg]], a German teacher at the [[Athénée de Luxembourg]].<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.cna.public.lu/1_FILM/EnSavoirPlus/dossier_heim_ins_reich/historique/index.html#greve |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610114800/http://www.cna.public.lu/1_FILM/EnSavoirPlus/dossier_heim_ins_reich/historique/index.html#greve |archive-date=10 June 2007 |title=Heim ins Reich: La 2e guerre mondiale au Luxembourg – quelques points de repère |website=Centre national de l'audiovisuel}}</ref> It aimed to encourage the population towards a pro-German position, prior to outright annexation, using the slogan ''[[Heim ins Reich]]''. In August 1942, Luxembourg was annexed into Nazi Germany, and Luxembourgish men were drafted into the German military.

=== Monaco === During the Nazi occupation of [[Monaco]], the police arrested and turned over 42 Central European Jewish refugees to the Nazis while also protecting Monaco's own Jews.<ref name="Curtis2002">{{cite book |author=Michael Curtis |title=Verdict on Vichy: Power and Prejudice in the Vichy France Regime |url=https://boos.google.com/books?id=LPV14lGhF8gC&pg=PA231 |access-date=16 January 2016 |year=2002 |publisher=Arcade Publishing |isbn=978-1-55970-689-6 |page=231 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=== Netherlands === {{Main|Nederlandsche SS|Reichskommissariat Niederlande}} {{Further|Category:Dutch collaborators with Nazi Germany}} [[File:Ssnederland.jpg|thumb|upright|[[SS]] recruiting poster urging Dutch people to join the fight against [[communism|Bolshevism]]]] The Germans re-organized the pre-war Dutch police and established a new Communal Police, which helped Germans fight the country's resistance and to deport Jews. The [[National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands]] (NSB) had militia units, whose members were transferred to other paramilitaries like the [[34th SS Volunteer Grenadier Division Landstorm Nederland|Netherlands Landstorm]] or the Control Commando. A small number of people greatly assisted the German in their hunt for Jews, including some policemen and the [[Henneicke Column]]. Many of them were members of the NSB.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/Articles/Article.aspx/21657 |title=Dutch Jew-hunters who massively helped the Nazis |date=3 February 2018 |publisher=Arutz Sheva}}</ref> The column alone was responsible for the arrest of about 900 Jews.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/42556350/ns/world_news-europe/t/archive-reveal-new-details-wwii-jews-arrests/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022103952/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/42556350/ns/world_news-europe/t/archive-reveal-new-details-wwii-jews-arrests/|archive-date=22 October 2019|title=Archive to reveal new details on WWII Jews' arrests|website=[[NBC News]]|date=12 April 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/25/arts/dutch-files-accused-nazi-collaborators.html | title=Dutch to Make Public the Files on Accused Nazi Collaborators | work=The New York Times | date=25 April 2023 | last1=Siegal | first1=Nina }}</ref>

=== Norway === [[File:Den Norske Legion. Vidkun Quisling sender nordmenn til østfronten. (8615082787).jpg|thumb|[[Vidkun Quisling]] and [[Jonas Lie (government minister)|Jonas Lie]] inspect the [[Norwegian Legion]].]] In Norway, the [[Quisling regime|national government]], headed by [[Vidkun Quisling]], was installed by the Germans as a puppet regime [[German occupation of Norway|during the German occupation]], while king [[Haakon VII of Norway|Haakon VII]] and the [[Nygaardsvold's Cabinet|legally elected Norwegian government]] fled into exile.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17745324.amp Norway profile – Leaders], BBC, 17 April 2012</ref> Quisling encouraged Norwegians to volunteer for service [[5th SS Panzer Division Wiking|in the Waffen-SS]], collaborated in the deportation of Jews, and was responsible for the executions of members of the [[Norwegian resistance movement]].

About 45,000 Norwegian collaborators joined the fascist party ''[[Nasjonal Samling]]'' (National Union), and about 8,500 of them enlisted in the ''[[Hirden]]'' collaborationist paramilitary organization. About 15,000 Norwegians volunteered on the Nazi side and 6,000 joined the [[Germanic SS]]. In addition, Norwegian police units like the [[Statspolitiet]] helped arrest many of [[Jews in Norway]]. All but 23 of the 742 Jews deported to concentration camps and death camps were murdered or died before the end of the war. [[Knut Rød]], the [[Norway|Norwegian]] police officer most responsible for the arrest, detention and transfer of Jewish men, women and children to [[SS]] troops at [[Oslo]] harbour, was later acquitted during the [[legal purge in Norway after World War II]] in two highly publicized trials that remain controversial.<ref name=seven>[http://www2.iisg.nl/esshc/programme.asp?selyear=9&pap=6796 "He didn't mean to harm any good Norwegian" – the acquittal of Knut Rød, one of the organisers of the Norwegian Jew's deportation to Auschwitz, Seventh European Social Science History conference 26 February – 1 March 2008] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319093100/http://www2.iisg.nl/esshc/programme.asp?selyear=9&pap=6796 |date=19 March 2008}} retrieved 10 March 2008</ref>

''Nasjonal Samling'' had very little support among the population at large<ref>{{cite book |last1=Myklebost |first1=Tor |title=Front cover image for They came as friends They came as friends |date=1943 |publisher=Doubleday, Doran & Co. |location=Garden City, NY |page=43}}</ref> and Norway was one of few countries where [[resistance during World War II]] was widespread before the turning point of the war in 1942–43.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

After the war, Quisling was executed by firing squad.<ref>{{cite news |title=Justice – I |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852394,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905001857/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852394,00.html |archive-date=5 September 2008 |work=Time Magazine |date=5 November 1945 |access-date=28 April 2011}}</ref> His name became an international [[eponym]] for "[[traitor]]".<ref>[https://www.politico.eu/article/occupied-norwegian-tv-series-thats-enraged-the-kremlin-norway-russia-occupation/ The Norwegian TV series that's enraged the Kremlin: And why you should watch it], James Kirchick, Politico, 20 March 2016</ref>

==Eastern Europe== ===Albania=== {{Main|Italian invasion of Albania|Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)}} After the [[Italian invasion of Albania]], the [[Royal Albanian Army]], police and [[Royal Albanian Gendarmerie|gendarmerie]] were amalgamated into the Italian armed forces in the newly created [[Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)|Italian protectorate of Albania]].

The [[Albanian Fascist Militia]] formed after the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939. In the Yugoslav part of Kosovo, it established the [[Vulnetari]] (or Kosovars), a volunteer militia of [[Kosovo Albanians]]. Vulnetari units often attacked ethnic Serbs and carried out raids against civilian targets.<ref name=Batakovic-2007-55>{{cite book|last=T. Bataković|first=Dušan|title=Kosovo and Metohija: living in the enclave|year=2007|publisher=Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Institute for Balkan Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eGM_AQAAIAAJ|access-date=21 August 2012|page=55|isbn=978-86-7179-052-9|quote=In this new satellite Fascist-type state, the Italian Government set up an Albanian voluntary militia numbering 5,000 men — the Vulnetari — to help the Italian forces maintain order as well as to independently conduct surprise attacks on the Serb population.}}</ref><ref name=Vickers-Vulnetari134>{{cite book|last=Vickers|first=Miranda|title=Between Serb and Albanian: a history of Kosovo|year=1998|publisher=Hurst & Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S41pAAAAMAAJ|access-date=21 August 2012|page=134|isbn=978-1-85065-278-6|quote=the activities of numerous Albanian nationalist movements, and life consequently became increasingly difficult for Kosovo's Serb population, whose homesteads were routinely sacked by the Vulnetari.}}</ref> They burned down hundreds of Serbian and Montenegrin villages, killed many people, and plundered the [[Kosovo (region)|Kosovo]] and neighboring regions.<ref>{{harvnb|Božović|1991|p=85}}{{blockquote|Вулнетари су на Косову и Метохији, али и у суседним крајевима, спалили стотине српских и црногорских села, убили мноштво људи и извршили безброј пљачки.}}</ref>

===Baltic states=== {{See also|German occupation of the Baltic states during World War II|Wartime collaboration in the Baltic states}} The three Baltic republics of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]], first invaded by the Soviet Union, were later occupied by Germany and incorporated, together with what had been the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]] of the [[U.S.S.R.]] ([[Belarus]], see below), into [[Reichskommissariat Ostland]].<ref>''Hitler's Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe,'' by Mark Mazower, Penguin Books 2008 (paperback), pp. 150, 154–155 ({{ISBN|978-0-14-311610-3}})</ref>

====Estonia==== {{See also|War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia|Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity}}In German plans, Estonia was to become an area for future German settlements, as Estonians themselves were considered high on the Nazi racial scale, with potential for Germanization.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|pp=182–183}} Unlike the other Baltic states, the seizure of Estonian territory by German troops was relatively long, from 7 July to 2 December 1941. This period was used by the Soviets to carry out a wave of repression against Estonians. It is estimated that the [[NKVD]]'s subordinate [[Destruction battalions]] killed some 2,000 Estonian civilians,{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|pp=64–65}} and 50–60,000 people were deported deep into the USSR.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=58}} 10,000 of them died in the GULAG system within a year.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=58}} Many Estonians fought against Soviet troops on the German side, hoping to liberate their country. Some 12,000 [[Estonian partisans]] took part in the fighting.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=65}} Of great importance were the 57 [[Finland|Finnish]]-trained members of the [[Erna long-range reconnaissance group|Erna group]], who operated behind enemy lines.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=65}}

Resistance groups were organised by Germans in August 1941 into the [[Omakaitse]] ({{Literal translation|Self-defence}}), which had between 34,000{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=66}} and 40,000 members,{{Sfn|Birn|2001|p=183}} mainly based on the [[Kaitseliit]], dissolved by the Soviets.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=66}} Omakaitse was in charge of clearing the German army's rear of [[Red Army]] soldiers, NKVD members, and Communist activists. Within a year its members killed 5,500 Estonian residents.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=95}} Later, they performed guard duty and fought Soviet partisans flown into Estonia.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=95}} From among Omakaitse members were recruited Estonian policemen, members of the [[Estonian Auxiliary Police]] and officers of the Estonian [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|20th Waffen-SS Division]].{{Sfn|Birn|2001|p=184}}

The Germans formed a puppet government, the [[Estonian Self-Administration]], headed by [[Hjalmar Mäe]]. This government had considerable autonomy in internal affairs, such as filling police posts.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|p=184}} The [[Estonian Security Police and SD|Security Police in Estonia]] ([[Sicherheitspolizei|SiPo]]) had a mixed Estonian-German structure (139 Germans and 873 Estonians) and was formally under the Estonian Self-Administration.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|pp=184–85}} Estonian police cooperated with Germans in rounding up [[Jews in Estonia|Jews]], [[Romani people|Roma]], communists and those deemed enemies of existing order or asocial elements. The police also helped to [[conscription|conscript]] Estonians for [[forced labor]] and [[military service]] under German command.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|pp=191–97}} Most of the small population of Estonian Jews fled before the Germans arrived, with only about a thousand remaining. All of them were arrested by Estonian police and executed by Omakaitse.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|p=187–88}} Members of the [[Estonian Auxiliary Police]] and [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|20th Waffen-SS Division]] also executed Jewish prisoners sent to concentration and labor camps established by the Germans on Estonian territory.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|pp=190–91}}

Immediately after entering Estonia, the Germans began forming volunteer Estonian units the size of a battalion. By January 1942, six Security Groups (battalions No. 181-186, about 4,000 men) had been formed and were subordinate to the Wehrmacht 18th Army.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}} After the one-year contract expired, some volunteers transferred to the Waffen-SS or returned to civilian life, and three Eastern Battalions (No. 658-660) were formed from those who remained.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}} They fought until early 1944, after which their members transferred to the [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|20th Waffen-SS Division]].{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}}

Beginning in September 1941, the SS and police command created four Infantry Defence Battalions (No. 37-40) and a reserve and sapper battalion (No. 41-42), which were operationally subordinate to the Wehrmacht. From 1943 they were called Police Battalions, with 3,000 serving in them.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}} In 1944 they were transformed into two infantry battalions and evacuated to Germany in the fall of 1944, where they were incorporated into the [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|20th Waffen-SS Division]].{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}}

In the fall of 1941, the Germans also formed eight police battalions (No. 29-36), of which only Battalion No. 36 had a typically military purpose. However, due to shortages, most of them were sent to the front near Leningrad,{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268-269}} and were mostly disbanded in 1943. That same year, the SS and police command created five new Security and Defense Battalions (they inherited No. 29-33 and had more than 2,600 men).{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|pp=269–70}} In the spring of 1943, five Defence Battalions (No. 286-290) were established as compulsory military service units. The 290th Battalion consisted of Estonian Russians. Battalions No. 286, 288 and 289 were used to fight partisans in Belarus.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=270}}[[File:Estonian Legion recruiting point.jpg|thumb|right|The recruiting center for the ''Waffen-SS'' [[Estonian Legion]]]]

On 28 Aug. 1942, the Germans formed the volunteer [[Estonian Legion|Estonian Waffen-SS Legion]]. Of the approximately 1,000 volunteers, 800 were incorporated into Battalion Narva and sent to Ukraine in the spring of 1943.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=269}} Due to the shrinking number of volunteers, in February 1943 the Germans introduced compulsory conscription in Estonia. Born between 1919 and 1924 faced the choice of going to work in Germany, joining the Waffen-SS or Estonian auxiliary battalions. 5,000 joined the Estonian Waffen-SS Legion, which was reorganized into the [[3rd Estonian SS Volunteer Brigade|3rd Estonian Waffen-SS Brigade]].{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=270}}

As the Red Army advanced, a general mobilization was announced, officially supported by Estonia's last Prime Minister [[Jüri Uluots]]. By April 1944, 38,000 Estonians had been drafted. Some went into the 3rd Waffen-SS Brigade, which was enlarged to division size ([[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|20th Waffen-SS Division]]: 10 battalions, more than 15,000 men in the summer of 1944) and also incorporated most of the already existing Estonian units (mostly Eastern Battalions).{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|pp=271–72}} Younger men were conscripted into other Waffen-SS units. From the rest, six Border Defense Regiments and four Police Fusilier Battalions (Nos. 286, 288, 291, and 292).{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=271}}

The Estonian Security Police and SD,{{sfn|Birn|2001|pp=181–198}} the 286th, 287th and 288th [[Estonian Auxiliary Police]] battalions, and 2.5–3% of the Estonian [[Omakaitse]] (Home Guard) [[militia]] units (between 1,000 and 1,200 men) took part in rounding up, guarding or killing of 400–1,000 Roma and 6,000 Jews in concentration camps in the [[Pskov Oblast|Pskov region]] of Russia and the [[Jägala concentration camp|Jägala]], [[Vaivara concentration camp|Vaivara]], [[Klooga concentration camp|Klooga]] and [[Lagedi]] concentration camps in Estonia.

Guarded by these units, 15,000 Soviet POWs died in Estonia: some through neglect and mistreatment and some by execution.<ref name="historycommission"/>

==== Latvia ==== [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B11441, Libau, Zusammengetriebene Juden.jpg|thumb|[[Latvian Auxiliary Police]] assemble a group of Jews, [[Liepāja]], July 1941.]] Deportations and murders of Latvians by the Soviet [[NKVD]] reached their peak in the days before the capture of Soviet-occupied [[Riga]] by German forces.{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}} Those that the NKVD could not deport before the Germans arrived were shot at the Central Prison.{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}} The [[RSHA]]'s instructions to their agents to unleash pogroms fell on fertile ground.{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}} After the [[Einsatzkommando]] 1a and part of Einsatzkommando 2 entered the Latvian capital,{{sfn|Breitman|1991}} [[Einsatzgruppe A]]'s commander [[Franz Walter Stahlecker]] made contact with [[Viktors Arājs]] on 1 July and instructed him to set up a commando unit. It was later named [[Latvian Auxiliary Police]] or ''[[Arajs Kommando]]s''.{{sfn|Birn|1997}} The members, far-right students and former officers were all volunteers, and free to leave at any time.{{sfn|Birn|1997}}

The next day, 2 July, Stahlecker instructed Arājs to have the Arājs Kommandos unleash [[pogroms]] that looked spontaneous,{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}} before the German occupation authorities were properly established.{{sfn|Haberer|2001}} Einsatzkommando-influenced{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=194}} mobs of former members of [[Pērkonkrusts]] and other extreme right-wing groups began pillaging and making mass arrests, and killed 300 to 400 Riga Jews. Killings continued under the supervision of SS ''[[Brigadeführer]]'' Walter Stahlecker, until more than 2,700 Jews had died.{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}}{{sfn|Haberer|2001}}

The activities of the Einsatzkommando were constrained after the full establishment of the German occupation authority, after which the SS made use of select units of native recruits.{{sfn|Breitman|1991}} German General Wilhelm Ullersperger and [[Voldemārs Veiss]], a well known Latvian nationalist, appealed to the population in a radio address to attack "internal enemies". During the next few months, the [[Latvian Auxiliary Police|Latvian Auxiliary Security Police]] primarily focused on killing Jews, Communists and Red Army stragglers in Latvia and in neighbouring Byelorussia.{{sfn|Birn|1997}}

In February–March 1943, eight Latvian battalions took part in the punitive anti-partisan [[Operation Winterzauber]] near the [[Belarus–Latvia border]], which resulted in 439 burned villages, 10,000 to 12,000 deaths, and over 7,000 taken for [[Forced labour under German rule during World War II|forced labor]] or imprisoned at the [[Salaspils concentration camp]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=«Зимнее волшебство»: нацистская карательная операция в белорусско-латвийском приграничье, февраль — март 1943 г.|editor1-last=Adamushko|editor1-first=V.I.|editor2-last=Artizov|editor2-first=A.N.|editor3-last=Bubalo|editor3-first=A.F.|editor4-last=Dyukov|editor4-first=A.R.|editor5-last=Ioffe|editor5-first=M.L.|editor6-last=Kirillova|editor6-first=N.V.|series=Documents and records|publisher=Фонд «Историческая память»/ Historical Memory Foundation, Russia|year=2013|isbn=978-5-9990-0020-0|location=Minsk-Moscow|pages=2–25|language=ru|trans-title=Winterzauber: Nazi punitive operation on the Belarus-Latvia border region, February – March 1943.}}</ref> This group alone killed almost half of Latvia's Jewish population,<ref name="Ezer">Andrew Ezergailis. The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941–1944: the missing center. Historical Institute of Latvia, 1996. {{ISBN|978-9984-9054-3-3}}, pp. 182–189</ref> about 26,000 Jews, mainly in November and December 1941.<ref name="indianapolis"/>

The creation of the Arājs Kommando was "one of the most significant inventions of the early Holocaust",<ref name="Ezer" /> and marked a transition from German-organised ''pogroms'' to systematic killing of Jews by local volunteers (former army officers, policemen, students, and [[Aizsargi]]).{{sfn|Haberer|2001}} This helped with a chronic German personnel shortage and provided the Germans with relief from the psychological stress of routinely murdering civilians.{{sfn|Haberer|2001}} By the autumn of 1941, the SS had deployed the [[Latvian Auxiliary Police]] battalions to Leningrad, where they were consolidated into the [[2nd Latvian SS Infantry Brigade]].<ref name="Lumans">Valdis O. Lumans. Book Review: Symposium of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia, The Hidden and Forbidden History of Latvia under Soviet and Nazi Occupations, 1940–1991: Selected Research of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia, Vol. 14, Institute of the History of Latvia Publications:European History Quarterly 2009 39: 184</ref> In 1943, this brigade, which later became the [[19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Latvian)]], was consolidated with the [[15th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Latvian)]] to become the [[Latvian Legion]].<ref name="Lumans" /> Although the Latvian Legion was a formally volunteer [[Waffen-SS]] unit, it was voluntary only in name; approximately 80–85% of its men were conscripts.<ref name="legion3">{{cite book |first=Edvīns |last=Brūvelis |title=Latviešu leģionāri / Latvian legionnaires |publisher=Daugavas vanagi |date=2005 |language=lv, en |isbn=978-9984-19-762-3 |oclc=66394978 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

==== Lithuania ==== {{See also|Lithuanian collaboration with Nazi Germany}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10160, Wilna, Juden, litauischer Polizist.jpg|thumb |right|Lithuanian [[Lithuanian Security Police|LSP]] policeman with Jewish prisoners, [[Vilnius]], 1941]] Prior to the German invasion, some leaders in [[Lithuania]] and in exile believed Germany would grant the country autonomy, as they had the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]]. The German intelligence service [[Abwehr]] believed that it controlled the [[Lithuanian Activist Front]], a pro-German organization based at the Lithuanian embassy in [[Berlin]].<ref name="Piotrowski163">[[Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)|Tadeusz Piotrowski]], ''Poland's Holocaust'', McFarland & Company, 1997, {{ISBN|0-7864-0371-3}}, [https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/163 Google Print, pp. 163–68]</ref> Lithuanians formed the [[Provisional Government of Lithuania]] on their own initiative, but Germany did not recognize it diplomatically, or allow Lithuanian ambassador [[Kazys Škirpa]] to become prime minister, instead actively thwarting his activities. The provisional government disbanded, since it had no power and it had become clear that the Germans came as occupiers not liberators from Soviet occupation, as initially thought. By 1943, the German opinion of Lithuanians was that they had failed to show allegiance to them.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Kroener |first=Bernhard R. |title=Germany and the Second World War |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-820873-0 |volume=V/2 |page=61}}</ref> When the Germans called-up Lithuanians for military service in spring 1943, Lithuanians protested against it by making the call-up produce dismally low numbers, which angered the German occupiers.<ref name=":5"/>

Units under [[Algirdas Klimaitis]] and supervised by SS ''Brigadeführer'' [[Walter Stahlecker]] started pogroms in and around [[Kaunas]] on 25 June 1941.<ref name="Bubnys-Hol"/><ref name="Oshry"/> Lithuanian collaborators killed hundreds of thousands of Jews, Poles and [[Romani people|Gypsies]].<ref name="Niwinski">{{cite book |title=Ponary: miejsce ludzkiej rzeźni |last=Niwiński |first=Piotr |year=2011 |publisher=Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu; Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, Departament Współpracy z Polonią |location=Warszawa |pages=25–26 |url=http://www.msz.gov.pl/files/docs/komunikaty/20110721PONARY/Broszura_Ponary.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205105823/http://www.msz.gov.pl/files/docs/komunikaty/20110721PONARY/Broszura_Ponary.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> According to Lithuanian-American scholar Saulius Sužiedėlis, an increasingly antisemitic atmosphere clouded Lithuanian society, and antisemitic LAF émigrés "needed little prodding from 'foreign influences{{' "}}.{{sfn|Sužiedėlis|2004|p=339}} He concluded that Lithuanian collaboration was "a significant help in facilitating all phases of the genocidal program . . . [and that] the local administration contributed, at times with zeal, to the destruction of Lithuanian Jewry".{{sfn|Sužiedėlis|2004|pp=346, 348}} Elsewhere, Sužiedėlis similarly emphasised that Lithuania's "moral and political leadership failed in 1941, and that thousands of Lithuanians participated in the Holocaust",<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sužiedėlis |first=Saulius |year=2001 |title=The Burden of 1941 |url=http://www.lituanus.org/2001/01_4_04.htm |journal=Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences |volume=47 |issue=4 |access-date=21 October 2012 |archive-date=15 September 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120915/http://www.lituanus.org/2001/01_4_04.htm }}</ref> though he warned that "[u]ntil buttressed by reliable accounts providing time, place and at least an approximate number of victims, claims of large-scale pogroms before the advent of the German forces must be treated with caution".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Krapauskas |first=Virgil |year=2010 |title=Book Reviews |url=http://www.lituanus.org/2010/10_3_08%20BR%20Dickman%20plus.html |journal=Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences |volume=56 |issue=3 |access-date=21 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203031958/http://www.lituanus.org/2010/10_3_08%20BR%20Dickman%20plus.html |archive-date=3 December 2013 }}</ref>

In 1941, the [[Lithuanian Security Police]] was created, subordinate to Nazi Germany's Security Police and Criminal Police.<ref name="Bubnys"/> Of the 26 [[Lithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalions]], 10 were involved in [[the Holocaust]].{{Clarify|reason=Not all of them to the same degree – some executed Jews, while others were implicated in the Holocaust because they happened to guard the railways at the time.|date=August 2020}} On 16 August, the head of the Lithuanian police, {{Interlanguage link|Vytautas Reivytis|lt}}, ordered the arrest of Jewish men and women with Bolshevik activities: "In reality, it was a sign to kill everyone."<ref>[https://www.bernardinai.lt/2010-12-18-saulius-suziedelis-holokaustas-turi-buti-centriniu-moderniosios-lietuvos-istorijos-ivykiu/ Saulius Sužiedėlis: "Holokaustas – centrinis moderniosios Lietuvos istorijos įvykis"] (Saulius Suziedėlis: "The Holocaust is the central event of modern Lithuanian history"), Zigma Vitkus, bernardinai, December 28, 2010</ref> The [[Ypatingasis būrys|Special SD and German Security Police Squad]] in [[Vilnius]] [[Ponary massacre|killed 70,000 Jews in Paneriai]] and other places.<ref name="Bubnys"/>{{clarify|what other places?|date=March 2023}} In [[Minsk]], the 2nd Battalion shot about 9,000 Soviet prisoners of war, and in [[Slutsk]] it massacred 5,000 Jews.

In March 1942, in Poland, the [[Lithuanian TDA Battalions|2nd Lithuanian Battalion]] guarded the [[Majdanek concentration camp]].<ref name=Piotr165166/> In July 1942, the 2nd Battalion participated in the deportation of Jews from the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] to [[Treblinka extermination camp]].<ref name="buffalo"/> In August–October 1942, some of the Lithuanian police battalions were in Belarus and Ukraine: the 3rd in [[Molodechno]], the 4th in [[Donetsk]], the 7th in [[Vinnytsia|Vinnytsa]], the 11th in [[Korosten]], the 16th in [[Dnepropetrovsk]], the 254th in [[Poltava]] and the 255th in [[Mogilev]] (Belarus).<ref name="kiev">{{cite web |url=http://www.holocaust.kiev.ua/bulletin/vip7/vip7_3.htm |script-title=ru:Хлокост на юге Украины (1941–1944): (Запорожская область) |trans-title=The Holocaust in the south of Ukraine (1941–1944): (Zaporizhia region) |language=ru |work=holocaust.kiev.ua |year=2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060827155850/http://holocaust.kiev.ua/bulletin/vip7/vip7_3.htm |archive-date=27 August 2006}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=June 2023}} One battalion was also used to put down the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]] in 1943.<ref name=Piotr165166/>

The participation of the local populace was a key factor in the [[Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Lithuania]]<ref name="WymanRosenzveig1996">{{cite book|author=Dov Levin|title=The World Reacts to the Holocaust|date=1996|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-4969-5|editor1=David S. Wyman|pages=325–353|chapter=Lithuania|access-date=16 January 2016|editor2=Charles H. Rosenzveig|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6KVOsjpP0MC&pg=PA325}}</ref> which resulted in the near total decimation of [[Lithuanian Jews]] living in the [[German occupation of the Baltic states during World War II|Nazi-occupied]] Lithuanian territories that would. From 25 July 1941, participation was under the ''[[Generalbezirk Litauen]]'' of ''[[Reichskommissariat Ostland]]''. Out of approximately 210,000<ref name="MacQueen_context"/> Jews, (208,000 according to the Lithuanian pre-war statistical data)<ref name="Bubnys_vanished219"/> an estimated 195,000–196,000 perished before the end of World War II (wider estimates are sometimes published); most from June to December 1941.<ref name="MacQueen_context"/><ref name="Porat161"/> The events happening in the USSR's western regions occupied by [[Nazi Germany]] in the first weeks after the German invasion (including Lithuania – [[:File:Coffinmap.jpg|see map]]) marked the sharp intensification of the Holocaust.{{sfn|Browning|Matthäus|2007|pp=244–294}}<ref name="Porat159"/><ref name="Kwiet"/>

=== Bulgaria === {{Main|Bulgaria during World War II|Bulgarian rule of Macedonia, Morava Valley and Western Thrace (1941–1944)}}

The history of Bulgaria during World War II encompasses an initial period of neutrality until 1 March 1941, a period of alliance with the Axis powers until 8 September 1944, and a period of alignment with the Allies in the final year of the war. With German consent, Bulgarian military forces occupied parts of the Kingdoms of Greece and Yugoslavia which Bulgarian irredentism claimed on the basis of the 1878 Treaty of San Stefano.[1][2] Bulgaria resisted Axis pressure to join the war against the Soviet Union, which began on 22 June 1941, but did declare war on Britain and the United States on 13 December 1941. The Red Army entered Bulgaria on 8 September 1944; Bulgaria declared war on Germany the next day.

As an ally of Nazi Germany, Bulgaria participated in the Holocaust, contributing to the deaths of 11,343 Jews from the occupied territories in Greece and Yugoslavia. Though its native 48,000 Jews survived the war, they were subjected to discrimination.[3] However, during the war, German-allied Bulgaria did not deport Jews from the core provinces of Bulgaria. Bulgaria's wartime government was pro-German under Bogdan Filov, Dobri Bozhilov, and Ivan Bagryanov. It joined the Allies under Konstantin Muraviev in early September 1944, then underwent a coup d'état a week later, and under Kimon Georgiev was pro-Soviet thereafter.

=== Czechoslovakia === {{Main|Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)}} [[File:Czechoslovakia_1939.SVG|thumbnail|400px|Partition of Czecho-Slovakia, 1938–39: Sudetenland in medium shade of purple (mauve); cessions to Hungary in beige.]]

==== Sudetenland ==== [[Konrad Henlein]], a [[Völkisch movement|populist]] strongman who represented the sizable German minority of the [[Sudetenland]] border region, actively sought a Nazi invasion of Czechoslovakia<ref>{{cite journal|last=Robbins|first= Keith |title= Konrad Henlein, the Sudeten Question and British Foreign Policy| page= 675 |journal= The Historical Journal| volume= XII| issue =4|year= 1969|doi= 10.1017/S0018246X0001058X |s2cid= 159537859 }}</ref> and his efforts arguably triggered the [[Munich Agreement]].<ref>{{Cite journal |page=198 |doi=10.2307/20028917 |jstor=20028917 |title=Armistice at Munich |last1=Armstrong |first1=Hamilton Fish |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=1939 |volume=17 |issue=2 }}</ref> After the invasion he administered the Nazi deportations that sent Jews to [[Theresienstadt Ghetto]], almost none of whom survived. For example, 42,000 people, mostly Czech Jews, were deported from Theresienstadt in 1942, of whom only 356 survivors are known.{{sfn|Kárný|1999|p=9}} Henlein also tried to expel all Czechs from the Sudetenland, but the neighbouring [[Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia]] refused to accept them and he was informed that the need of the area's factories for labour outweighed such ethnic policies.{{sfn|Cornwall|2011|p=221}}

====Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia==== When the Germans annexed [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1938 and 1939, they created the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] from the Czech part of pre-war Czechoslovakia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Volker Ullrich|author-link=Volker Ullrich|title=[[Hitler: Volume I: Ascent 1889–1939]]|pages=752–753}}</ref> It had its own military forces, including a 12-[[battalion]] '[[Government Army (Bohemia and Moravia)|government army]]', police and [[gendarmerie]]. Most members of the 'government army' were sent to [[Northern Italy]] in 1944 as labourers and guards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vladimír Měřínský (1934–2022) |url=https://www.memoryofnations.eu/en/merinsky-vladimir-1934 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=www.memoryofnations.eu |language=en}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=July 2023}} Whether or not the government army was a collaborationist force has been debated. Its commanding officer, [[Jaroslav Eminger]], was tried and acquitted on charges of collaboration following World War II.<ref>[https://brno.rozhlas.cz/ecce-homo-jaroslav-eminger-6470306 Ecce Homo – Jaroslav Eminger], Český rozhlas, 14 July 2004 (in Czech)</ref> Some members of the force engaged in active resistance operations while in the army, and, in the waning days of the conflict, elements of the army joined in the [[Prague uprising]].<ref name="mus">{{cite web |title=The Tragic Destiny of Romeo Reisinger: Death a Few Hours before Liberation |url=http://www.vhu.cz/tragicky-osud-romea-reisingera-smrt-par-hodin-pred-osvobozenim/ |language=Czech |website=vhu.cz |date=31 March 2014 |publisher=Army Museum |access-date=21 February 2023}}</ref>

====Slovak Republic==== {{See also|The Holocaust in Slovakia}} The [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]] (''Slovenská Republika'') was a quasi-independent ethnic [[Slovaks|Slovak]] state which existed from 14 March 1939 to 8 May 1945 as an ally and [[client state]] of [[Nazi Germany]]. The Slovak Republic existed on roughly the same territory as present-day [[Slovakia]] (except for the southern and eastern parts). It bordered Germany, the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|German-occupied Poland]], and [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungary]].

=== Greece === {{Main|Hellenic State (1941–1944)|Greco-Italian War|Greek Operation of the NKVD}} Germany put a collaborationist government in place in Greece. Prime ministers [[Georgios Tsolakoglou]], [[Konstantinos Logothetopoulos]] and [[Ioannis Rallis]]<ref>Mark Mazower, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=KqTkwv2s3GkC Inside Hitler's Greece. The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44]''(Greek translation), Athens: Αλεξάνδρεια, 1994(1993),125.</ref> all cooperated with Axis authorities. Greece exported agricultural products, especially tobacco, to Germany, and Greek "volunteers" worked in German factories.<ref>[https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/index.php/News/newsDetails/tobacco-trade Juan Carmona Zabala sheds light on tobacco trade in modern Greece and Germany], Joanie Blackwell, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 29 June 2017</ref>

While efforts by Major General [[Georgios Bakos]] to recruit a Greek volunteer legion to fight in the Eastern Front failed,<ref>{{cite book | last = Priovolos | first = Giannis | title = Εθνικιστική «αντίδραση» και Τάγματα Ασφαλείας | trans-title = Nationalist "Reaction" and the Security Battalions | language = Greek | publisher = Patakis | location = Athens | year = 2018 | isbn = 978-960-16-7561-9 | pages = 27–28}}</ref> the collaborationist government of Ioannis Rallis created armed paramilitary forces such as the [[Security Battalions]]<ref>{{Citation | title=Greek Resistance 1941–45: Organization, Achievements and Contributions to Allied War Efforts Against the Axis Powers | first1=Peter D. | last1=Chimbos | work= International Journal of Comparative Sociology | publisher=Brill | year=1999 | url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/ijcs/1999/00000040/f0040001/art00014}}</ref> to fight the [[National Liberation Front (Greece)|EAM]]/[[ELAS]] resistance{{sfn|Hondros|1983|p=81}} Former dictator, General [[Theodoros Pangalos (general)|Theodoros Pangalos]], saw the Security Battalions as a way to make a political comeback, and most of the [[Hellenic Army]] officers recruited in April 1943 were republicans in some way associated with Pangalos.{{sfn|Mazower|1995|p=324}}

Greek National-Socialist parties like [[George S. Mercouris]]' [[Greek National Socialist Party]] of the [[Hellenic Socialist Patriotic Organisation|ESPO]] organization, or such openly anti-semitic organisations as the [[National Union of Greece]], helped German authorities fight the [[Greek resistance]], and identify and deport Greek Jews.<ref>Markos Vallianatos, The untold history of Greek collaboration with Nazi Germany (1941–1944)</ref> The BUND Organization and its leader Aginor Giannopoulos trained a battalion of Greek volunteers who fought in SS and [[Brandenburgers]] units.

During the Axis occupation, a number of [[Cham Albanians]] set up their own administration and militia in [[Thesprotia]], Greece, under the [[Balli Kombëtar]] organization, and [[Cham Albanian collaboration with the Axis|actively collaborated with first Italian and then German occupation forces]], committing a number of atrocities.<ref name="King"/>{{better source needed|book is not about World War 2|date=May 2023}} In one incident on 29 September 1943, [[Këshilla|Nuri and Mazzar Dino]], Albanian paramilitary leaders, instigated the mass execution of all [[Paramythia executions|Greek officials and notables]] in [[Paramythia]].<ref name="Meyer2008">{{cite book |author=Hermann Frank Meyer |title=Blutiges Edelweiß: die 1. Gebirgs-Division im Zweiten Weltkrieg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Hpr-PK39UkC&pg=PA469 |access-date=16 January 2016 |year=2008 |publisher=Ch. Links Verlag |isbn=978-3-86153-447-1 |pages=469–471}}</ref>

Bulgaria was interested in acquiring [[Thessalonica]] and western Macedonia and hoped to gain the allegiance of the 80,000 Slavs who lived there at the time.<ref name=Miller/> The appearance of Greek partisans there persuaded Axis forces to allow the formation of [[Ohrana]] collaborationist detachments.<ref name=Miller>{{cite book |title= Bulgaria During the Second World War |last= Miller |first= Marshall Lee |year= 1975|publisher= Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-0870-3|page= 129|quote= In Greece the Bulgarians reacquired their former territory, extending along the Aegean coast from the Struma (Strymon) River east of [[Thessaloniki]] to [[Alexandroupolis]] on the Turkish border. Bulgaria looked longingly toward [[Salonika]] and western Macedonia, which were under German and Italian control, and established propaganda centres to secure the allegiance of the approximately 80,000 Slavs in these regions. The Bulgarian plan was to organize these Slavs militarily in the hope that Bulgaria would eventually assume the administration there. The appearance of the Greek left wing resistance in western Macedonia persuaded the Italian and German and authorities to allow the formation of Slav security battalions (Ohrana) led by Bulgarian officers.}}</ref> The organization initially recruited 1,000 to 3,000 armed men from the Slavophone community in the west of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=1jSg3lxgSy8C Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, G – Reference], Dimitar Bechev, Scarecrow Press, 2009, {{ISBN|0-8108-5565-8}}, pp. 162–163.</ref>

An [[Aromanians|Aromanian]] political and paramilitary force, the [[Roman Legion (1941–1943)|Roman Legion]], led by [[Aromanian nationalism|Aromanian nationalists]] [[Alcibiades Diamandi]] and [[Nicolaos Matussis]], also collaborated with Italian forces.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

===Hungary=== In April 1941, in order to regain territory and under German pressure, Hungary allowed the Wehrmacht across its territory in the [[invasion of Yugoslavia]]. Hungarian prime minister [[Pál Teleki]] wanted to maintain a pro-Allies neutral stance,<ref name="tel">[https://academic.oup.com/fordham-scholarship-online/book/29130/chapter-abstract/242334744?redirectedFrom=fulltext 'Clinging to Neutrality'], Cornelius, Deborah S., in ''Hungary in World War II: Caught in the Cauldron, World War II: The Global, Human, and Ethical Dimension'', (New York, NY, 2011; online edn, Fordham Scholarship Online, 19 Jan. 2012) {{doi|10.5422/fordham/9780823233434.003.0005}}, accessed 18 Feb. 2023</ref> but could no longer stay out of the war. British Foreign Secretary [[Anthony Eden]] threatened to break diplomatic relations if Hungary did not actively resist the passage of German troops across its territory. General [[Henrik Werth]], chief of the Hungarian General Staff, made a private arrangement with the [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht|German High Command]], unsanctioned by the Hungarian government, to transport German troops across Hungary. Teleki, unable to stop these events, committed suicide on 3 April 1941.<ref name=tel /> After the war the [[Supreme Court of Hungary|Hungarian People's Court]] sentenced Werth to death for war crimes.<ref>Kursietis, Andris J., and Antonio J. Munoz. ''The Hungarian Army and Its Military Leadership in World War II.'' Bayside, NY: Axis Europa & Magazines, 1999. Print.</ref>

Hungary joined the war on 11 April, after the proclamation of the [[Independent State of Croatia]].{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

It is not clear whether the 10,000–20,000 Jewish refugees (from Poland and elsewhere) were counted in the January 1941 census. They, and about 20,000 people who could not prove legal residency since 1850, were deported to southern Poland. According to Nazi German reports, a total of 23,600 Jews were murdered, including 16,000 who had earlier been expelled from Hungary<ref name=RLB>{{cite book |title=The Politics of Genocide |author=Randolph L. Braham |author-link=Randolph L. Braham |publisher=Wayne State University Press |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATpHs6fgr_YC|isbn=0-8143-2691-9 |page=34}}</ref> between 15 July – 12 August 1941, and either abandoned there or handed over to the Germans. In practice, the Hungarians deported many people whose families had lived in the area for generations. In some cases, applications for residency permits were allowed to pile up without action by Hungarian officials until after the deportations had been carried out. The vast majority (16,000) of those deported were massacred in the [[Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre]] at the end of August.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://degob.org/index.php?showarticle=2019 |title=degob.org |publisher=degob.org |date=28 August 1941 |access-date=13 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309073956/http://degob.org/index.php?showarticle=2019 |archive-date=9 March 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|"A few thousand of the deportees were simply abandoned by their captors in the areas surrounding Kaminets-Podolsk. Most subsequently perished with Jewish residents of the area as a result of transports or ''{{lang|de|aktions}}'' in the many ghettos, but a handful survived.<ref name=TSn>{{cite book |title=[[Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin]] |author=Timothy Snyder |author-link=Timothy Snyder |publisher=Basic Books |year=2010 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ks0WBQAAQBAJ&q=Kamianets 200–204] |isbn=978-0-465-00239-9}}</ref> The killings were conducted on 27 August – 28 August 1941, in the Soviet city of [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] (now Ukraine), occupied by German troops in the previous month on 11 July 1941.<ref name=MDav>{{cite web |title=Kamyanets-Podilskyy |author=Martin Davis |url=http://www.blankgenealogy.com/histories/Location%20histories/Ukraine/Kamenets%20.pdf |at=pp. 11–14 / 24 in PDF |via=direct download}} ''Also in:'' {{cite web |author=Martin Davis |year=2010 |title=The Nazi Invasion of Kamenets |publisher=JewishGen |url=http://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/Kamyanets-Podilskyy/Kamianets-Podilskyi%20%201939-1945.htm}}</ref> The number of people deported over the Carpathians was 19,426, according to a document found in 2012<ref>{{cite web |author=Betekintő |url=http://www.betekinto.hu/2012_2_gellert_gellert |title=A few thousand of the deportees ... |publisher=Betekinto.hu |access-date=13 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517122642/http://www.betekinto.hu/2012_2_gellert_gellert |archive-date=17 May 2014 }}</ref>}}

In the [[Novi Sad raid|massacres]] in Újvidék ([[Novi Sad]]) and nearby villages, 2,550–2,850 Serbs, 700–1,250 Jews and 60–130 others were murdered by the Hungarian Army and "Csendőrség" (gendarmerie) in January 1942. Those responsible, [[Ferenc Feketehalmy-Czeydner]], {{Interlanguage link|Márton Zöldy|hu}}, [[József Grassy]], [[László Deák]] and others, were later tried in Budapest in December 1943 and were sentenced, but some escaped to Germany.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

During the war, Jews were called up to serve in unarmed "[[Labour service (Hungary)|labour service]]" (''{{lang|hu|munkaszolgálat}}'') units which repaired bombed railroads, built airports or cleaned up minefields at the front barehanded. Approximately 42,000 Jewish labour service troops were killed on the Soviet front in 1942–43, of whom about 40% perished in Soviet POW camps.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} Many died as a result of harsh conditions on the Eastern Front and cruel treatment by their Hungarian sergeants and officers. Another 4,000 forced laborers died in the copper mine of [[Bor, Serbia]]. But [[Miklós Kállay]], prime minister beginning on 9 March 1942, and Regent [[Miklós Horthy]] refused to allow the deportation of Hungarian Jews to German [[extermination camps]] in occupied Poland. This lasted until German troops occupied Hungary and forced Horthy to oust Kállay.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

Following the [[Operation Margarethe|German occupation of Hungary]] on 19 March 1944, Jews from the provinces were deported to the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]]; between May and July that year, 437,000 Jews were sent there from Hungary, most of them gassed on arrival.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=408}}

=== Poland === {{Main|Collaboration in German-occupied Poland}} [[File:Plakat Kierownictwa Walki Podziemnej informujący o wykonanych wyrokach śmierci wrzesień 1943.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Polish resistance]] poster announcing the execution of several Polish and Ukrainian collaborators and blackmailers (''[[szmalcownik]]s''), September 1943]] Unlike some other German-occupied European countries, [[History of Poland (1939–1945)|occupied Poland]] did not have a government that collaborated with the Nazis.{{sfn|Weinberg |2005|pp=48–121}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cherry |first1=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUp7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PR10 |title=Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future |last2=Orla-Bukowska |first2=Annamaria |date=2007 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4616-4308-1 |language=en |quote=During the war, while in most European countries the Germans found collaborators that set up puppet governments, Poland had no such collaborationist governments. The Germans arrested masses of Polish intellectuals, whom they perceived as a threat. As a result, thousands of Poles lost their lives during that occupation.}}</ref> The Polish government did not [[Poland in World War II|surrender]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewin |first=Eyal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3kDy1H5xbjcC|title=National Resilience during War: Refining the Decision-Making Model |date=2012 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-7459-3 |page=12 |language=en |quote=the Polish government had never surrendered}}</ref> but instead went into [[Polish government-in-exile|exile]], first in France, then in London, while evacuating the armed forces via [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] and [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungary]] and by sea to allied France and Great Britain.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lane |first=T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mqOHDAAAQBAJ&dq=1939+Poland+evacuated+Hungary+Romania+France&pg=PA138 |title=Victims of Stalin and Hitler: The Exodus of Poles and Balts to Britain |date=2004|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-51137-8 |page=138 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Koskodan |first=Kenneth K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l1ObCwAAQBAJ&dq=1939+Poland+evacuated+Hungary+Romania+France&pg=PA43 |title=No Greater Ally: The Untold Story of Poland's Forces in World War II |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-78096-241-2 |page=43 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrPvCwAAQBAJ&dq=1939+Poland+evacuated+Hungary+Romania+France&pg=PT47 |title=Warsaw Pact Ground Forces |date=2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-78200-447-9 |page=47 |language=en |quote=After suffering a devastating defeat in 1939 at the hands of the Germans, many Polish troops escaped to Hungary and Romania and subsequently to France}}</ref> [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|German-occupied Polish territory]] was either [[Polish territories annexed by Nazi Germany|annexed outright by Nazi Germany]] or placed under German administration as the [[General Government]].<ref name="Service2013">{{cite book |author=Hugo Service |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqoaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Germans to Poles: Communism, Nationalism and Ethnic Cleansing After the Second World War |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-67148-5 |page=17 |quote=At the start of October 1939, the German occupiers divided in two the area of Poland they had occupied... annexing to Germany the western territories and designating central Poland a colonial territory which they labeled the 'General Government...}}</ref>

Shortly after the German [[Invasion of Poland]] in September 1939, the Nazi authorities ordered the [[mobilization]] of prewar Polish officials and Polish police ([[Blue Police]]), who were ordered to report for duty under threat of severe penalties.<ref name="Hempel_2"/>{{Sfn| Grabowski|2016|p=1}}<ref>Higher SS- and Police Leader (HSSPF) for the Generalgouvernement [[Friedrich-Wilhelm Krüger]] (30 October 1939). [https://polona.pl/item/odezwa-inc-wszyscy-urzednicy-policji-polskiej-a-rowniez-oficerowie-policji-polskiej,OTIzMjcy/0/#info ''Aufruf/Odezwa'' (Appeal)].</ref> Apart from serving as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities, the Blue Police was used by the Germans also to combat smuggling and resistance, to round up ''[[łapanka]]'', random civilians, for [[forced labor]], and to apprehend Jews (German: ''[[Judenjagd]]'', "hunting Jews")<ref name="Grabowski2014">{{cite book |author=Grabowski, Jan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVmSAAAAQBAJ |title=Hunt for the Jews:Betrayal and Murder in German-Occupied Poland |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-253-01074-2 |page=52}}</ref> and participate in their extermination. Polish policemen were instrumental in implementing the Nazi policy of centralising Jews in ghettos and, from 1942 onwards, liquidating the ghettos.{{Sfn|Grabowski|2016|pp=7–11}} In the late autumn and early winter of 1941, shooting Jews, including women and children, became one of their many activities at the orders of the German occupiers.{{Sfn|Grabowski|2016|p=7}} After an initial phase of hesitation, Polish policemen became familiar with Nazi brutality and, according to [[Jan Grabowski]], sometimes "surpassed their German teachers."{{Sfn|Grabowski|2016|p=8}} While many officials and police followed German orders, some acted as agents for the [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Polish resistance]].<ref name="Paulsson">{{cite book |author=Gunnar S. Paulsson |title=The Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies |year=2004 |chapter=The Demography of Jews in Hiding in Warsaw |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-27509-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xC5wNo0edoC&pg=PA118 |page=118}}</ref><ref name="Hempel">{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Hempel |title=Pogrobowcy klęski: rzecz o policji "granatowej" w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie 1939–1945 |year=1990 |publisher=[[Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe]] |location=Warsaw |isbn=978-83-01-09291-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sy0iAAAAMAAJ |page=435 |language=pl}}</ref>

Some of the collaborators – ''[[szmalcownik]]s'' – blackmailed Jews and their Polish rescuers and acted as informers, turning in Jews and Poles who hid them, and reporting on the Polish resistance.<ref>{{cite web |author=Marci Shore |url=http://www.aapjstudies.org/index.php?id=36 |title=Gunnar S. Paulsson Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw 1940–1945 |publisher=The American Association for Polish-Jewish Studies |access-date=17 February 2014|author-link = Marci Shore}}</ref> Many prewar [[German minority in Poland|Polish citizens of German descent]] voluntarily declared themselves ''[[Volksdeutsche]]'' ("ethnic Germans"), and some of them committed atrocities against the Polish population and organized large-scale looting of property.<ref>Maria Wardzyńska, ''Był rok 1939: Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce Intelligenzaktion'', [[Institute of National Remembrance]], 2009, {{ISBN|978-83-7629-063-8}}</ref>{{sfn|Browning|Matthäus|2007|p=32}}

The Germans set up Jewish-run governing bodies in Jewish communities and [[ghettos]] – ''[[Judenrat|Judenrāte]]'' (Jewish councils) that served as self-enforcing intermediaries to manage Jewish communities and ghettos; and [[Jewish Ghetto Police]] (''Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst''), which functioned as [[auxiliary police]] to maintaining order and combating crime.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4tJvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT394 |title=Notes From The Warsaw Ghetto: The Journal Of Emmanuel Ringelblum |last=Ringelblum |first=Emmanuel |year= 2015 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |isbn=978-1-78625-716-1 |language=en |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318120646/https://books.google.ca/books?id=4tJvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT394 |archive-date=18 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Polish Underground State]]'s wartime [[underground court]]s investigated 17,000 Poles who collaborated with the Germans; about 3,500 were sentenced to death.<ref name="KPF 2005">{{cite journal |first=Klaus-Peter |last=Friedrich |title=Collaboration in a 'Land without a Quisling': Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |volume=64 |issue=4 |date=Winter 2005 |pages=711–746 |doi=10.2307/3649910|jstor=3649910 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Connelly 2005">{{cite journal |first=John |last=Connelly |title=Why the Poles Collaborated so Little: And Why That Is No Reason for Nationalist Hubris |journal=Slavic Review |volume=64 |number=4 |year=2005 |pages=771–781 |jstor=3649912 |doi=10.2307/3649912 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Romania=== {{Main article|The Holocaust in Romania}} :''See also [[Responsibility for the Holocaust#Romania|Responsibility for the Holocaust (Romania)]], [[Ion Antonescu#Antonescu and the Holocaust|Antonescu and the Holocaust]]'', ''[[Porajmos#Persecution in other Axis and occupied countries]]''. [[File:Templul evreilor spanioli din Bucureşti.jpg|thumb|[[Sephardic]] temple in [[Bucharest]] after it was plundered and torched in 1941]] According to an [[Wiesel Commission|international commission report]] released by the Romanian government in 2004, between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews died on Romanian soil, in the war zones of [[Bessarabia]], [[Bukovina]], and in territories formerly occupied by Soviets that came under Romanian control ([[Transnistria Governorate]]). Of the 25,000 [[Romani people|Romani]] deported to concentration camps in Transnistria, 11,000 died.<ref name="Commission">{{cite web|author=International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania|title=Executive Summary: Historical Findings and Recommendations|work=Final Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania|publisher=Yad Vashem (The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority)|date=11 November 2004|url=https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/pdf-drupal/en/report/english/EXECUTIVE_SUMMARY.pdf|access-date=2023-03-28|author-link=Wiesel Commission}}</ref>

Though much of the killing was committed in the war zone by Romanian and German troops, in the [[Iaşi pogrom]] of June 1941 over 13,000 Jews died in trains traveling back and forth across the countryside.<ref>[https://www.france24.com/en/tv-shows/revisited/20220325-romania-s-ia%25C8%2599i-pogrom-one-of-the-worst-massacres-of-jews-during-wwii Revisited: Romania's Iași pogrom, one of the worst massacres of Jews during World War II], Nadia Bletry, Thierry Trelluyer, Ruth Michaelson. France24, 23 March 2022</ref>

Half of the estimated 270,000 to 320,000 Jews living in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and [[Dorohoi County]] were murdered or died between June 1941 and the spring of 1944. Of these, between 45,000 and 60,000 Jews were killed in Bessarabia and Bukovina by Romanian and German troops<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2rJqy2SkJqsC&pg=PA214 Nazi Policy on the Eastern Front, 1941: Total War, Genocide, and Radicalization], Rochester studies in Central Europe, {{ISSN|1528-4808}} Editors Alex J. Kay, Jeff Rutherford, David Stahel Publisher University Rochester Press, 2012 {{ISBN|978-1-58046-407-9}}</ref><ref>[https://www.state.gov/reports/just-act-report-to-congress/moldova/ The JUST Act Report: Moldova], US Department of State</ref> within months of the entry of the country into the war during 1941. Even after the initial killings, Jews in [[Western Moldavia|Moldavia]], Bukovina and Bessarabia were subject to frequent [[pogroms]], and were concentrated into [[ghettos]] from which they were sent to camps in Transnistria built and run by the Romanian authorities.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Romanian soldiers and gendarmes also worked with the ''[[Einsatzkommando]]s'', German killing squads, tasked with massacring Jews and Roma in conquered territories, the local Ukrainian militia, and the SS squads of local Ukrainian Germans ([[Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle#Role in the Holocaust|Sonderkommando Russland]] and [[Selbstschutz]]). Romanian troops were in large part responsible for the [[1941 Odessa massacre]], in which from 18 October 1941, to mid-March 1942 Romanian soldiers, gendarmes and police, killed up to 25,000 Jews and deported more than 35,000.<ref name="Commission"/>

The lowest respectable mortality estimates run to about 250,000 Jews and 11,000 Roma in these eastern regions.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

Nonetheless, half of the Jews living within the pre-Barbarossa borders survived the war, although they were subject to a wide range of harsh conditions, including forced labor, financial penalties, and discriminatory laws. All Jewish property was [[Nationalization|nationalized]].

A report commissioned and accepted by the Romanian government in 2004 on the Holocaust concluded:<ref name="Commission"/> <blockquote>Of all the allies of Nazi Germany, Romania bears responsibility for the deaths of more Jews than any country other than Germany itself. The murders committed in [[Iași pogrom|Iasi]], [[1941 Odessa massacre|Odessa]], [[Bogdanovka concentration camp|Bogdanovka]], [[Domanivka|Domanovka]], and [[Pechora concentration camp|Peciora]], for example, were among the most hideous murders committed against Jews anywhere during the Holocaust. Romania committed [[genocide]] against the Jews. The survival of Jews in some parts of the country does not alter this reality.</blockquote>

=== Yugoslavia === {{See also|World War II in Yugoslavia}} On 25 March 1941, under considerable pressure, the Yugoslav government agreed to the signing of the [[Tripartite Pact]] with Nazi Germany, guaranteeing Yugoslavia's neutrality. The agreement was extremely unpopular in Serbia and led to massive street demonstrations.<ref name="Ridley 1994 p. 159">{{cite book |last=Ridley |first=J.G. |title=Tito: A Biography |publisher=Constable |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-09-471260-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IX5pAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Two days later, on 27 March, Serb military officers led by general [[Dušan Simović]] overthrew the regency and placed 17-year-old [[Peter II of Yugoslavia|King Peter]] on the throne.<ref name="Đonlagić Atanachovic Plenča Edwards 1967 p. 29">{{cite book |last1=Đonlagić |first1=A. |last2=Atanachovic |first2=Z. |last3=Plenča |first3=D. |last4=Edwards |first4=L.F. |last5=Milić |first5=S. |title=Yugoslavia in the Second World War |publisher=Books on Demand |series=Medunarodna štampa |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-598-52382-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhdnAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Furious at the temerity of the Serbs, Hitler ordered the [[invasion of Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Goeschel 2018 p. 209">{{cite book |last=Goeschel |first=C. |title=Mussolini and Hitler: The Forging of the Fascist Alliance |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-300-17883-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209 |page=209}}</ref> On 6 April 1941, without a declaration of war, combined German and Italian military armies invaded. Eleven days later Yugoslavia capitulated and was subsequently partitioned among the Axis states.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=47}}

[[File:Map of the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia.svg|thumb| alt=map of Axis-held Yugoslavia|400px|Map of the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia]]

*The [[Central Serbia]] region and the [[Banat]] were subjected to German military occupation in the [[Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia]], *Italian forces occupied the [[Dalmatia|Dalmatian coast]] and [[Montenegro]]; *The [[Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)|Italian protectorate of Albania]] annexed the Kosovo region and part of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]; *[[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] received [[Vardar Macedonia]] (today's [[North Macedonia]]); *[[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungary]] occupied and annexed the [[Bačka]] and [[Baranya (region)|Baranya]] regions as well as [[Međimurje (region)|Međimurje]] and [[Prekmurje]]; *the rest of [[Drava Banovina]] (roughly present-day [[Slovenia]]) was divided between [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Italy]]; and *[[Croatia proper|Croatia]], [[Syrmia]] and [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] were combined into the [[Independent State of Croatia]], a [[puppet state]] under the direction of Croatian fascist [[Ante Pavelić]].{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=612}}

==== Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia ==== {{See also|Axis occupation of Serbia|Government of National Salvation|Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia}} Under German military occupation Serbia was at first directly administered by Nazis, then by a [[puppet government]] led by General [[Milan Nedić]].<ref name="Lemkin 2008 p. 48">{{cite book|last=Lemkin|first=R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y0in2wOY-W0C|title=Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress|publisher=Lawbook Exchange, Limited|year=2008|isbn=978-1-58477-901-8|series=Foundations of the Laws of War Publications of the Carnegie|page=248}}</ref> The main function of the government was to maintain internal order under the authority of the German Command with the use of local paramilitary units.<ref name="McDonald United States. Department of the Army 1973 p. 51">{{cite book|last=McDonald|first=G.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAWfoIgnOKAC&pg=PA51|title=Area Handbook for Yugoslavia|author2=United States. Department of the Army|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|year=1973|series=Area handbook series|page=51}}</ref> The [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht|Wehrmacht Operations Staff]] never considered raising a unit to serve in the German armed forces.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}} By mid 1943, the collaborationist forces in Serbia, (Serbian and ethnic Russian units), numbered between 25,000 and 30,000.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}}<ref name="Cohen Riesman 1996 p. 36">{{cite book | last1=Cohen | first1=P.J. | last2=Riesman | first2=D. | title=Serbia's Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History | publisher=Texas A & M University Press | series=Eastern European studies | year=1996 |isbn=978-0-89096-760-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz1PW_wnHYMC&pg=PA37|page=37}}</ref>

===== Serbian units ===== Serbian collaborationist organizations the [[Serbian State Guard]] (SDS) and the Serbian Border Guard (SGS) reached a combined 21,000 men at their peak. The [[Serbian Volunteer Corps (World War II)|Serbian Volunteers Corps]] (SDK), the party militia of the fascist [[Yugoslav National Movement]] led by [[Dimitrije Ljotić]], reached 9,886 men; its members helped guard and run concentration camps and fought the [[Yugoslav Partisans]] and the [[Chetniks]] alongside the Germans. In October 1941, the Serbian Volunteer Corps participated in the [[Kragujevac massacre]], arresting and delivering hostages to the Wehrmacht.<ref name="Hayes Diefendorf Horowitz Herzog 2012 p. 18">{{cite book | last1=Hayes | first1=P. | last2=Diefendorf | first2=J.M. | last3=Horowitz | first3=S.R. | last4=Herzog | first4=D. | last5=Smelser | first5=R.M. | last6=Lower | first6=W. | author7=Holocaust Educational Foundation | last8=Rossi | first8=L.F. | title=Lessons and Legacies X: Back to the Sources: Reexamining Perpetrators, Victims, and Bystanders | publisher=Northwestern University Press | series=Lessons & Legacies | year=2012 |isbn=978-0-8101-2862-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYJS1xt5SPoC&pg=PT35 | page=35}}</ref> The members of the Serbian Volunteer Corps had to take an oath stating that they would fight to death against both Communists and Chetniks.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}}

Collaborationist [[1st Belgrade Special Combat detachment|Belgrade Special Police]] helped German units round up Jewish citizens for deportation to concentration camps. By the summer of 1942, most Serbian Jews had been exterminated.<ref>{{cite book|author=Barry M. Lituchy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lvAhAQAAIAAJ|title=Jasenovac and the Holocaust in Yugoslavia: analyses and survivor testimonies|publisher=Jasenovac Research Institute|year=2006|isbn=978-0-9753432-0-3|page=xxxiii}}</ref> By the end of 1942 the Special Police had 240 agents and 878 police guards under the command of the [[Gestapo]].<ref name="Cohen Riesman 1996 p. 36"/> After the liberation of the country in October 1944, the collaborationist forces retreated with the German army and were later absorbed into the [[Waffen-SS]].<ref name="Dolbeau 2006 p.255">{{cite book|last=Dolbeau|first=C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGUjAQAAIAAJ|title=Face au bolchevisme: petit dictionnaire des résistances nationales à l'Est de l'Europe (1917–1989)|trans-title=In the face of Bolshevism: Little dictionary of national resistance movements in Eastern Europe (1917–1989)| publisher=Arctic | year=2006|isbn=978-2-916713-00-7|language=fr}}</ref> [[File:Chetniks pose with German soldiers.jpg|thumb|Collaborationist Chetniks with German soldiers]] Almost from the start, two rival guerrilla movements, the Chetniks and the Partisans, engaged in a bloody civil war with each other, in addition to fighting against the occupying forces. Some Chetniks [[Collaborationism|collaborated]] with the [[Axis Powers|Axis]] occupation to fight the rival Partisan resistance, whom they viewed as their primary enemy, by establishing ''modus vivendi'' or operating as "legalised" auxiliary forces under Axis control.<ref name="Ramet 2006 p. 1472">{{harvnb|Ramet|2006|p=147}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Tomasevich|1975|pp=223–225}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|MacDonald|2002|pp=140–142}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pavlowitch|2007|pp=65–67}}</ref>

In August 1941 [[Kosta Pećanac]] put himself and his [[Pećanac Chetniks|Chetniks]] at the disposal of [[Milan Nedić]]'s government, becoming the occupation regime's 'legal Chetniks'.{{sfn|Glenny|2000|p=489}} At the peak of their strength in mid-May 1942, the two legal Chetnik auxiliary forces numbered 13,400 men; these detachments were dissolved by the end of 1942.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}} Pećanac was captured and executed by forces loyal to his Chetnik rival [[Draža Mihailović]] in 1944. As no single Chetnik organization existed,{{sfn|Glenny|2000|p=489}} other Chetnik units engaged independently in marginal<ref name="Milazzo p1822">{{harvnb|Milazzo|1975|p=182}}</ref> resistance activities and avoided accommodations with the enemy.<ref name="Ramet 2006 p. 1472"/><ref>{{harvnb|Milazzo|1975|p=21}}</ref> Over a period of time, and in different parts of the country, some Chetnik groups were drawn progressively<ref name="Milazzo p1822" /><ref>{{harvnb|Tomasevich|1975|p={{page needed|date=November 2022}}}}</ref> into opportunist agreements: first with the Nedić forces in Serbia, then with the Italians in occupied [[Dalmatia]] and [[Montenegro]], with some of the [[Ustaše]] forces in northern [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]], and after the Italian capitulation, also with the [[Nazi Germany|Germans]] directly.<ref name="Tomasevich p1962">{{harvnb|Tomasevich|1975|p=169}}</ref> In some regions Chetniks collaborated "extensively and systematically", which they called "using the enemy".<ref name="Tomasevich p1962"/><ref name="Tomasevich p2462">{{harvnb|Tomasevich|1975|p=246}}</ref><ref name="Ramet p1452">{{harvnb|Ramet|2006|p=145}} "Both the Chetniks' political program and the extent of their collaboration have been amply, even voluminously, documented; it is more than a bit disappointing, thus, that people can still be found who believe that the Chetniks were doing anything besides attempting to realize a vision of an ethnically homogeneous Greater Serbian state, which they intended to advance, in the short run, by a policy of collaboration with the Axis forces. The Chetniks collaborated extensively and systematically with the Italian occupation forces until the Italian capitulation in September 1943, and beginning in 1944, portions of the Chetnik movement of Draža Mihailović collaborated openly with the Germans and Ustaša forces in Serbia and Croatia."</ref>

===== Ethnic Russian units ===== The Auxiliary Police Troop and the [[Russian Protective Corps]] were paramilitary units raised in the German-occupied territory of Serbia, composed exclusively of anti-communist [[White émigré]]s or Volksdeutsche from Russia, under the command of General [[Mikhail Skorodumov]] (around 400 and 7,500 men respectively by December 1942).{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=192}} The force reached a peak size of 11,197 by September 1944.<ref name="Cohen Riesman 1996 p. 100">{{cite book | last1=Cohen | first1=P.J. | last2=Riesman | first2=D. | title=Serbia's Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History | publisher=Texas A & M University Press | series=Eastern European studies | year=1996 |isbn=978-0-89096-760-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz1PW_wnHYMC&pg=PA37}}</ref> Unlike the Serbian units, the Russian Protective Corps was part of the German armed forces and its members took the [[Hitler Oath]].{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}}

===== Banat ===== {{See also|Banat (1941–1944)|Axis occupation of Vojvodina}}[[File:7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen 1943.jpg|thumb|The [[7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen]] manned by [[Volksdeutsche]] (ethnic Germans) primarily from the Serbian [[Banat]] ]] Between April 1941 and October 1944, the Serbian half of the [[Banat]] was under German military occupation as an administrative unit of the [[Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia]]. Its daily administration and security were left up to its 120,000 [[Volksdeutsche]], who represented 20% of the local population. In the Banat, [[security]], [[Bandenbekämpfung|anti-partisan]] warfare, and border patrols, were exclusively carried out by the Volksdeutsche in the Deutsche Mannschaft. In 1941, the Banat Auxiliary Police force was created to serve in [[concentration camps]]. It had 1,552 members by February 1943.<ref name="Zakić 2017 p. 152">{{cite book|last=Zakić|first=M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I81WDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA152|title=Ethnic Germans and National Socialism in Yugoslavia in World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-316-77306-2|page=152}}</ref> It was affiliated with the [[Ordnungspolizei]] and included some 400 [[Hungarians]]. The [[Gestapo]] in the Banat employed local ethnic Germans as agents. Banat Jews were deported and exterminated with the full participation of the Banat German leadership, the Banat Police and many ethnic German civilians.<ref name="Zakić 2017 p. 152"/>

According to German sources, as of 28 December 1943, the Volksdeutsche minority of the Banat had contributed 21,516 men to the Waffen SS, the auxiliary police, and the Banat police.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=47}}

The 700,000 Volksdeutsche who lived in Yugoslavia<ref name="Schiessl 2016 p. 2">{{cite book | last=Schiessl | first=C. | title=Alleged Nazi Collaborators in the United States after World War II | publisher=Lexington Books | year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4985-2941-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CYqUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2PAGE}}</ref> were the basis for the [[7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen]], which towards the war's end included other ethnicities. The division's soldiers brutally punished civilians accused of working with partisans in both occupied Serbia and the [[Independent State of Croatia]], going so far as to raze entire villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://znaci.org/00001/84.htm|title="TEROR" I "ZLOČINI" NACISTIČKE NEMAČKE U SRBIJI 1941–1945|last=Glišić|first=Venceslav|date=1970|website=znaci.net|archive-url=https://archive.today/20190122134017/http://www.znaci.net/00001/84.htm|archive-date=22 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=May 2023}}

==== Montenegro ==== The [[Italian governorate of Montenegro]] was established as an Italian protectorate with the support of Montenegrin separatists known as [[Greens (Montenegro)|Greens]]. The [[Lovćen Brigade]], the militia of the Greens, collaborated with the Italians. Other collaborationist units included local Chetniks, police, gendarmerie and [[Sandžak Muslim militia]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC&pg=PA143 War and Revolution in Yugoslavia: 1941–1945] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC&pg=PA143&dq=%22war+and+revolution+in+yugoslavia%22+%22gendarmerie%22+%22montenegro%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=DnHeU6VE76HsBpnWgdAE&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22war%20and%20revolution%20in%20yugoslavia%22%20%22gendarmerie%22%20%22montenegro%22&f=false|date=15 January 2016}} by Jozo Tomasevich. Google Books.</ref>

==== Kosovo ==== {{Further|German_occupation_of_Albania#Collaboration|Greater Albania}} Most of Kosovo and the western part of southern Serbia ({{Lang|sr|Juzna Srbija}}, included in [[Zeta Banovina]]) was annexed to Albania by fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.<ref name="Littlejohn 1994 p. 8">{{cite book|last=Littlejohn|first=D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwRvjgEACAAJ|title=Foreign Legions of the Third Reich|publisher=R. James Bender Publishing|year=1994|isbn=978-0-912138-29-9|issue=v. 3|page=8}}</ref> Kosovar Albanians were recruited into Albanian paramilitary groups known as the [[Vulnetari]], set up to assist Italian fascists maintain order,<ref name="Bishop 2012 p. 136">{{cite book|last=Bishop|first=C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j43fBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT136|title=SS Hitler's Foreign Divisions: Foreign Volunteers in the Waffen-SS 1940–45|publisher=Amber Books Ltd|year=2012|isbn=978-1-908273-99-4|series=Military Classics|page=136}}</ref> many Serbs and Jews were expelled from Kosovo and sent to internment camps in Albania.<ref name="World Jewish Congress 2008 p. 34">{{cite book|author=World Jewish Congress|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbAvAQAAIAAJ|title=The Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs|publisher=Israel Council on Foreign Relations|year=2008|issue=v. 2}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2023}}

The [[Balli Kombëtar]] militias, or Ballistas, were volunteer Albanian nationalistic groups that started as a resistance movement, then collaborated with the Axis Powers in hopes of seeing [[Greater Albania]] created.<ref name="Bishop 2005 p. 190">{{cite book | last=Bishop | first=C. | title=Hitler's Foreign Divisions: Foreign Volunteers in the Waffen-SS, 1940–1945 | publisher=Amber Books | series=Armenian Research Center collection | year=2005 |isbn=978-1-904687-37-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6glAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> Military units were formed within the militias, among them the [[Kosovo Regiment]], raised in [[Mitrovica, Kosovo|Kosovska Mitrovica]] as a Nazi auxiliary military unit after Italian capitulation.<ref name="Elsie 1997 p. 36">{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4BpAAAAMAAJ|title=Kosovo: In the Heart of the Powder Keg|publisher=East European Monographs|year=1997|isbn=978-0-88033-375-7|series=East European monographs}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2023}} According to German reports, in early 1944 some 20,000 Albanian guerrillas led by [[Xhafer Deva]] fought the Partisans alongside the [[Wehrmacht]] in Albania and Kosovo.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=47}}

==== Macedonia ==== In Bulgaria-annexed [[Vardar Macedonia]], the occupation authority organized the [[Ohrana]] into auxiliary security forces. On 11 March 1943, [[Skopje]]'s entire Jewish population was deported to the gas chambers of [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka concentration camp]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Expulsion of the Jews: Five Hundred Years of Exodus |author=Yale Strom |publisher=SP Books |year=1992 |isbn=978-1-56171-081-2 |page=17}}</ref>

==== Slovene Lands ==== {{Main|World War II in the Slovene Lands|Slovene Home Guard}} [[File:Slovenske vaške straže trenirajo pod italijanskim poveljstvom.jpg|thumb|Italian-sponsored Slovene Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia]] The Axis powers divided the [[Slovene Lands]] into three zones. Germany occupied the largest, northern part. Italy annexed the southern part, and Hungary annexed the northeast part, [[Prekmurje]].{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=83}} As in the rest of Yugoslavia, the Nazis used the Slovene [[Volksdeutsche]] to further their aims, in groups like the Deutsche Jugend (German Youth) which was used as an auxiliary military force for guard duty and fighting the partisans, and the [[Slovenian National Defense Corps]].{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=83}}

The [[Slovene Home Guard]] ({{Lang|sl|Domobranci}}) was a collaborationist force formed in September 1943 in the [[Province of Ljubljana]] (then a part of [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Italy]]). It was led by former general [[Leon Rupnik]] but had limited autonomy, and at first, functioned as an auxiliary police force that assisted the Germans in [[Axis anti-partisan operations in World War II|anti-partisan]] actions.<ref name="Gow Carmichael 2000 p. 49">{{cite book | last1=Gow | first1=J. | last2=Carmichael | first2=C. | title=Slovenia and the Slovenes: A Small State and the New Europe | publisher=Hurst | series=Reprint Due July Series | year=2000 |isbn=978-1-85065-428-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ktEZsky0DPQC| page=49}}</ref> Later, it gained more autonomy and conducted most of the anti-partisan operations in Ljubljana. Much of the Guard's equipment was Italian (confiscated when Italy dropped out of the war in 1943), although German weapons and equipment were used as well, especially later in the war. Similar, but much smaller units, were also formed in the [[Slovene Littoral|Littoral]] (''Primorska'') and [[Upper Carniola]] (''Gorenjska''). The [[Blue Guard (Slovene)|Blue Guard]], also known as the Slovene Chetniks, was an anti-communist militia led by [[Karl Novak]] and [[Ivan Prezelj]].<ref name="Kranjc 2013 p. 85">{{cite book | last=Kranjc | first=G.J. | title=To Walk with the Devil: Slovene Collaboration and Axis Occupation, 1941–1945 | publisher=University of Toronto Press | year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4426-1330-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1nVurhv7wwMC&pg=PA85| page=85}}</ref>

The [[Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia (Italy)|Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia]] (MVAC), was under Italian authority. One of the biggest components of the MVAC was the Civic Guards ({{Interlanguage link|Vaške Straže|sl}}),<ref name="Gow Carmichael 2000 p. 49"/> a Slovene volunteer military organization formed by the Italian Fascist authorities to fight the partisans, as well as some collaborationist Chetniks units. The [[Legion of Death (military unit)|Legion of Death]] ({{Lang|sl|Legija Smrti}}), was another Slovene anti-partisan armed unit formed after the Blue Guard joined the MVAC.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=83}}

==== Independent State of Croatia ==== {{Main|Independent State of Croatia|Croatian Armed Forces (Independent State of Croatia)|Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia}} On 10 April 1941, a few days before Yugoslavia's capitulation, [[Ante Pavelić]]'s [[Independent State of Croatia]] (NDH) was established as an Axis-affiliated state, with [[Zagreb]] as capital.<ref name="Yeomans 2012 p. 8">{{cite book|last=Yeomans|first=R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxv4-iqVe2wC|title=Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-8229-7793-3|series=Pitt series in Russian and East European studies}}</ref> Between 1941 and 1945, the fascist [[Ustaše]] regime collaborated with Nazi Germany, and engaged in independent persecution. According to the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]], this resulted in the deaths of approximately 30,000 Jews, between 25,000 and 30,000 Roma, and between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serbs from Croatia and Bosnia,<ref name="Holocaust Encyclopedia 1943">{{cite web|date=1943-03-11|title=Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia|url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/axis-invasion-of-yugoslavia|website=Holocaust Encyclopedia}}</ref> in camps like the infamous [[Jasenovac concentration camp]].<ref name="The Holocaust Encyclopedia 1941">{{cite web|date=1941-04-10|title=Jasenovac|url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jasenovac|website=The Holocaust Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref name="JUSP">{{cite web|title=List of Individual Victims of Jasenovac Concentration Camp|url=http://www.jusp-jasenovac.hr/Default.aspx?sid=6711|access-date=10 May 2016|work=Official website of the Jasenovac Memorial Site}}</ref>

The [[13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian)]], created in February 1943, and the [[23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama (2nd Croatian)|23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS ''Kama'' (2nd Croatian)]], created in January 1944, were manned by Croats and Bosniaks as well as local Germans. Earlier in the war, Pavelić formed a [[369th Croatian Reinforced Infantry Regiment (Wehrmacht)|Croatian Legion]] for the Eastern Front and attached it to the Wehrmacht. Volunteer pilots joined the [[Luftwaffe]] as Pavelić did not want to get his army directly involved for both propaganda reasons (Domobrans/Home Guards were a "chieftain of Croatian values, never attacking and only defending") and due to a safeguarding need for political flexibility with the Soviet Union.[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1980-036-05, Amin al Husseini bei bosnischen SS-Freiwilligen.jpg|thumb|right|Haj [[Amin al-Husseini]] gives the [[Nazi salute]] while reviewing [[13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian)|a unit of Bosnian SS volunteers]] in 1943 with ''Waffen-SS'' General [[Karl-Gustav Sauberzweig|Sauberzweig]].]]Pavelić proclaimed that Croats were the descendants of [[Goths]], to eliminate the leadership's [[inferiority complex]] and be better viewed by the Germans. The [[Poglavnik]] stated that "Croats are not [[Slavs]], but [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] by [[blood]] and [[Race (human categorization)|race]]".{{sfn|Беляков|2009|p=146}} Nazi German leadership was indifferent to this claim.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

====Bosnia==== In 1941 Bosnia became an integral part of the Independent State of Croatia. Bosnian Muslims were considered Croats of Islamic confession.<ref name="Pinson Mottahedeh 1996 p. 141">{{cite book|last1=Pinson|first1=M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yl3TAkJmztYC|title=The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina: Their Historic Development from the Middle Ages to the Dissolution of Yugoslavia|last2=Mottahedeh|first2=R.P.|publisher=Center for Middle Eastern Studies of Harvard University|year=1996|isbn=978-0-932885-12-8|series=Harvard Middle Eastern monographs}}</ref>

== Soviet Union == ===Before the German invasion=== State-to-state collaboration, enabled by the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] of August 1939, began with the [[Soviet invasion of Poland]] in September 1939, which was followed later that month by the [[Red Army]]'s [[German–Soviet military parade in Brest-Litovsk|participation in a joint military parade in Brest-Litovsk (Brześć)]] in [[occupied Poland]]<ref name="Moorhouse">{{cite book |title=The Devils' Alliance: Hitler's Pact with Stalin, 1939–1941 |first=Roger |last=Moorhouse |publisher=Basic Books |author-link=Roger Moorhouse |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-465-05492-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz_RAwAAQBAJ&q=collaboration&pg=RA1-PT5 |pages=5, 38, 115}}</ref> and the signing in Moscow of the [[German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty]]. High levels of each nation's secret police subsequently conducted the [[Gestapo–NKVD conferences]] in [[Zakopane]] and [[Kraków]] (Cracow), but also in [[Polesie Voivodeship#Cities and counties|Brest-Litovsk (Brześć)]], [[Lwów Voivodeship#Cities and counties|Lwów (Lvov)]] and [[Przemyśl]] in 1939–1940, enabling both parties to share intelligence about Polish resistance and exchange Polish prisoners.<ref name="English">{{cite book |title=Russia and the Idea of the West |first=Robert D. |last=English |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-231-50474-8 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qA_uT6GrcxEC&q=gestapo-nkvd%20collaboration&pg=PA104 |id=Gestapo-NKVD collaboration following the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] of 1939.}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Moorhouse|2014|p=38|loc=''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz_RAwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PT38&q=collaboration Collaboration.]''}}</ref> [[File:Armia Czerwona, Wehrmacht 22.09.1939 wspólna parada.jpg|thumb|upright|Joint [[Wehrmacht]] and [[Red Army]] parade in [[Brest (Belarus)|Brest]] at end of [[invasion of Poland]]. ''Center:'' Maj. Gen. [[Heinz Guderian]]. ''Right:'' [[Brigadier|Brig.]] [[Semyon Krivoshein]].]]

===After the German invasion=== {{main|Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet Union}} [[Operation Barbarossa]] began on 22 June 1941 and, by November 1942, Nazi Germany had occupied around {{Convert|750,000|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} of the Soviet Union.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Nigel |title=Hitler's Russian & Cossack Allies 1941–45 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4728-0687-1 |series=Men-at-Arms |location=Oxford |pages=3–5}}</ref> By November 1944, the German forces had been forced out of the pre-World War II Soviet territory.<ref name=":0"/>

According to the American historian Jeffrey Burds, out of the three million armed collaborators with Nazi Germany in Europe, as many as 2.5 million originated from the Soviet Union, and by 1945, every eighth German soldier had previously been a pre-war Soviet citizen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burds |first=Jeffrey |date=2007 |title=The Soviet War against 'Fifth Columnists': The Case of Chechnya, 1942-4 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=42 |issue=2 |page=308 |doi=10.1177/0022009407075545 |jstor=30036445 |s2cid=159523593 |issn=0022-0094}}</ref> [[Antony Beevor]] writes that 1 to 1.5 million men from the territory of the USSR served militarily under the Germans.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |title=The Fall of Berlin 1945 |pages=113–114}}</ref> Regardless, the precise number will never be known.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Jurado |first=Carlos Caballero |title=Foreign Volunteers of the Wehrmacht 1941–1945 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=1999 |isbn=0-85045-524-3 |series=Men-at-Arms |page=12}}</ref>{{dubious|date=February 2024}} The people from the Soviet Union served in the Wehrmacht under a wide array of units: [[Hiwi (volunteer)|Hiwi]], Security units, [[Russian Liberation Army]] (ROA), [[Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia|KONR]], [[Ukrainian Liberation Army]], various independent Russian units ({{Ill|1st Russian National SS Brigade "Druzhina"|lt=SS-Verband Drushina|ru|1-я русская национальная бригада СС «Дружина»}}, [[Russian National People's Army|RNNA]], [[Russian National Liberation Army|RONA]], [[First Russian National Army|1st Russian National Army]]) and the [[Ostlegionen|Eastern Legions]].<ref name=":0"/> Toward's the war's end, the [[SS Main Office]] and the [[Ostministerium]] began conflicting over the Eastern Legions and Cossack units.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last1=Drobyazko |first1=S. |title=Восточные легионы и казачьи части в Вермахте |last2=Karashchuk |first2=A. |year=2001 |location=Moscow |pages=3–4 |language=ru |trans-title=Eastern legions and Cossack units in the Wehrmacht}}</ref> The former tried to control all non-German troops fighting in the Wehrmacht, while the latter had its own policy towards the military units, which was helped by the national committees whose patron it was.<ref name=":6"/> Most national committees refused to subordinate themselves and the associated military units to [[Andrey Vlasov]]'s [[Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia]] (KONR) and its [[Russian Liberation Army|armed forces]] (ROA), instead choosing to declare national armies, e.g. Caucasian Liberation Army and National Army of Turkestan.<ref name=":6"/> However, through the help of his patrons in the SS Main Office, Vlasov became their ostensibly leader by April 1945 and all national committees and related troops were nominally subordinated to him.<ref name=":6"/>[[File:Genarał Andriej Własow podczas przeglądu swoich jednostek (2-1984).jpg|thumb|General [[Andrey Vlasov]] (centre), accompanied by a German general, inspects a detachment of the Russian Liberation Army. ]]According to Antony Beevor, those serving under the Germans were "often extraordinarily naïve and ill-informed."<ref name=":1"/> Many viewed their service under the Germans as just serving in another military service and a way to ensure food for themselves, which they preferred to being maltreated and starved in a prisoner-of-war camp.<ref name=":1"/>

The [[Waffen-SS]] recruited from many nationalities living in the Soviet Union, and the German government attempted to enroll Soviet citizens voluntarily for the ''[[Ostarbeiter]]'' program. Originally this effort worked well, but the news of the terrible conditions faced by workers dried up the flow of new volunteers and the program became forcible.<ref name="Gregorovich"/>

=== Hiwis === Already from the very first days, individual deserters and prisoners from the [[Red Army]] were offering their help to the Germans in auxiliary duties such as, but not limited to, cooking, driving, and medical assistance.<ref name=":4"/> There were also Soviet civilians that joined supply units and construction battalions.<ref name=":0"/> Both military and civilian auxiliaries were called [[Hiwi (volunteer)|Hiwis]] (German abbreviation for auxiliary volunteer) with the former Soviets soldiers frequently wearing their Red Army uniforms without any Soviet insignia.<ref name=":0"/> After two months service, they were permitted to wear German uniforms with insignia and ranks, which made veteran Hiwis almost indistinguishable from the regular German soldiers, although their promotion up the ranks was very limited.<ref name=":0"/>

Hitler reluctantly gave permission in September 1941 to recruit people from the Soviet Union as unarmed voluntary assistants, but in practice this was frequently ignored and many of them served in frontline units.<ref name=":0"/> Sometimes many of the men of German units consisted of the Hiwis, for example, half of the [[134th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|134th Infantry Division]] and a quarter of the [[6th Army (Wehrmacht)|6th Army]] consisted of Hiwis in late 1942.<ref name=":0"/> The Red Army authorities estimated that more than a million served in the Wehrmacht as Hiwis.<ref name=":1"/> [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-295-1560-21, Nordfrankreich, Turkmenische Freiwillige.jpg|thumb|200px|Volunteer ''[[freiwillige]]'' troops of the [[Turkestan Legion]] in France, 1943]] [[File:Ingrians of 664th Eastern Battalion.jpg|thumb|[[Ingrian Finns|Ingrian]] Wehrmacht volunteers of the [[664th Eastern Battalion]], 1943]]

=== Eastern Legions === {{See also|Ostlegionen|Turkic, Caucasian, Cossack, and Crimean collaborationism with the Axis powers}} The failure of the Axis powers to immediately defeat the Soviet Union in late 1941 led the Wehrmacht to resort to new sources of manpower necessary for a protracted war.<ref name=":6"/> In November–December 1941, Hitler ordered the formation of four [[Ostlegionen|Eastern Legions]]: [[Turkestan Legion|Turkestan]], [[Georgian Legion (1941–1945)|Georgian]], [[Armenian Legion|Armenian]] and [[Caucasian Mohammedan Legion|Caucasian Mohammedan]].<ref name=":6"/> In August 1942, the "Regulations on Local Auxiliary Formations in the East" singled out the [[Turkic peoples]] and the [[Cossacks]] as "equal allies fighting shoulder to shoulder with German soldiers against Bolshevism in composition of special combat units."<ref name=":6"/> The incorporation of eastern battalions into German divisions guarding the [[Atlantic Wall]] in Western Europe caused problems as they were totally unfit to fight against the [[Western allies|Western Allies]] and the battalions were actually a burden on the weakened divisions that they were supposed to replenish.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kroener |first=Bernhard R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rAlNsmScl3AC&dq=Order+on+Local+Auxiliary+Formations+in+the+East&pg=PA1057 |title=Germany and the Second World War |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-820873-0 |volume=V/2 |page=1057 |language=en}}</ref> Between 275,000 and 350,000 "Muslim and Caucasian" volunteers and conscripts served in the Wehrmacht.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altstadt |first=Audrey L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7eyoAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT187 |title=The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule |date=2013 |publisher=Hoover Press |isbn=978-0-8179-9183-8 |page=187 |language=en}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !Ethnic groups from the USSR !Estimates of their people serving in the [[Wehrmacht]] |- |[[Cossacks]] |align="center"|70,000<ref name=":6"/> |- |- |[[Kazakhs]], [[Uzbeks]], [[Turkmens]] and other [[ethnic groups of Central Asia]] |align="center"|~70,000<ref name=":6"/> |- |[[Azerbaijanis]] |align="center"|<40,000<ref name=":6"/> |- |[[North Caucasians]] |align="center"|<30,000<ref name=":6"/> |- |[[Georgians]] |align="center"|25,000<ref name=":6"/> |- |[[Armenians]] |align="center"|20,000<ref name=":6"/> |-

|[[Crimean Tatars]] |align="center"|10,000<ref name=":6"/> |- |[[Volga Tatars]] |align="center"|2,500<ref name=":6"/> |- |[[Kalmyks]] |align="center"|7,000<ref name=":6"/> |- !Total !align="center"|280,000<ref name=":6"/> |} Between early 1942 and late 1943, the {{Lang|de|Kommando der Ostlegionen in Polen}} formed a total of 54 battalions, but this was not the only place where such units were being created:<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Jurado |first=Carlos Caballero |title=Foreign Volunteers of the Wehrmacht 1941–1945 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=1999 |isbn=0-85045-524-3 |series=Men-at-Arms |page=19}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Eastern Legion Battalions formed by {{Lang|de|Kommando der Ostlegionen in Polen}}<ref name=":7"/> !Legion !No. of battalions formed |- |[[Turkestan Legion|Turkestan]] |15 |- |[[Armenian Legion|Armenian]] |9 |- |[[Georgian Legion (1941–1945)|Georgian]] |8 |- |[[Azerbaijani Legion|Azerbaijani]] |8 |- |[[Idel-Ural Legion|Idel-Ural]] ([[Volga Finns]] and Tatars) |7 |- |[[North Caucasian and Mountain-Caucasian legions|North Caucasian]] |7 |- !Total !54 |}

=== Russia === {{Main|Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet Union#Russian collaborationism}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-297-1704-10, Nordfrankreich, Angehörige der Wlassow-Armee.jpg|thumb|200px|Soldiers wearing the shoulder patches of Gen. [[Andrey Vlasov]]'s [[Russian Liberation Army]] ("РОА"), 1944]] In Russia proper, ethnic [[Russians]] governed the semi-autonomous [[Lokot Autonomy]] in Nazi-occupied Russia.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzdIEAAAQBAJ|title=Fighting Hunger, Dealing with Shortage (2 vols): Everyday Life under Occupation in World War II Europe: A Source Edition |page=775|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-46184-0 |editor-last=Haslinger |editor-first=Peter |editor-last2=Tönsmeyer |editor-first2=Tatjana}}</ref> On 22 June 1943, a parade of the Wehrmacht and Russian collaborationist forces was welcomed and positively received in [[Pskov]]. The entry of Germans into Pskov was labelled "Liberation day" by occupying authorities, and the old Russian tricolor flag was included in the parade.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Enstad|first=Johannes Due|title=Soviet Russians under Nazi Occupation|year=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-36770-7|doi=10.1017/9781108367707|s2cid=158890368|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4T4twEACAAJ}}</ref>

==== Kalmykians ==== The [[Kalmykian Cavalry Corps]] was composed of about 5,000 [[Kalmyks]] who chose to join the retreating Germans in 1942 rather than remain in [[Kalmykia]] as the German Army retreated before the [[Red Army]].<ref name="Pohl1999">{{cite book|author=J. Otto Pohl|title=Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b9VoAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-30921-2|pages=61–65}}</ref> [[Joseph Stalin]] subsequently declared the Kalmyk population as a whole to be German collaborators in 1943 and [[Kalmyk deportations of 1943|ordered mass deportations]] to [[Siberia]], causing great loss of life.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/713677598 | volume=2 | title=Stalin's genocide against the "Repressed Peoples" | year=2000 | journal=Journal of Genocide Research | pages=267–293 | last1 = Pohl | first1 = J. Otto}}</ref>

=== Belarus === {{Main|Byelorussian collaboration with Nazi Germany}} In [[German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II|Byelorussia under German occupation]], local pro-independence politicians attempted to use the Nazis to re-establish an [[Belarusian Democratic Republic|independent Belarusian state]], which was conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1919. A Belarusian representative body, the [[Belarusian Central Council]], was created under German control in 1943 but had no real power and concentrated mainly on managing social issues and education. Belarusian national military units (the [[Byelorussian Home Defence]]) were only created a few months before the end of the German occupation.

Many Belarusian collaborators retreated with German forces in the wake of the Red Army advance. In January 1945, the [[30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Belarusian)]] was formed from the remains of Belarusian military units. The division participated in a small number of battles in France but demonstrated active disloyalty to the Nazis and saw mass desertion.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

===Ukraine=== {{For|information on UkrainIan collaboration|Ukrainian collaboration with Nazi Germany}}

Ukrainian collaboration with Nazi Germany took place during the [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|occupation of Poland]] and the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]], by [[Nazi Germany]] during the [[World War II|Second World War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Markiewicz |first=Paweł |url= |title=Unlikely Allies: Nazi German and Ukrainian Nationalist Collaboration in the General Government During World War II |publisher=Purdue University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-61249-679-5}}</ref>

By September 1941, the German-occupied territory of Ukraine was divided between two new German administrative units, the [[District of Galicia]] of the Nazi [[General Government]] and the [[Reichskommissariat Ukraine]]. Some Ukrainians chose to resist and fight the German occupation forces and joined either the [[Red Army]] or the irregular [[Soviet partisans|partisan]] units conducting guerrilla warfare against the Germans. Some Ukrainians worked with or for the Nazis against the Allied forces.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perks |first=Robert |date=1993 |title=Ukraine's Forbidden History: Memory and Nationalism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40179315 |journal=Oral History |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=43–53 |jstor=40179315 |issn=0143-0955|quote=Both occupying regimes [Poland and the USSR] imposed their own language and government... For the majority of Ukrainians in the east, Soviet rule was even more repressive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/seven-decades-nazi-collaboration-americas-dirty-little-ukraine-secret/ |title=Seven Decades of Nazi Collaboration: America's Dirty Little Ukraine Secret (An interview with Russ Bellant)|publisher=[[The Nation]] |author=Paul H. Rosenberg |date=28 March 2014}}</ref> [[Ukrainian nationalism|Ukrainian nationalists]] hoped that enthusiastic collaboration would enable them to re-establish an independent state. Many were involved in a series of war crimes and [[crimes against humanity]], including [[the Holocaust in Ukraine]], and the [[massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tovey |first=Collin |date=2023 |title=Means, Ends, and Perpetrators: Connections Between the Holocaust and the Genocide of Ethnic Poles in Volhynia and Galicia |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/concern/articles/f7623p616 |journal=North Carolina Journal of European Studies |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=26–31 |doi=10.17615/mwpv-h716}}</ref>

Ukrainians, including ethnic minorities like Belarusians, Russians, Tatars and others,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-09-29 |title=Historian Timothy Snyder: Babi Yar A Tragedy For All Ukrainians |language=en |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-babi-yar-historian-snyder-tragedy-for-all/28022569.html |access-date=2023-05-02 |quote="However, from the very beginning, and that is true, some local residents, Ukrainians – not only ethnic Ukrainians but also Russians, Tatars, and others – collaborated. Some people from each ethnic group collaborated."}}</ref> who collaborated with Nazi Germany did so in various ways including participating in local administrations, in the German-supervised [[Ukrainian Auxiliary Police|auxiliary police]], [[Schutzmannschaft]], in the German military, or as guards in the [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]].

=== Transcaucasia === {{Main|Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet Union#Other}} [[File:Bundesarchiv R 6 Bild-1451, Lager Schwarzsee, Armenische Freiwillige.jpg|thumb|Armenian soldiers, Lager Schwarzsee]] [[File:Warsaw Uprising Aserbeidschanische Feld-Bataillon 111.jpg|thumb|right|[[Azerbaijani Legion]] in combat gear. The unit helped suppress the [[Warsaw Uprising]] in August 1944.]] Ethnic Armenian, Georgian, Turkic and Caucasian forces deployed by the Germans consisted primarily of Soviet Red Army POWs assembled into ill-trained legions.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} Among these battalions were 18,000 Armenians, 13,000 Azerbaijanis, 14,000 Georgians, and 10,000 men from the "North Caucasus."{{sfn|Ailsby|2004|pp=123–124}} American historian [[Alexander Dallin]] notes that the [[Armenian Legion|Armenian]] and [[Georgian Legion (1941–1945)|Georgian]] Legions were sent to the Netherlands as a result of Hitler's distrust of them, and [[Georgian uprising on Texel|many]] later deserted.<ref name="alexander"/> Author Christopher Ailsby called the Turkic and Caucasian forces formed by the Germans "poorly armed, trained and motivated", and "unreliable and next to useless".{{sfn|Ailsby|2004|pp=123–124}}

The [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]] (the Dashnaks) was suppressed in [[Armenia]] when the [[First Republic of Armenia]] was conquered by the Russian [[Bolsheviks]] in the 1920 [[Red Army invasion of Armenia]] and thus ceased to exist. During World War II, some of the Dashnaks saw an opportunity to regain Armenia's independence. The [[Armenian Legion]] under [[Drastamat Kanayan]] participated in the occupation of the [[Crimean Peninsula]] and the [[Caucasus]].{{sfn|Auron|2003|p=238}} On 15 December 1942, the Armenian National Council was granted official recognition by [[Alfred Rosenberg]], the [[Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories]]. The president of the Council was [[Artashes Abeghyan|Ardasher Abeghian]], its vice-president was [[Abraham Guilkhandanian]], and it numbered among its members [[Garegin Nzhdeh]] and [[Vahan Papazian]]. Until the end of 1944, the organization published a weekly journal, ''Armenian'', edited by Viken Shantn, who also broadcast on Radio Berlin with the aid of Dr. [[Paul Rohrbach]].<ref name="christopher"/>

=== Ciscaucasia === {{See also|Hasan Israilov|Mairbek Sheripov|1940–1944 insurgency in Chechnya}} In January 1940, encouraged by the Soviet failures in the [[Winter War]] against [[Finland]], [[Chechen people|Chechen]] ex-communist intellectual [[Hasan Israilov]] and his brother Hussein had established a guerrilla base in the mountains of south-eastern Chechnya, where they worked to organize a unified guerrilla movement to prepare an armed [[insurrection]] against the Soviets. By early February 1940, Israilov's rebels took over several ''[[aul]]s'' in [[Shatoysky District]]. The rebel government was established in Israilov's native village of [[Galanchozh]].<ref name="Avtor">{{in lang|ru}} [http://www.hro.org/editions/karta/nr9/avt1.htm Александр УРАЛОВ (А. АВТОРХАНОВ). Убийство чечено-ингушского народа. Народоубийство в СССР] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527103905/http://www.hro.org/editions/karta/nr9/avt1.htm |date=2008-05-27 }}</ref> They then defeated the NKVD's punitive detachments sent against them, capturing modern weapons.<ref name="dunlop">Dunlop. ''Russia Confronts Chechnya'', pp 62–70</ref>

After the [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion in the USSR in June 1941]], the brothers convened 41 different meetings in summer 1941 to recruit local supporters under the name "Provisional Popular Revolutionary Government of Chechen-Ingushetia", and by the end of midsummer of that year they had over 5,000 guerrillas and at least 25,000 sympathizers organized into five military districts encompassing [[Grozny]], [[Gudermes]] and [[Malgobek]]. In some areas, up to 80% of men were involved in the insurrection. It is known that the Soviet Union used [[carpet bombing]] tactics against the revolutionaries, causing losses primarily to the civilian population.<ref name="Avtor"/> Massive Soviet bombing air raids twice targeted Chechen-Ingush mountain villages in the spring of 1942, completely devastating several ''auls'' and killing most of their inhabitants, including large numbers of elderly and children.<ref name=dunlop/>

By 28 January 1942, Israilov had decided to extend the uprising from Chechens and [[Ingush people|Ingush]] to eleven of the [[Peoples of the Caucasus|dominant ethnic groups in the Caucasus]] by forming the Special Party of Caucasus Brothers (OKPB), with the aim of an 'armed struggle with [[Bolshevik]] barbarism and [[Russian despotism]]'. In February 1942, another Chechen ex-communist, [[Mairbek Sheripov]], organized a rebellion in [[Shatoi]] and tried to take [[Itum-Kale]]. His forces united with Israilov's army relying on the expected arrival of the German [[Wehrmacht]]. In neighbouring [[Republic of Dagestan|Dagestan]] rebels also took the neighbourhoods of [[Novolakskoye|Novolakskaya]] and [[Dylym]]. The insurrection provoked many Chechen and Ingush soldiers of the [[Red Army]] to [[desertion|desert]]. Some sources claim that the total number of the mountaineers deserting reached 62,750, exceeding the number of mountaineer fighters in the Red Army.<ref name="Abramyan">{{in lang|ru}} Эдуард Абрамян. Кавказцы в Абвере. М. "Яуза", 2006</ref> In fact, this figure refers to the whole North Caucasus for the whole period of the war.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Николай Бугай|date=2013|script-title=ru:Итоги сталинского правления в государственной национальной политике. 1920–1950–е годы|url=http://publishing-vak.ru/file/archive-history-2013-5/3-bugai.pdf|journal=«Белые пятна» российской и мировой истории|issue=5–6|page=62|access-date=31 July 2018|language=ru}}</ref>

On 25 August 1942, nine German-trained saboteurs from [[Abwehr]]'s ''[[Operation Schamil|Nordkaukasisches Sonderkommando Schamil]]'' landed near the village of Berzhki in the area of [[Galashki]], where they recruited 13 local Chechens for their cause. Later in August and September, a total of 40 German agents were dropped in various locations. All of these groups received active assistance from up to 100 Chechens.{{cn|date=July 2023}} Their mission was to seize the [[Grozny]] petroleum refinery in order to prevent its destruction by the retreating Soviets, and to hold it until the German [[1st Panzer Army|First Panzer Army]] arrived. However, [[Battle of the Caucasus|the German offensive stalled]] after capturing only the ethnic-Russian town of [[Malgobek]] in Ingushetia.<ref name=dunlop/> The Germans made concerted efforts to coordinate with Israilov, but his refusal to cede control of his revolutionary movement to the Germans, and his continued insistence on German recognition of Chechen independence, led many Germans to consider Israilov as unreliable, and his plans unrealistic. Although the Germans were able to undertake [[covert operation]]s in Chechnya{{emdash}}such as the sabotage of Grozny oil fields{{emdash}}attempts at a German–Chechen alliance floundered.<ref name="Abramyan"/>

== Collaboration beyond Europe with the European Axis powers == {{further|Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world}} {{See also|Afrika Korps|Italian colonization of Libya}}

===Egypt and the Palestine mandate=== {{See also|Avraham Stern|Lehi (militant group)|Irgun}} The well-publicized [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine|Arab-Jewish clash]] in [[Mandatory Palestine]] from 1936 to 1939, and the rise of Nazi Germany, began to affect Jewish relations with Egyptian society, despite the fact that the number of active [[Zionism|Zionists]] was small.<ref>Joel Beinin, Introduction</ref> Local militant and nationalistic societies, like the [[Young Egypt Party (1933)|Young Egypt Party]] and the [[Muslim Brotherhood|Society of Muslim Brothers]], circulated false reports claiming that Jews and the British were destroying [[Religious significance of Jerusalem|holy places in Jerusalem]], and other reports that hundreds of Arab women and children were being killed.<ref name="Küntzel 1–2">{{cite journal|last=Küntzel|first=Matthias|title=National Socialism and Anti-Semitism in the Arab World|journal=Jewish Political Studies Review|date=Spring 2005|volume=17|issue=1/2 |pages=99–118|jstor=25834622 }}</ref>{{undue weight inline|Was this connected to collaboration with Axis powers?|date=March 2023}} Some of this antisemitism was fueled by an association between Hitler's regime and anti-imperialist Arab activists. One activist, [[Haj Amin al-Husseini]], received Nazi funds for the Muslim Brotherhood to print and distribute thousands of anti-Semitic propaganda pamphlets.<ref name="Küntzel 1–2"/>

In the 1940s the situation worsened. Sporadic pogroms began in 1942.{{undue weight inline|Was this connected to collaboration with Axis powers?|date=March 2023}}{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}

===French colonial empire=== {{See also|Collaboration with Imperial Japan#French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam)}} France retained its [[French colonial empire|colonial empire]], and the terms of the [[Armistice of 22 June 1940|armistice]] shifted the [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] of France's reduced military resources away from [[metropolitan France]] and towards its overseas possessions, especially [[French North Africa]]. Although in 1940, most French colonies except for the [[French Equatorial Africa]] had rallied to [[Vichy France]], this changed during the war. By 1943, all French colonies, except for Japanese-controlled [[French Indochina in World War II|French Indochina]], were under the control of the Free French.{{Sfn|Thomas|2007}} [[French Equatorial Africa]] in particular played a key role.{{Sfn|Jennings|2015}}

==== French North Africa ==== Concerned that the French fleet might fall into German hands, the British [[Royal Navy]] sank or disabled most of it in the July 1940 [[attack on Mers-el-Kébir|attack on the Algerian naval port at Mers-el-Kébir]], which poisoned Anglo-French relations and led to Vichy reprisals.<ref>See, for example, Winston S. Churchill, ''The Second World War'', Volume 2: ''Their Finest Hour'', London & New York, 1949, Book One, chapter 11, "Admiral Darlan and the French Fleet: Oran"</ref> When [[Operation Torch]], the Allied invasion of French North Africa, began on 8 November 1942 with landings in Morocco and Algeria, Vichy forces initially resisted, killing 479 and wounding 720. Admiral [[François Darlan]] appointed himself High Commissioner of France (head of civil government) for North and West Africa, then ordered Vichy forces there to stop resisting and co-operate with the Allies, which they did.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Funk |first=Arthur L. |date=April 1973 |title=Negotiating the 'Deal with Darlan' |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=81–117 |jstor=259995|doi=10.1177/002200947300800205 |s2cid=159589846}}</ref>{{Sfn|Funk|1974}}{{Page needed|date=March 2023}}

[[File:François Darlan.jpg|thumbnail|175 px|Admiral François Darlan (1881–1942)]]

Most Vichy figures were arrested, including Darlan and General [[Alphonse Juin]],<ref>[https://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/en/alphonse-juin Alphonse Juin (1888–1967)], ''Chemins de mémoire'', Ministère des Armées (Ministry of Armies), Republic of France</ref> chief commander in North Africa. Both were released, and US General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] accepted Darlan's self-appointment. This infuriated {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, who refused to recognise Darlan. Darlan was assassinated on Christmas Eve 1942 by a French monarchist. German [[Wehrmacht]] forces in North Africa established the ''Kommando Deutsch-Arabische Truppen'', composed of two battalions of Arab volunteers of Tunisian origin, an Algerian battalion and a Moroccan battalion.<ref>{{cite book |author=Paterson, L. |author2=Higgins, D. R. | date=2018 | title=Hitler's Brandenburgers: The Third Reich Elite Special Forces | publisher=Greenhill Books |isbn=978-1-78438-231-5 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tZJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref> The four units had total of 3,000 men; with German cadres.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Torres |first1=Carlos Canales |last2=Vicente |first2=Miguel del Rey |title=La palmera y la esvástica: La odisea del Afrika Korps |page=267 |date=2012 |publisher=EDAF |isbn=978-84-414-3173-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfgVAAAAQBAJ |language=es}}</ref>

===== Morocco ===== In 1940, ''Résident Général'' [[Charles Noguès]] implemented antisemitic decrees coming from Vichy excluding [[Moroccan Jews]] from working as doctors, lawyers or teachers.<ref name=":3" />{{sfn|Miller|2013|p=45}} <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k46914843|title=Le Petit Marocain|date=1945-06-24|website=Gallica|language=EN|access-date=2020-03-22}}</ref> All Jews living elsewhere were required to move to the Jewish quarters, called ''{{lang|fr|[[wikt:mellahs|mellahs]]}}'',<ref name=":3">Kenbib, Mohammed (2014-08-08). "Moroccan Jews and the Vichy regime, 1940–42". ''The Journal of North African Studies''. 19 (4): 540–553. {{doi|10.1080/13629387.2014.950523}} {{ISSN|1362-9387}}</ref> Vichy anti-semitic propaganda encouraged boycotting Jews,<ref name=":3" /> and pamphlets were pinned to Jewish shops.<ref name=":3" /> These laws put Moroccan Jews in an uncomfortable position "between an indifferent Muslim majority and an antisemitic settler class."{{sfn|Miller|2013|p=45}} Sultan [[Mohammed V of Morocco|Mohammed V]] reportedly refused to sign off on "Vichy's plan to ghettoize and deport Morocco's quarter of a million Jews to the killing factories of Europe," and, in an act of defiance, insisted on inviting all the rabbis of Morocco to the 1941 throne celebrations.<ref name="haaretz.com">[https://web.archive.org/web/20050205115453/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=533744 Moroccan Jews pay homage to 'protector' – Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News]. Haaretz.com. Retrieved on 2011-07-04.</ref>

===== Tunisia ===== {{further|Tunisia Campaign|Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world}} Many Tunisians took satisfaction in France's defeat by Germany in June 1940,{{sfn|Perkins|2004|p=105}} but little else. Despite his commitment to ending the French protectorate, the pragmatic independence leader [[Habib Bourguiba]] abhorred the Axis state ideologies.{{sfn|Perkins|1986|p=180}} and feared any short-term benefit would come at the cost of long-term tragedy.{{sfn|Perkins|1986|p=180}} After the [[Second Armistice at Compiègne]], Pétain sent a new Resident-General to Tunis, Admiral [[Jean-Pierre Esteva]]. Arrests followed of {{Interlanguage link|Taieb Slim|fr}} and {{Interlanguage link|Habib Thameur|fr}}, central figures in the [[Neo-Destour]] party. Bey [[Muhammad VII al-Munsif]] moved towards greater independence in 1942, but when the [[Free French]] forced out the [[Axis powers]] in 1943, they accused him of collaborating with Vichy and deposed him.

====French Equatorial Africa==== The federation of colonies in [[French Equatorial Africa]] (''AEF'' or ''Afrique-Équatoriale française'') rallied to the cause of {{nowrap|De Gaulle}} after [[Félix Éboué]] of [[Chad]] joined him in August 1940. The exception was [[Gabon]], which remained Vichy French until 12 November 1940, when it surrendered to the invading [[Free French]]. The federation became the strategic centre of Free French activities in Africa.

====Syria and the Lebanon (League of Nations mandates)==== {{see also|French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|Syria–Lebanon campaign}}

[[File:Captured French Martin 167F at Aleppo 1941.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Captured French [[Martin Maryland|Martin 167F]] at Aleppo 1941}}]]

The Vichy government's ''Armée du Levant'' ([[Army of the Levant]]) under General [[Henri Dentz]] had regular metropolitan colonial troops and ''troupes spéciales'' (special troops, indigenous Syrian and Lebanese soldiers).{{sfn|Mollo|1981|p=144}} Dentz had seven infantry battalions of regular French troops at his disposal, and eleven infantry battalions of "special troops", including at least 5,000 cavalry in horsed and motorized units, two artillery groups and supporting units.{{sfn|Mollo|1981|p=144}} The French had {{nowrap|90 tanks}} (according to British estimates), the [[Vichy French Air Force|''Armée de l'air'']] had {{nowrap|90 aircraft}} (increasing to {{nowrap|289 aircraft}} after reinforcement) and the ''Marine nationale'' ([[French Navy]]) had two [[Guépard class destroyer|destroyers]],a sloop and three submarines.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|pp=200, 206}}{{sfn|Long|1953|pp=333–334, 36}}

The [[Royal Air Force]] attacked the airfield at [[Palmyra]], in central Syria, on 14 May 1941, after a reconnaissance mission spotted German and Italian aircraft. Attacks against German and Italian aircraft staging through Syria continued: Vichy French forces shot down a [[Bristol Blenheim|Blenheim bomber]] on 28 May, killing the crew, and forced down another on 2 June.<ref name=Sutherland43>Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 43.</ref> French [[Morane-Saulnier M.S.406]] fighters also escorted German [[Junkers Ju 52]] aircraft into Iraq on 28 May.<ref name=Sutherland43/> Germany permitted French aircraft ''en route'' from [[Algeria]] to Syria to fly over Axis-controlled territory and refuel at the German-controlled [[Eleusina]] air base in [[Greece]].<ref>Shores & Ehrengardt (1987), p. 30.</ref>

After the [[Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre]], on 14 July 1941, 37,736 Vichy French prisoners of war survived, who mostly chose to be repatriated rather than join the Free French.

=====Lebanese Christians=====

In opposition to the [[France|French]] [[League of Nations Mandate|Mandate]] over Lebanon in the late 1930s and early 1940s, [[Pierre Gemayel]] and the [[Kataeb Party|Phalangist Party]] (which was modeled after the Spanish [[FET y de las JONS|Falange]] and Italian [[National Fascist Party|Fascist]] parties) openly admired Nazi Germany and believed that they could eventually liberate Lebanon from French rule.<ref>"The Hajj Amin's opportunistic wartime residence and propaganda activities in Nazi Germany certainly was not the proudest moment in the history of Palestinian nationalism. And, certainly, opponents of Palestinian nationalism have made good use of those activities to associate the Palestinian national movement with European-style anti-Semitism and the genocidal program of the Nazis. But it should be remembered that the Hajj Amin was not the only non-European nationalist leader to find refuge and succor in Berlin at this time. While in Berlin, the Hajj might have rubbed shoulders with [[Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose]], a [[leftist]] leader of the [[Indian National Congress]] of India, who believed that Germany might prove to be an effective ally in the struggle against [[British imperialism]]… Or the Hajj Amin might have bumped into [[Pierre Gemayel]], the leader of a Lebanese Christian group called the Phalange, who believed that Nazi Germany represented the wave of the future… Members of the [[Stern Gang]] also sought a tactical partnership with Nazi Germany and even opened negotiations with Hitler's government." {{harv|Gelvin|2014|pp=119–120}}</ref>

== Foreign volunteers ==

{{Main|Wehrmacht foreign volunteers and conscripts|Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts|Europäische Freiwillige|Schutzmannschaft|Selbstschutz|Hiwi (volunteer)}}

===French military volunteers===

[[File:The Schutzstaffeln (ss) B10730.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Waffen-SS]] recruiting center in Calais, Northern France, photographed shortly after liberation by the Allies]]

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-141-1258-15, Russland-Mitte, Soldaten der französischen Legion, Fahne.jpg|thumb|''[[Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism|Légion des Volontaires]]'' fighting with the [[Axis powers|Axis]] on the Russian front]]

French volunteers formed the [[Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism]] (LVF), [[Légion impériale]], SS-Sturmbrigade Frankreich and finally in 1945 the [[33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne]] (1st French), which was among the final defenders of [[Battle of Berlin|Berlin]].{{sfn|Felton|2014|pp=145, 152, 154}}{{sfn|Weale|2012|p=407}}{{sfn|Hamilton|2020|pp=349, 386}}

===Volunteers from British India=== {{See also|India in World War II|Indian Independence League|Indian National Council||Azad Hind|Indian National Army|Indian National Army trials| Collaboration with Imperial Japan}} The [[Indian Legion]] (''Legion Freies Indien, {{Lang|de|Indische Freiwilligen Infanterie Regiment 950}}'' or ''Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS'') was created in August 1942, recruiting chiefly from disaffected [[British Indian Army]] prisoners of war captured by Axis forces in the [[North African campaign]]. Most were supporters of the exiled [[Indian nationalism|nationalist]] and former president of the [[Indian National Congress]] [[Subhas Chandra Bose]]. The [[Royal Italian Army]] formed a similar unit of Indian prisoners of war, the ''[[Battaglione Azad Hindoustan]]''. (A Japanese-supported puppet state, [[Azad Hind]], was also established in far-eastern India with the [[Indian National Army]] as its military force.)<ref>{{cite book | last=Dunphy | first=J.J. | title=Unsung Heroes of the Dachau Trials: The Investigative Work of the U.S. Army 7708 War Crimes Group, 1945–1947 | publisher=McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers | year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4766-3337-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tt8DwAAQBAJ | page=116|quote=Imperial Japan in 1943 had established a puppet state known as the Provisional Government of Free India}}</ref><ref name=Fayp212to213>{{cite book |last1=Fay |first1=Peter W. |year=1993 |title=The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ysA8RNT224oC|publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-08342-2 |pages=212–213}}</ref>

===Non-German units of the ''Waffen-SS''=== [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-561-1148-04, Ausbildung arabischer Luftwaffensoldaten.jpg|thumb|Deutsch-Arabische Legion (Arab volunteers), 1943]] By the end of World War II, 60% of the Waffen-SS was made up of non-German volunteers from occupied countries.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} The predominantly Scandinavian ''[[11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland]]'' along with remnants of [[France|French]], [[Italy|Italian]], [[Spanish people|Spanish]] and [[Dutch people|Dutch]] volunteers were the last defenders of the [[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]] in [[Berlin]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Forbes |first1=Robert |title=For Europe: the French volunteers of the Waffen-SS |date=2010 |publisher=Stackpole Books |location=Mechanicsburg, PA |isbn=978-0-8117-3581-0 |page=425}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beevor |first1=Antony |title=The fall of Berlin, 1945 |date=2002 |publisher=Viking-Penguin Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-670-03041-5 |pages=321, 323, 351–352}}</ref>

The [[Nuremberg Trials]], in declaring the Waffen-SS a criminal organisation explicitly excluded [[conscripts]], who had committed no crimes.<ref name="yale" /> In 1950, The [[U.S. High Commission in Germany]] and the [[U.S. Displaced Persons Commission]] clarified the U.S. position on the Baltic Waffen-SS Units, considering them distinct from the German SS in purpose, ideology, activities and qualifications for membership.

== Business collaboration == {{See also|Forced labour under German rule during World War II|List of companies involved in the Holocaust|Nazi Billionaires|Category:Companies involved in the Holocaust}} [[File:Tabelliermaschine D11 DEHOMAG TSD (3).JPG|thumb|right|[[Dehomag]] (German [[IBM]] subsidiary) D11 [[tabulating machine]], used by Germany in implementing the [[Holocaust|Jewish Holocaust]]]] [[File:Affiche_antitrust_du_PCF_-1945.jpg|thumb|1945 poster of the [[French Communist Party]], claiming that "the men of the [[Trust (business)|trusts]] sold the country to Hitler," and urging that their wealth be confiscated and their businesses [[nationalised]]; however, only [[Renault]] was nationalised.]]

A number of international companies have been accused of having collaborated with Nazi Germany before their home countries' entry into World War II, though it has been debated whether the term "collaboration" is applicable to business dealings outside the context of overt war.<ref name=hollnyt />{{who|date=April 2023}}

American companies that had dealings with Nazi Germany included [[Ford Motor Company]],<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1445822/Ford-used-slave-labour-in-Nazi-German-plants.html |title=Ford 'used slave labour' in Nazi German plants |last=English |first=Simon |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=2003-11-03 |access-date=2018-03-20 |issn=0307-1235 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320174850/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1445822/Ford-used-slave-labour-in-Nazi-German-plants.html |archive-date=2018-03-20 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/node/159812 |title=Mark Thomas discovers Coca-Cola's Nazi links |website=New Statesman |access-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320170646/https://www.newstatesman.com/node/159812 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timeline.com/fanta-coca-cola-nazi-845ee7e513af |title=Coca-Cola collaborated with the Nazis in the 1930s, and Fanta is the proof |date=2 August 2017 |work=Timeline |access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref> and [[IBM]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/edwin-black/ibm-holocaust_b_1301691.html |title=IBM's Role in the Holocaust – What the New Documents Reveal |last=Black |first=Edwin | author-link = Edwin Black |date=27 February 2012 |website=HuffPost |access-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029193420/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/edwin-black/ibm-holocaust_b_1301691.html |archive-date=29 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=February 2023}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://gizmodo.com/5812025/how-ibm-technology-jump-started-the-holocaust |title=How IBM Technology Jump Started the Holocaust |last=Black |first=Edwin |work=Gizmodo |access-date=21 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321130530/https://gizmodo.com/5812025/how-ibm-technology-jump-started-the-holocaust |archive-date=21 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/The-business-of-making-the-trains-to-Auschwitz-2821685.php |title=The business of making the trains to Auschwitz run on time |last=Black |first=Edwin |date=19 May 2002 |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=28 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328231743/https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/The-business-of-making-the-trains-to-Auschwitz-2821685.php |archive-date=28 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.]] acted for German tycoon [[Fritz Thyssen]], who helped finance Hitler's rise to power.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar |title=How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power |last=Campbell |first=Duncan |date=25 September 2004 |website=The Guardian |access-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315001703/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar |archive-date=15 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Associated Press]] (AP) supplied images for a propaganda book called ''The Jews in the USA'', and another titled ''The Subhuman''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-news-and-politics/236248/ap-collaboration-nazis-reporting-news |title=What the AP's Collaboration With the Nazis Should Teach Us About Reporting the News |work=Tablet Magazine |access-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320170531/http://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-news-and-politics/236248/ap-collaboration-nazis-reporting-news |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 1941, when the United States entered the war against Germany, 250 American firms owned more than $450 million of German assets.{{sfn|Stone|Kuznick|2013|p=82}} Major American companies with investments in Germany included [[General Motors]], [[Standard Oil]], [[ITT Inc.|IT&T]], [[Singer Corporation|Singer]], [[International Harvester]], [[Kodak|Eastman Kodak]], [[Gillette]], Coca-Cola, [[Kraft Foods|Kraft]], [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]], and [[United Fruit Company|United Fruit]].{{sfn|Stone|Kuznick|2013|p=82}} Many major Hollywood studios have also been accused of collaboration, in making or adjusting films to Nazi tastes prior to the U.S. entry into the war.<ref name=hollnyt>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/26/books/scholar-asserts-that-hollywood-avidly-aided-nazis.html |title=Scholar Asserts That Hollywood Avidly Aided Nazis |last=Schuessler |first=Jennifer |date=25 June 2013 |work=The New York Times |access-date=20 March 2018 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203183016/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/26/books/scholar-asserts-that-hollywood-avidly-aided-nazis.html |archive-date=3 February 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

German financial operations worldwide were facilitated by banks such as the [[Bank for International Settlements]], [[JPMorgan Chase|Chase and Morgan]], and [[Union Banking Corporation]].{{sfn|Stone|Kuznick|2013|p=82}}

[[Robert A. Rosenbaum]] writes: "American companies had every reason to know that the Nazi regime was using [[I.G. Farben|IG Farben]] and other cartels as weapons of economic warfare"; and he noted that<blockquote>"as the US entered the war, it found that some technologies or resources could not be procured, because they were forfeited by American companies as part of business deals with their German counterparts."<ref name="Rosenbaum2010">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sx27AHzby8YC&pg=PA121 |title=Waking to Danger: Americans and Nazi Germany, 1933–1941 |author=Robert A. Rosenbaum |year=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-38503-2 |pages=121–}}</ref></blockquote>

After the war, some of those companies reabsorbed their temporarily detached German subsidiaries, and even received compensation for war damages from the Allied governments.{{sfn|Stone|Kuznick|2013|p=82}}

== See also == * [[Blue Division]] * [[Collaboration in wartime]] * [[Collaboration with Imperial Japan]] * ''[[Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China]]'' * [[Finland in World War II]] * [[German-occupied Europe]] * [[Italian Civil War]] * [[International Commission for the Evaluation of the Crimes of the Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in Lithuania]] * [[List of Allied traitors during World War II]] * [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] * [[Pursuit of Nazi collaborators]] * [[Resistance during World War II]] * [[Responsibility for the Holocaust]] * [[Participation of Ukrainians in the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising]]

== Notes == {{notelist|30em}}

== References == <references> <ref name="Bubnys">{{cite book |author=Arūnas Bubnys |title=Vokiečių ir lietuvių saugumo policija (1941–1944) (German and Lithuanian security police: 1941–1944) |year=2004 |publisher=[[Lietuvos gyventojų genocido ir rezistencijos tyrimo centras]] |location=Vilnius |url=http://www.genocid.lt/Leidyba/1/arunas1.htm |access-date=9 June 2006 |language=lt}}</ref>

<ref name="Bubnys-Hol">{{cite web |url=http://www.genocid.lt/Leidyba/13/bubnys.htm |publisher=genocid.lt |title=Arūnas Bubnys. Lietuvių saugumo policija ir holokaustas (1941–1944) | ''Lithuanian Security Police and the Holocaust (1941–1944)'' |access-date=17 February 2017}}</ref>

<ref name="Bubnys_vanished219">Arūnas Bubnys, ''Holocaust in Lithuania: An Outline of the Major Stages and Their Results'' in Alvydas Nikžentaitis, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas, ''The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews'', Rodopi, 2004, {{ISBN|90-420-0850-4}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=mdXRKbcyi5oC&pg=PA219 Google Print, p. 219] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=mdXRKbcyi5oC&pg=PA219&vq=is+the+worst+tragedy+of+Lithuania's&dq=Holocaust+1941+Lithuania&as_brr=3&source=gbs_search_s&sig=ZtduokysVV6MqLWS7I9uw7tMUFE |date=15 January 2016 }}</ref>

<ref name="Gregorovich">{{cite web |url=http://www.infoukes.com/history/ww2/page-12.html |publisher=infoukes.com |title=InfoUkes: Ukrainian History – World War II in Ukraine  |author=Andrew Gregorovich |access-date=17 February 2017}}</ref>

<ref name="Hempel_2">{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Hempel |title=Policja granatowa w okupacyjnym systemie administracyjnym Generalnego Gubernatorstwa: 1939–1945 |year=1987 |publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy Związków Zawodowych |location=Warsaw |page=83 |language=pl}}</ref>

<ref name="King">Russell King, Nicola Mai, and Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers. ''The New Albanian Migration''. Sussex Academic Press, 2005</ref>

<ref name="Kwiet">Konrad Kwiet, ''Rehearsing for Murder: The Beginning of the Final Solution in Lithuania in June 1941'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 3–26, 1998, [http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/1/3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212062951/http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/1/3 |date=12 February 2009 }}</ref>

<ref name="MacQueen_context">Michael MacQueen, ''The Context of Mass Destruction: Agents and Prerequisites of the Holocaust in Lithuania'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 27–48, 1998, [http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/1/27] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821195810/http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/1/27 |date=21 August 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="Oshry">Oshry, Ephraim, ''Annihilation of Lithuanian Jewry'', Judaica Press, Inc., New York, 1995</ref>

<ref name="Piotr165166">{{cite book |author=Tadeusz Piotrowski |title=Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide... |year=1997 |pages=165–166 |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-0-7864-0371-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4FlatJCro4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=15 March 2008|author-link=Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist) }}</ref>

<ref name="Porat159">Dina Porat, ''"The Holocaust in Lithuania: Some Unique Aspects"'', in David Cesarani, ''The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation'', Routledge, 2002, {{ISBN|0-415-15232-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=3N9Xxc8wdu0C&pg=PA159 Google Print, p. 159] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=3N9Xxc8wdu0C&pg=PA159&dq=%22The+Holocaust+in+Lithuania:+Some+Unique+Aspects%22&ei=GV_ZR7zhEba4igGM06zRAQ&sig=BC8nnQzADrvUtKwXXJ53qMJo480 |date=15 January 2016 }}</ref>

<ref name="Porat161">Dina Porat, ''"The Holocaust in Lithuania: Some Unique Aspects"'', in David Cesarani, ''The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation'', Routledge, 2002, {{ISBN|0-415-15232-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=3N9Xxc8wdu0C&pg=PA161 Google Print, p. 161] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=3N9Xxc8wdu0C&pg=PA161&vq=most+of+the+lithuanian+jews&dq=%22The+Holocaust+in+Lithuania:+Some+Unique+Aspects%22&source=gbs_search_s&sig=Q51GxOA40aEQ_rhazg2g7VJpPWE |date=15 January 2016 }}</ref>

<ref name="alexander">Dallin, Alexander. ''German Rule in Russia: 1941–1945.'' Octagon Books: 1990.</ref>

<ref name="buffalo">{{cite web |author=Peter Gessner |url=http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/exhib/ghetto2/exit.html |title=Life and Death in the German-established Warsaw Ghetto |publisher=Info-poland.buffalo.edu |date=29 July 1942 |access-date=28 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818045638/http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/exhib/ghetto2/exit.html |archive-date=18 August 2006 }}</ref>

<ref name="christopher">Christopher J. Walker's "Armenia —The Survival of a Nation," p. 357</ref>

<ref name="collaboration">Phil Giltner, "The Success of Collaboration: Denmark's Self-Assessment of its Economic Position after Five Years of Nazi Occupation," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 36:3 (2001) p. 486.</ref>

<ref name="cruickshank">''The German Occupation of the Channel Islands,'' Cruickshank, London 1975 {{ISBN|0-19-285087-3}}</ref>

<ref name="danskerne">Henning Poulsen, "Hvad mente Danskerne?" ''Historie'' 2 (2000) p. 320.</ref>

<ref name="guernsey">War Profits (Guernsey) Law 1945</ref>

<ref name="hansard">[[Hansard]] (Commons), vol. 430, col. 138</ref>

<ref name="historie">Poulsen, Historie, 320.</ref>

<ref name="historycommission">{{cite web |url=http://www.mnemosyne.ee/hc.ee/pdf/conclusions_en_1941-1944.pdf |title=Conclusions of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity. Phase II – The German Occupation of Estonia, 1941–1944 |access-date=29 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720125412/http://www.mnemosyne.ee/hc.ee/pdf/conclusions_en_1941-1944.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2011 }}</ref>

<!--<ref name="holocaust-history">[http://www.holocaust-history.org/intro-einsatz An Introduction to the Einsatzgruppen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613041850/http://www.holocaust-history.org/intro-einsatz/ |date=13 June 2008 }} Accessed 14 January 2006 /</ref>

<ref name="holocausttaskforce">[[Yehuda Bauer|Bauer, Yehuda]]: ''[http://www.holocausttaskforce.org/speeches/details/2006-07-04/document.pdf The Holocaust in its European Context] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061024195021/http://www.holocausttaskforce.org/speeches/details/2006-07-04/document.pdf |date=24 October 2006 }}'' p. 14. Retrieved 14 January 2006."</ref> -->

<ref name="indianapolis">Arad, Yitzhak. Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka – The Operation Reinhard Death Camps, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987</ref>

<ref name="occupation9">''Occupation Diary,'' Leslie Sinel, Jersey 1945</ref>

<ref name="profits">War Profits Levy (Jersey) Law 1945</ref>

<ref name="resistance">Jørgen Hæstrup, Secret Alliance: A Study of the Danish Resistance Movement 1940–45. Odense, 1976. p. 9.</ref>

<!-- Unused citations <ref name="Hempel"/>

<ref name="IAR">{{cite news |author=IAR (corporate author) |title=Sprawiedliwy Wśród Narodów Świata 2005 |url=http://www.forum-znak.org.pl/index.php?t=wydarzenia&id=3139 |work=Forum Żydzi – Chrześcijanie – Muzułmanie |publisher=Fundacja Kultury Chrześcijańskiej Znak |date=24 July 2005 |access-date=20 February 2007 |language=pl}}</ref>

<ref name="Lidegaard2003_p461">Bo Lidegaard (ed.) (2003): ''Dansk Udenrigspolitiks historie'', vol. 4, p. 461</ref>

<ref name="PWN">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |title=Policja Polska Generalnego Gubernatorstwa |encyclopedia=Encyklopedia Internetowa PWN |url=http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3959423 |publisher=[[Państwowe Wydawnictwa Naukowe]] |location=Warsaw |access-date=10 August 2013 |language=pl}}</ref>

<ref name="Paczkowski-2">Paczkowski (op.cit., [https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKQWem2yl4C&pg=PA54&lpg=PA54&sig=vajOBIBsbx6RYJ24eRN86w_21CY#PPA60,M1 p. 60]) cites 10% of policemen and 20% of officers</ref>

<ref name="Radzilowski">Review by [[John Radzilowski]] of [[Yaffa Eliach]]'s ''[[There Once Was a World: A 900-Year Chronicle of the Shtetl of Eishyshok]]'', [[Journal of Genocide Research]], vol. 1, no. 2 (June 1999), City University of New York.</ref>

<ref name="blogspot">{{cite web |url=http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_FKUpGU_Jbp0/TRlhS6uhMyI/AAAAAAAAFm8/_McZEbvYa0o/s1600/Zionist%2BNazi%2Bcoin.jpg |title=image of Angriff commemorative medallion}}</ref>

<ref name="flender">Harold Flender, Rescue in Denmark, (New York: 1963) p. 30.</ref>

<ref name="grundtvigian">Andrew Buckser, "Rescue and Cultural Context During the Holocaust: Grundtvigian Nationalism and the Rescue of Danish Jews", ''Shofar'' 19:2 (2001) p. 10.</ref>

<ref name="hitler-fleming">official transcript, trans. Fleming</ref>

<ref name="korn">[http://www.wymaninstitute.org/articles/2003-03-chemical.php Arab Chemical Warfare Against Jews – in 1944] by Benyamin Korn. (The David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies)</ref>

<ref name="marxists">David Yisraeli, ''The Palestine Problem in German Politics, 1889–1945'', Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel, 1974. Verified web copies: [http://www.marxists.de/middleast/ironwall/irgunazi.htm German] [http://www.marxists.de/middleast/brenner/irgunazi.htm English]. Also see Otto von Hentig, ''Mein Leben'' (Goettingen, 1962) pp. 338–339</ref>

<ref name="pbs">[[PBS]] – [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode8/documents/documents_11.html Haavara (Transfer) Agreement Documents]</ref>

<ref name="underground">Stefan Korbonski, "The Polish Underground State", pg. 7</ref>

<ref name="university">"Stern Gang" ''The Oxford Companion to World War II''. Ed. I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot. Oxford University Press, 2001.</ref>

<ref name="yadvashem3">{{cite web |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206755.pdf |title=The Righteous Among The Nations – Polish rescuer Waclaw Nowinski}}</ref> -->

<ref name="yale">[[Nuremberg Trial]] Proceedings, [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/proc/09-30-46.htm Volume 22, September 1946] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221033105/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/proc/09-30-46.htm |date=21 February 2007}}</ref>

<ref name=Moore46-7>{{cite book|editor-last=Moore|editor-first=Bob |title=Resistance in Western Europe|year=2000|publisher=Berg|location=Oxford|isbn=1-85973-274-7|pages=46–47|edition=}}</ref>

</references>

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Podziemie antykomunistyczne na Litwie, Łotwie i w Estonii 1944–1956 |year=2018 |location=Lublin |trans-title=Forest Brothers. Anti-communist underground in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia 1944–1956 |author-link=Rafał Wnuk}} * {{cite book | last=Zuccotti | first=Susan | title=The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews | publisher=Plunkett Lake Press | date=2019-08-16 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5CpDwAAQBAJ}} {{refend}}

== Further reading == {{See also|Bibliography of Poland during World War II|Bibliography of the Soviet Union during World War II|Bibliography of Ukrainian history#World War II}} * Birn, Ruth Bettina, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20081785 Collaboration with Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian Security Police]. ''Contemporary European History'' 2001, 10.2, 181–198. * Christian Jensen, Tomas Kristiansen and Karl Erik Nielsen: ''Krigens købmænd'', Gyldendal, 2000 (''"The Merchants of War"'', in Danish) *{{cite book| title = The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War | last = Gelvin | first = James L. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GDaZAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 | date = 13 January 2014 | pages = 119–120 | isbn = 978-1-107-47077-4 }} * [[Gerhard Hirschfeld|Hirschfeld, Gerhard]]: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LduzAAAAIAAJ Nazi rule and Dutch collaboration: the Netherlands under German occupation, 1940–1945]'' Berg Publishers, 1988 * Jeffrey W. Jones ''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3649911 "Every Family Has Its Freak": Perceptions of Collaboration in Occupied Soviet Russia, 1943–1948]'' – [[Slavic Review]] Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 747–770 * Kitson, Simon (2008). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y0qZuw1OaoC&pg=PR4 The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France]''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * Klaus-Peter Friedrich ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/collaboration-in-a-land-without-a-quisling-patterns-of-cooperation-with-the-nazi-german-occupation-regime-in-poland-during-world-war-ii/72DC550B5F1E668EF8DADD0E5A46C9D5 Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II]'' – ''[[Slavic Review]]'' Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 711–746 * Rafaël Lemkin, [https://books.google.com/books?id=vOuPAAAAMAAJ Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress], Legal classics library, * ''World constitutions'', Volume 56 of Publications of the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]], Division of International Law, 1944 * ''[https://archive.org/details/hitlersempirehow0000mazo/page/n1/mode/1up Hitler's Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe],'' by Mark Mazower, Penguin Books 2008 (paperback), Chapter 14, "Eastern Helpers", pp. 446–47 ({{ISBN|978-0-14-311610-3}}) * {{cite book |last1=Morgan |first1=Philip |title=Hitler's Collaborators: Choosing Between Bad and Worse in Nazi-occupied Western Europe |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-923973-3 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThJbDwAAQBAJ}} * ''Nazism, a history in documents and eyewitness accounts, 1919–1945'', Volume II: Foreign Policy, War and Racial Extermination, edited by J. Noakes and G. Pridham, Schocken Books (paperback), 1988, {{ISBN|0-8052-0972-7}}  * {{Cite book |last=Bauer |first=Yehuda |title=Rethinking the Holocaust |publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhvShlTeqesC|year=2001|isbn=0-300-09300-4 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Blum |first1=Alain |last2=Chopard |first2=Thomas |last3=Koustova |first3=Emilia |date=2020 |title=Survivors, Collaborators and Partisans? |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=222–255|doi=10.25162/jgo-2020-0008 |jstor=27011586 |s2cid=234169545 }} * {{cite book |last1=Fay |first1=Peter W. |year=1993 |title=The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-08342-2}} * {{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Evgeny |title=Ordinary Jews. Choice and Survival during the Holocaust |year=2017}} * {{Cite journal |last=Grabowski |first=Jan |date=2008 |title=Szantażowanie Żydów: casus Warszawy 1939–1945 |trans-title=Blackmailing the Jews: The Case Warsaw 1939–1945 |journal=Przegląd Historyczny |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=583–602}} * {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Julian T.|title=France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-820706-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/france00juli |access-date=15 August 2020}} * {{cite book |last=de Wailly |first=H. |title=Invasion Syria, 1941: Churchill and De Gaulle's Forgotten War |trans-title=Syrie 1941: la guerre occultée: Vichystes contre gaullistes |others=trans. W. Land |year=2016 |orig-date=2006 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=London |edition=2nd English trans. |isbn=978-1-78453-449-3}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Lidegaard |editor-first1=Bo |title=Dansk udenrigspolitiks historie |url=https://pure.kb.dk/en/publications/dansk-udenrigspolitiks-historie-overleveren-1914-1945 |volume=4 Overleveren |date=2003 |publisher=Danmarks Nationalleksikon |location=København |isbn=978-87-7789-093-2}} * {{cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Compton |author-link=Compton Mackenzie |title=Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943, Defence |volume=I |location=London |year=1951 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |oclc=1412578}} * {{cite book |last=Maravigna |first=General Pietro |year=1949 |title=Come abbiamo perduto la guerra in Africa. Le nostre prime colonie in Africa. Il conflitto mondiale e le operazioni in Africa Orientale e in Libia |language=it |trans-title=How We Lost the War in Africa: Our First Colonies in Africa, the World Conflict and Operations in East Africa and Libya |location=Roma |publisher=Tosi |oclc=643646990}} * {{Cite journal |last=Mędykowski |first=Witold |date=2006 |title=Przeciw swoim: Wzorce kolaboracji żydowskiej w Krakowie i okolicy |trans-title=Against Their Own: Patterns of Jewish Collaboration in and around Kraków |url=https://www.zagladazydow.pl/index.php/zz/article/view/187 |journal=Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=202–220|doi=10.32927/ZZSiM.187 |doi-access=free }} * {{cite book |last=Raugh |first=H. E. |title=Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bob1Oq72K-EC|year=1993 |publisher=Brassey's |location=London |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-08-040983-2}} * {{cite book |last=Rovighi |first=Alberto |year=1988 |orig-date=1952 |title=Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale: (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941) |language=it |trans-title=Operations in East Africa: (June 1940 – November 1941) |location=Roma |publisher=Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico |oclc=848471066 |url=https://www.libreriauniversitaria.it/amp/product/BIT/9788896260784}} * {{cite book |last=Shores |first=Christopher F. |author2=Ehrengardt, Christian-Jacques |title=L' aviation de Vichy au combat 2 La campagne de Syrie, 8 juin – 14 juillet 1941 |language=fr |trans-title=Vichy Air Combat: Syria Campaign, 8 June – 14 July 1941 |volume=2 |location=Paris |publisher=Lavauzelle |year=1987 |isbn=978-2-7025-0171-9}} * {{cite book |last1=Sutherland |first1=Jon |last2=Canwell |first2=Diane |title=Vichy Air Force at War: The French Air Force that Fought the Allies in World War II |date=2011 |publisher=Pen & Sword Aviation |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-1-84884-336-3 |pages=53–67}}

=== Estonia === * {{Cite journal |last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |date=2003 |title=Extermination of the Gypsies in Estonia during World War II: Popular Images and Official Policies |url=http://romagenocide.com.ua/data/files/bibliography/Weiss-Wendt_Gypsies_in_Estonia.pdf |journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies |volume=17 |issue=1|pages=31–61 |doi=10.1093/hgs/17.1.31 |pmid=20684093 }} * {{Cite book |last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |title=On the Margins: Essays on the History of Jews in Estonia |year=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Of4OEAAAQBAJ|location=New York|isbn=978-963-386-166-0 }}

== External links == {{Commons category|Collaborators with Axis occupation}}

{{National Socialism in Greece}} {{Greece during World War II}} {{Collaboration with Axis Powers by country}} {{The Holocaust}} {{World War II}}

[[Category:Collaboration with Fascist Italy| ]] [[Category:Collaboration with Nazi Germany| ]] [[Category:The Holocaust]] [[Category:Client states of Nazi Germany]] [[Category:Client states of Fascist Italy]] [[Category:German colonial empire]] [[Category:German military occupations]] [[Category:Italian military occupations]]