Indigenous peoples of Siberia

{{Short description|none}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Indigenous peoples of Siberia | native_name = ''Коренные народы Сибири'' | image = Siberia (orthographic projection).svg | caption = | pop = '''1.6–1.8 million'''<ref name=census2021>{{cite web|title=Национальный состав населения|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=30 December 2022}}</ref> 5% of the total Siberian population | regions = Siberia | region1 = | languages = Russian (lingua franca) Indigenous Siberian language families: Ainu{{·}}Chukotko-Kamchatkan{{·}}Eskaleut{{·}}Mongolic{{·}}Nivkh{{·}}Tungusic{{·}}Turkic{{·}}Uralic{{·}}Yeniseian (Ket){{·}}Yukaghir | religions = Russian Orthodox Christianity{{·}}Sunni Islam{{·}}Tibetan Buddhism{{·}}Siberian shamanism (Tengrism{{·}}Mongolian{{·}}Turkic{{·}}Yupik) | related = }}

Siberia is a vast region spanning the northern part of the Asian continent and forming the Asiatic portion of Russia. As a result of the Russian conquest of Siberia (16th to 19th centuries) and of the subsequent population movements during the Soviet era (1917–1991), the modern-day demographics of Siberia is dominated by ethnic Russians (Siberiaks) and other Slavs. However, there remains a slowly increasing number of Indigenous groups, accounting for about 5% of the total Siberian population (about 1.6–1.8 million),<ref name="census2021"/> some of which are closely genetically related to Indigenous peoples of the Americas.<ref> {{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/05/science/native-americans-genetics-siberia.amp.html|title=Who Were the Ancestors of Native Americans? A Lost People in Siberia, Scientists Say|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|date=5 June 2019|website=The New York Times|access-date=5 April 2020|quote=Dr. Willerslev's team found DNA in the Kolyma skull as well. A small fraction of that individual's ancestry came from Ancient North Siberians. But most of it came from a new population. Dr. Willerslev and his colleagues call them the Ancient Paleo-Siberians. The DNA of the Ancient Paleo-Siberians is remarkably similar to that of Native Americans. Dr. Willerslev estimates that Native Americans can trace about two-thirds of their ancestry to these previously unknown people. One reason that the Ancient Paleo-Siberians were unknown until now is that they were mostly replaced by a third population of people with a different East Asian ancestry. This group moved into Siberia only in the past 10,000 years — and they are the progenitors of most living Siberians.}}</ref>

==History== {{Further|Russian conquest of Siberia|Siberian minorities in the Soviet era}} [[File:Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary b58 809-0.jpg|thumb|400px|An ethnographic map of 16th-century Siberia, made in the Russian Empire period, between 1890 and 1907]]

In Kamchatka, the Itelmens' uprisings against Russian rule in 1706, 1731, and 1741, were crushed. During the first uprising the Itelmen were armed with only stone weapons, but in later uprisings they used gunpowder weapons. The Russian Cossacks faced tougher resistance from the Koryaks, who revolted with bows and guns from 1745 to 1756, and were even forced to give up in their attempts to wipe out the Chukchi in 1729, 1730–1731, and 1744–1747.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpI_YYtvlCAC&q=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&pg=PT210|title=War and the World: Military Power and the Fate of Continents, 1450-2000|first=Jeremy|last=Black|date=1 October 2008|publisher=Yale University Press|access-date=4 May 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0300147698}}</ref> After the Russian defeat in 1729 at Chukchi hands, the Russian commander Major Dmitry Pavlutsky was responsible for the Russian war against the Chukchi and the mass slaughters and enslavement of Chukchi women and children in 1730–1731, but his cruelty only made the Chukchi fight more fiercely.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA145 Forsyth 1994], pp. 145-6.</ref>

A war against the Chukchi and Koryaks was ordered by Empress Elizabeth in 1742 to totally expel them from their native lands and erase their culture through war. The command was that the natives be "totally extirpated" with Pavlutskiy leading again in this war from 1744 to 1747 in which he led to the Cossacks "with the help of Almighty God and to the good fortune of Her Imperial Highness", to slaughter the Chukchi men and enslave their women and children as booty. However this phase of the war came to an inconclusive end, when the Chukchi forced them to give up by killing Pavlutskiy and decapitating him.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&pg=PA146 Forsyth 1994], p. 146.</ref>

The Russians launched wars and conducted mass slaughters against the Koryaks in 1744 and 1753–1754. After the Russians tried to force the natives to convert to Christianity, different native peoples such as the Koryaks, Chukchi, Itelmens, and Yukaghirs all united to drive the Russians out of their land in the 1740s, culminating in the assault on Nizhnekamchatsk fort in 1746.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA147 Forsyth 1994], p. 147.</ref> After its annexation by Russia in 1697, around 100,000 of 150,000 Itelmen and Koryaks died due to infectious diseases such as smallpox, mass suicides and the mass slaughters perpetrated by the Cossacks throughout the first decades of Russian rule.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezDG4aTNIeoC&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&pg=PA388 Jack 2008], p. 388.</ref>

The genocide by the Russian Cossacks devastated the native peoples of Kamchatka and exterminated much of their population.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qVosAQAAMAAJ&q=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka "Condé Nast's Traveler, Volume 36" 2001], p. 280.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=beJAAQAAIAAJ&q=A+very+large+percentage+of+the+Kamchatka+peoples+were+victims+of+genocide+and+ethnocide+during+the+first "Yearbook" 1992], p. 46.</ref> In addition to committing genocide, the Cossacks also devastated the wildlife by slaughtering massive numbers of animals for fur.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qEAjAQAAIAAJ&q=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka Mote 1998], p. 44.</ref> Ninety percent of the Kamchadals and half of the Voguls were killed from the 18th to 19th centuries. The rapid genocide of the Indigenous population led to entire ethnic groups being entirely wiped out, with around 12 exterminated groups which were named by Nikolai Yadrintsev as of 1882. Much of the slaughter was brought on by the Siberian fur trade.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=lpz5q44VVk0C&dq=russian+genocide+siberia+natives&pg=PA78 Etkind 2013], p. 78.</ref>

In the 17th century, Indigenous peoples of the Amur region were attacked and colonized by Russians who came to be known as "red-beards".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC&pg=PA64 Stephan 1996], p. 64.</ref> The Russian Cossacks were named luocha (羅剎) or rakshasa by Amur natives, after demons found in Buddhist mythology. The natives of the Amur region feared the invaders as they ruthlessly colonized the Amur tribes, who were tributaries of the Qing dynasty during the Sino–Russian border conflicts. Qing forces and Korean musketeers who were allied with the Qing defeated the Cossacks in 1658, which kept the Russians out of the inner reaches of the Amur region for decades.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shiau |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Kang |first2=Hyeokhweon |last3=Carlson |first3=Ethan |last4=Cone |first4=Daniel |last5=Zhong |first5=Rui |last6=Li |first6=Hui |last7=Jia |first7=Sophie |last8=Patel |first8=Ruchir |title=Emory Endeavors in History: Transnational Encounters in Asia |date=2012 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |isbn=978-1-4751-3879-5 }}{{pn|date=August 2025}}{{self-published inline|date=August 2025}}</ref>

The regionalist oblastniki were, in the 19th century, among the Russians in Siberia who acknowledged that the natives were subjected to violence of almost genocidal proportions by the Russian colonization. They claimed that they would rectify the situation with their proposed regionalist policies.{{Sfn|Wood|2011|p=89–90}} The colonizers used massacres, alcoholism, and disease to bring the natives under their control. Some small nomadic groups essentially disappeared, and much of the evidence of their obliteration has itself been destroyed, with only a few artifacts documenting their presence remaining in Russian museums and collections.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/15/books/how-the-east-was-won.html|title=How the East Was Won|first=Benson|last=Bobrick|date=15 December 2002|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924141934/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/15/books/how-the-east-was-won.html|archive-date=24 September 2017|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref>

thumb|Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1970 The Russian colonization of Siberia and conquest of its Indigenous peoples has been compared to European colonization in the United States and its natives, with similar negative impacts on the natives and the appropriation of their land.

From 1918 to 1921, there was a violent revolutionary upheaval in Siberia during the Russian Civil War. Russian Cossacks under Captain Grigori Semionov established themselves as warlords by crushing the Indigenous peoples who resisted them.{{Sfn|Bisher|2006}} The Czechoslovak Legion initially took control of Vladivostok and controlled all of the territory along the Trans-Siberian Railway by September 1918.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/czech-troops-take-russian-port-of-vladivostok-for-allies|title=Czech troops take Russian port of Vladivostok for Allies|website=History.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226035749/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/czech-troops-take-russian-port-of-vladivostok-for-allies |archive-date=26 December 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Brent Mueggenberg, ''Czecho-Slovak Struggle'', p. 161–177, 188–191.</ref> The Legion later declared its neutrality and was evacuated via Vladivostok.

Today, Kamchatka is largely populated by a Russian majority, although decreasing, with a slowly increasing indigenous population. The Slavic Russians outnumber all of the native peoples in Siberia and its cities except in Tuva and Sakha (where the Tuvans and Yakuts serve as the majority ethnic groups respectively), with the Slavic Russians making up the majority in Buryatia and the Altai Republic, outnumbering the Buryat and Altai natives.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}}

==Overview== {{See also|Unified list of Indigenous minority peoples of the North, Siberia, and the Far East of Russia}}

Siberia is a sparsely populated region. Historically it has been home to a variety of different linguistic groups. According to some estimates, by the beginning of the 17th century, Indigenous peoples numbered 160,000. In the 1897 census, their number was 822,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Долгих|first=Борис Осипович |title=Родовой и племенной состав народов Сибири в XVII веке |publisher=Издательство Академии наук СССР |year=1960|location=Moscow |pages=615 |language=ru}}</ref> The 2021 census recorded 1,620,000 Indigenous Siberians.<ref name="census2021"/>

[[File:Russischer Photograph - Die Katschin, ein türkischsprechender Volksstamm (2) (Zeno Fotografie).jpg|thumb|A group of Kachin Khakas]] [[File:Selenginskie buryaty.jpg|thumb|Selenga Buryats]] [[File:Жители Новой Земли Архангельской губернии.jpg|thumb|A Nenets family in Novaya Zemlya]] [[File:Hezhe (Nanai) family.jpg|thumb|A Nanai family in traditional garb]] [[File:Koryak ceremony of starting the New Fire.jpeg|thumb|Koryak men starting a fire]] [[File:Siberian-eskimo-Nabogatova-.PNG|thumb|A Siberian Yupik woman holding walrus tusks]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right" !colspan=3| Indigenous peoples of Siberia |- !Ethnic group !Population (2021) !Population (2010) |- ! Turkic !{{increase}} 948,338 !935,744 |- | align="left" |'''''Siberian Turkic''''' |'''942,041''' |'''928,965''' |- | align="left" |Yakuts |478,409 |478,085 |- | align="left" |Tuvans |295,384 |263,934 |- | align="left" |Altai |78,125 |74,238 |- | align="left" |Khakas |61,365 |72,959 |- | align="left" |Shors |10,507 |12,888 |- | align="left" |Dolgans |8,157 |7,885 |- | align="left" |Telengits |unknown |3,712 |- | align="left" |Soyot |4,368 |3,608 |- | align="left" |Kumandins |2,408 |2,892 |- | align="left" |Teleuts |2,217 |2,643 |- | align="left" |Tubalars |unknown |1,965 |- | align="left" |Tozhu Tuvans |unknown |1,858 |- | align="left" |Chelkans |unknown |1,181 |- | align="left" |Tofalar |719 |762 |- | align="left" |Chulyms |382 |355 |- | align="left" |'''''Kipchak''''' (Siberian Tatars)* |'''6,297''' |'''6,779''' |- ! Mongolic !{{decrease}} 460,060 !461,389 |- | align="left" |Buryats |460,053 |461,389 |- | align="left" |Daurs |7 |unknown |- ! align="left" |Uralic !{{increase}} 97,689 !92,592 |- | align="left" |'''''Samoyedic''''' |'''''53,994''''' |'''''49,380''''' |- | align="left" |Nenets |49,646 |44,640 |- | align="left" |Selkup |3,458 |3,649 |- | align="left" |Nganasan |687 |862 |- | align="left" |Enets |201 |227 |- | align="left" |Kamasins** |2 |2 |- | align="left" |'''''Ob-Ugric''''' |'''''43,695''''' |'''''43,212''''' |- | align="left" |Khanty |31,467 |30,943 |- | align="left" |Mansi |12,228 |12,269 |- !Tungusic !{{decrease}} 75,844 !78,447 |- | align="left" |Evenki |39,226 |38,396 |- | align="left" |Evens |19,913 |22,383 |- | align="left" |Nanai |11,623 |12,003 |- | align="left" |Ulchs |2,472 |2,765 |- | align="left" |Udege |1,325 |1,496 |- | align="left" |Orochs |527 |596 |- | align="left" |Negidals |481 |513 |- | align="left" |Oroks |268 |295 |- | align="left" |Manchus |9 |unknown |- ! align="left" |Paleosiberian !{{decrease}} 35,790 !37,631 |- | align="left" |'''''Chukotko-Kamchatkan''''' |'''''27,851''''' |'''''29,045''''' |- | align="left" |Chukchi |16,200 |15,908 |- | align="left" |Koryaks |7,485 + 482 Alyutors |7,953 |- | align="left" |Itelmens |2,596 |3,193 |- | align="left" |Kamchadals |1,547 |1,927 |- | align="left" |Kereks |23 |64 |- | align="left" |'''''Nivkh''''' (Nivkh) |'''''3,842''''' |'''''4,652''''' |- | align="left" |'''''Ainu''''' (Ainu) |'''''300''''' |'''''109''''' |- | align="left" |'''''Yukaghir''''' |'''''2,702''''' |'''''2,605''''' |- | align="left" |Yukaghir |1,802 |1,603 |- | align="left" |Chuvans |900 |1,002 |- | align="left" |'''''Yeniseian''''' |'''''1,095''''' |'''''1,220''''' |- | align="left" |Kets |1,088 |1,219 |- | align="left" |Yughs |7 |1 |- ! align="left" |Eskaleut !{{decrease}} 2,054 !2,220 |- | align="left" |Siberian Yupik (+ Sireniks) |1,657 |1,738 |- | align="left" |Aleuts |397 |482 |- ! align="left" |Sino-Tibetan !{{decrease}} 235 !274 |- | align="left" |Taz |235 |274 |- !Total !{{decrease}} 1,707,829 !1,761,453 |- !% of Russia !{{decrease}} 1.24% !1.28% |} * * Some estimates put the population of Siberian Tatars at 200,000.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150924020837/https://www.ethnomuseum.ru/tatary-sibirskie Сибирские татары] // Российский этнографический музей.</ref><ref name="Siberian Tatars">{{cite web|url=http://newasp.omskreg.ru/hist/fotatlas/rezumeen.htm|title=Siberian Tatars|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020227012304/http://newasp.omskreg.ru/hist/fotatlas/rezumeen.htm|archive-date= 27 February 2002}}</ref> * ** Some estimates put the population of Kamasins at 21.<ref name="УТП">{{Cite web |title=Администрация Саянского района. Унифицированный туристский паспорт. Саянский район Красноярского края |url=http://adm-sayany.ru/up/%D0%A3%D0%A2%D0%9F%20%D0%9C%D0%9E%20%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%202021.doc |access-date=4 January 2023}}</ref>

==Ainu people== {{Main|Ainu people|Sakhalin Ainu language|Kuril Ainu language}} {{See also|Ainu in Russia}}

Ainu languages are spoken in Sakhalin, Hokkaido, the Kurils, and the Kamchatka Peninsula, as well as in the Amur region. Today, Ainu is nearly extinct, with the last native speakers remaining in Hokkaido and on Kamchatka.

==Mongolic peoples== {{Main|Mongolic peoples}} [[File:Khagdaev 02.jpg|thumb|right|Buryat shaman of Olkhon, Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia]]

The Buryats number 461,389 in Russia according to the 2010 census, which makes them the second largest ethnic minority group in Siberia. They are mainly concentrated in their homeland, the Buryat Republic, a federal subject of Russia. They are the northernmost major group of the Mongols.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15th Edition. (1977). Vol. II, p. 396. {{ISBN|0-85229-315-1}}.</ref>

Buryats share many customs with their Mongolian cousins, including nomadic herding and erecting huts for shelter. Today, the majority of Buryats live in and around Ulan Ude, the capital of the republic, although many live more traditionally in the countryside. Their language is called Buryat.

In Zabaykalsky Krai of Russia, in Mongolia and China, there are also the Hamnigans—a Mongolic ethno-linguistic (sub)group as Mongolized Evenki.

In Altai Republic and Altai Krai of Russia there exists a community of Altai Oirats. The government does not write them in as a distinct ethnic group and misidentify them as Altaians or Kalmyks. They mostly live in the steppe part of the Altai Republic or around Barnaul in the Altai Krai. They number about 2,000-4,500.

==Paleosiberian peoples== {{Main|Ancient Paleo-Siberians|Paleosiberian languages}} [[File:No-nb bldsa 3f081.jpg|thumb|Ket woman]]

Four small language families and isolates, not known to have any linguistic relationship to each other, compose the Paleo-Siberian languages:

===Chukotko-Kamchatkan=== :1. The Chukotko-Kamchatkan family, sometimes known as Luoravetlan, includes Chukchi and its close relatives, Koryak, Alutor, and Kerek. Itelmen, also known as Kamchadal, is also distantly related. Chukchi, Koryak and Alutor are spoken in easternmost Siberia by communities numbering in the dozens (Alutor) to thousands (Chukchi). Kerek is now extinct, and Itelmen is now spoken by fewer than 10 people, mostly elderly, on the west coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula.

===Nivkh=== :2. Nivkh is spoken in the lower Amur basin and on the northern half of Sakhalin island. It has a recent modern literature and the Nivkhs have experienced a turbulent history in the last century.

===Yeniseian=== :3. Ket is the last survivor of the Yeniseian family along the middle of the Yenisei River and its tributaries. It has recently been claimed [https://web.archive.org/web/20090526221250/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/dy2008.html] to be related to the Na-Dene languages of North America, though this hypothesis has met with mixed reviews among historical linguists. In the past, attempts have been made to relate it to Sino-Tibetan, North Caucasian, and Burushaski.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

===Yukaghir=== :4. Yukaghir is spoken in two mutually unintelligible varieties in the lower Kolyma and Indigirka valleys. Other languages, including Chuvantsy, spoken further inland and further east, are now extinct. Yukaghir is held by some to be related to the Uralic languages.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

==Tungusic peoples== {{Further|Tungusic peoples}}

The Evenki live in the Evenk Autonomous Okrug of Russia.

The Udege, Ulchs, Evens, and Nanai (also known as Hezhen) are also Indigenous peoples of the Russian Far East, and are known to share genetic affinity to Indigenous peoples of the Americas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Torroni |first1=A |last2=Sukernik |first2=R I |last3=Schurr |first3=T G |last4=Starikorskaya |first4=Y B |last5=Cabell |first5=M F |last6=Crawford |first6=M H |last7=Comuzzie |first7=A G |last8=Wallace |first8=D C |date=September 1993 |title=mtDNA variation of aboriginal Siberians reveals distinct genetic affinities with Native Americans |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=591–608 |pmc=1682407 |pmid=7688933 }}</ref>

==Turkic peoples== {{See also|Siberian Turkic languages|Turkic peoples}} [[File:Siberian Tatars.jpg|thumb|Siberian Tatars|alt=]] thumb|upright=0.9|A Yakut woman in traditional dress

The Turkic peoples include the following ethnic groups: * Altaians ** Chelkans ** Kumandins ** Telengits ** Teleuts ** Tubalars * Chulyms * Dolgans * Khakas * Shors * Siberian Tatars ** Baraba Tatars ** Chat Tatars ** Eushta Tatars ** Kalmak Tatars ** Zabolotnie Tatars ** Tyumen-Tura Tatars ** Tobol Tatars ** Kurdak-Sargat Tatars ** Tara Tatars * Soyots * Tofalar * Tuvans ** Tozhu Tuvans * Yakuts

==Uralic peoples==

===Ob-Ugrians=== {{Further|Ob-Ugric languages|Ob-Ugrians}}

The Khanty (obsolete: Ostyaks) and Mansi (obsolete: Voguls) live in Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug, a region historically known as "Yugra" in Russia. By 2013, oil and gas companies had already devastated much of the Khanty tribes' lands. In 2014 the Khanty-Mansi regional parliament continued to weaken legislation that had previously protected Khanty and Mansi communities. Tribes' permission was required before oil and gas companies could enter their land.<ref name="Survival International">{{cite web|title=Reindeer herders take on Russian oil-giant as tribal rights in Siberia weakened |date=13 May 2014 |access-date=1 September 2014| url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/10227 |work=Survival International}}</ref>

===Samoyeds=== {{Further|Samoyedic peoples}} [[File:Nenets Child.jpg|thumb|Nenets child]] [[File:Selkup man.jpg|thumb|Selkup man|alt=]]

Samoyedic peoples include: * Northern Samoyedic peoples ** Nenets ** Enets ** Nganasan * Southern Samoyedic peoples ** Selkup ** Kamasins or Kamas ** Mator or Motor (now extinct as a distinct ethnic group) ** Koibal (now extinct as a distinct ethnic group)

==Yukaghir group== Yukaghir is spoken in two mutually unintelligible varieties in the lower Kolyma and Indigirka valleys. Other languages, including Chuvantsy, spoken further inland and further east, are now extinct. Yukaghir is held by some to be related to the Uralic languages in the Uralic–Yukaghir family.

The Yukaghirs (self-designation: одул ''odul'', деткиль ''detkil'') are people in East Siberia, living in the basin of the Kolyma River. The Tundra Yukaghirs live in the Lower Kolyma region in the Sakha Republic; the Taiga Yukaghirs in the Upper Kolyma region in the Sakha Republic and in Srednekansky District of Magadan Oblast. By the time of Russian colonization in the 17th century, the Yukaghir tribal groups (Chuvans, Khodyns, Anauls, etc.) occupied territories from the Lena River to the mouth of the Anadyr River.

The number of the Yukaghirs decreased between the 17th and 19th centuries due to epidemics, internecine wars and Tsarist colonial policy. Some of the Yukaghirs have assimilated with the Yakuts, Evens, and Russians. Currently Yukaghirs live in the Sakha Republic and the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug of the Russian Federation. In the 2002 Census, their total number was 1,509 people, up from 1,112 in the 1989 Census.

==Genetic relationships and links to Indigenous peoples of the Americas== {{See also|Ancient Paleo-Siberian}} [[File:Siberian Shaman.jpg|thumb|220px|An Indigenous Siberian shaman at Kranoyarsk Regional Museum, Russia]] thumb|The map shows the origin of the first wave of humans into the Americas. Involved are the ANE (Ancestral Northern Eurasian, which represent a distinct Paleolithic Siberian population), and the NEA (Northeast Asians, which are an East Asian-related group). The admixture happened somewhere in Northeast Siberia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=He |last2=Spyrou |first2=Maria A. |last3=Karapetian |first3=Marina |last4=Shnaider |first4=Svetlana |last5=Radzevičiūtė |first5=Rita |last6=Nägele |first6=Kathrin |last7=Neumann |first7=Gunnar U. |last8=Penske |first8=Sandra |last9=Zech |first9=Jana |last10=Lucas |first10=Mary |last11=LeRoux |first11=Petrus |last12=Roberts |first12=Patrick |last13=Pavlenok |first13=Galina |last14=Buzhilova |first14=Alexandra |last15=Posth |first15=Cosimo |date=11 June 2020 |title=Paleolithic to Bronze Age Siberians Reveal Connections with First Americans and across Eurasia |journal=Cell |language=en |volume=181 |issue=6 |pages=1232–1245.e20 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.037 |pmid=32437661 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The earliest Indigenous peoples of Siberia were hunter-gatherers distantly related to modern Europeans, and diverged from a shared ancestral population around 38kya before populating Siberia. In Siberia, they received geneflow from an East-Eurasian population, most closely related to the 40kya old Tianyuan man (c. 22-50%), representing a deep sister lineage of contemporary East Asian people, giving rise to a distinct Siberian lineage known as Ancient North Eurasian (ANE). By c. 32kya, populations carrying ANE-related ancestry were probably widely distributed across northeast Eurasia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Maritime Prehistory of Northeast Asia |series=The Archaeology of Asia-Pacific Navigation |date=2022 |volume=6 |doi=10.1007/978-981-19-1118-7 |isbn=978-981-19-1117-0 |editor1-first=Jim |editor1-last=Cassidy |editor2-first=Irina |editor2-last=Ponkratova |editor3-first=Ben |editor3-last=Fitzhugh }}{{pn|date=August 2025}}</ref><ref name="nature.com">{{cite journal |last1=Sikora |first1=Martin |last2=Pitulko |first2=Vladimir V. |last3=Sousa |first3=Vitor C. |last4=Allentoft |first4=Morten E. |last5=Vinner |first5=Lasse |last6=Rasmussen |first6=Simon |last7=Margaryan |first7=Ashot |last8=de Barros Damgaard |first8=Peter |last9=de la Fuente |first9=Constanza |last10=Renaud |first10=Gabriel |last11=Yang |first11=Melinda A. |last12=Fu |first12=Qiaomei |last13=Dupanloup |first13=Isabelle |last14=Giampoudakis |first14=Konstantinos |last15=Nogués-Bravo |first15=David |last16=Rahbek |first16=Carsten |last17=Kroonen |first17=Guus |last18=Peyrot |first18=Michaël |last19=McColl |first19=Hugh |last20=Vasilyev |first20=Sergey V. |last21=Veselovskaya |first21=Elizaveta |last22=Gerasimova |first22=Margarita |last23=Pavlova |first23=Elena Y. |last24=Chasnyk |first24=Vyacheslav G. |last25=Nikolskiy |first25=Pavel A. |last26=Gromov |first26=Andrei V. |last27=Khartanovich |first27=Valeriy I. |last28=Moiseyev |first28=Vyacheslav |last29=Grebenyuk |first29=Pavel S. |last30=Fedorchenko |first30=Alexander Yu. |last31=Lebedintsev |first31=Alexander I. |last32=Slobodin |first32=Sergey B. |last33=Malyarchuk |first33=Boris A. |last34=Martiniano |first34=Rui |last35=Meldgaard |first35=Morten |last36=Arppe |first36=Laura |last37=Palo |first37=Jukka U. |last38=Sundell |first38=Tarja |last39=Mannermaa |first39=Kristiina |last40=Putkonen |first40=Mikko |last41=Alexandersen |first41=Verner |last42=Primeau |first42=Charlotte |last43=Baimukhanov |first43=Nurbol |last44=Malhi |first44=Ripan S. |last45=Sjögren |first45=Karl-Göran |last46=Kristiansen |first46=Kristian |last47=Wessman |first47=Anna |last48=Sajantila |first48=Antti |last49=Lahr |first49=Marta Mirazon |last50=Durbin |first50=Richard |last51=Nielsen |first51=Rasmus |last52=Meltzer |first52=David J. |last53=Excoffier |first53=Laurent |last54=Willerslev |first54=Eske |title=The population history of northeastern Siberia since the Pleistocene |journal=Nature |date=13 June 2019 |volume=570 |issue=7760 |pages=182–188 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1279-z |pmid=31168093 |pmc=7617447 |bibcode=2019Natur.570..182S |hdl=1887/3198847 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{NoteTag|Sikora et al. (2019) model the Yana individuals as 22% East Eurasian and the remainder West Eurasian. Massilani et al. (2020) model the Yana individuals as around one-third East Eurasian and two-thirds West Eurasian.Vallini et al. (2022) model Yana as 50% West Eurasian and 50% East Eurasian.}}

Around 36kya, an Ancient East Asian population diverged from other East Asians somewhere in Southern China and migrated northwards into Siberia, where they encountered and interacted with the Ancient North Eurasians to give rise to the Paleo-Siberians and the Ancestral Native Americans. The Ancestral Native Americans would become isolated in the Beringia region, and subsequently populate the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sapiens |date=8 February 2022 |title=A Genetic Chronicle of the First Peoples in the Americas |url=https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/ancient-dna-native-americans/ |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=SAPIENS |language=en-US}}</ref>

The last historical population movement can be associated with the Neo-Siberian expansion outgoing from Northeast Asia (15kya), and contributed ancestry to Indigenous groups throughout Siberia as well as to Native Americans, associated with the expansion of Paleo-Eskimo, and Eskimo-Aleut groups. Modern Indigenous peoples of Siberia derive varying degrees of ancestry from these three layers, although the Ancient North Eurasian like ancestry has been largely replaced.<ref name="nature.com"/><ref>{{cite press release |last1=Svobodová |first1=Andrea |title=Long-standing dispute about North American prehistory |url=https://www.osu.eu/23676/long-standing-dispute-about-north-american-prehistory/ |publisher=University of Ostrava }}</ref>

Indigenous Siberians and other North Asians form a distinct cluster within wider Eurasian genetic diversity, with their closest relative affinity towards Indigenous peoples of the Americas and East Asians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kidd |first1=Kenneth K. |last2=Evsanaa |first2=Baigalmaa |last3=Togtokh |first3=Ariunaa |last4=Brissenden |first4=Jane E. |last5=Roscoe |first5=Janet M. |last6=Dogan |first6=Mustafa |last7=Neophytou |first7=Pavlos I. |last8=Gurkan |first8=Cemal |last9=Bulbul |first9=Ozlem |last10=Cherni |first10=Lotfi |last11=Speed |first11=William C. |last12=Murtha |first12=Michael |last13=Kidd |first13=Judith R. |last14=Pakstis |first14=Andrew J. |date=4 May 2022 |title=North Asian population relationships in a global context |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=7214 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-10706-x |pmid=35508562 |pmc=9068624 |bibcode=2022NatSR..12.7214K }}</ref> Modern Indigenous Siberians also show some affinities with ancient Eastern European populations, such as the Yamnaya and Pitted Ware Cultures, although this affinity is more significant for western Siberians than eastern Siberians. Both western and eastern Siberians also have strong affinities with the Ust’-Ishim man.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=Emily H. M. |last2=Khrunin |first2=Andrey |last3=Nichols |first3=Larissa |last4=Pushkarev |first4=Dmitry |last5=Khokhrin |first5=Denis |last6=Verbenko |first6=Dmitry |last7=Evgrafov |first7=Oleg |last8=Knowles |first8=James |last9=Novembre |first9=John |last10=Limborska |first10=Svetlana |last11=Valouev |first11=Anton |date=January 2017 |title=Reconstructing genetic history of Siberian and Northeastern European populations |journal=Genome Research |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1101/gr.202945.115 |pmc=5204334 |pmid=27965293 }}</ref> Present Siberian ancestry found across Eurasia and North America can be traced to a single gene pool from Middle Holocene Siberians that's best represented by Middle Neolithic Yakutia populations. These populations can be modeled as a mixture of Dzhylinda-1 (71%), which is a mixture of Ancient North Eurasian, Ancient Northern East Asian and Native American, and Early Neolithic West Baikal ancestries (29%), which is Ancient Northern East Asian-rich. Ancient Northern East Asian ancestry was presumably introduced from northeastern China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gill |first1=Haechan |last2=Lee |first2=Juhyeon |last3=Jeong |first3=Choongwon |title=Reconstructing the Genetic Relationship between Ancient and Present-Day Siberian Populations |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |date=2024 |volume=16 |issue=4 |article-number=evae063 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evae063 |biorxiv=10.1101/2023.08.21.554074 |pmc=10999361 }}</ref>

Early Native Americans are thought to have crossed into the Americas through the Beringia land bridge between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago from modern day Siberia. Certain modern Indigenous Siberians are closely related to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, with whom they share a common origin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Melinda A. |title=A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia |journal=Human Population Genetics and Genomics |date=6 January 2022 |pages=1–32 |article-number=0001 |doi=10.47248/hpgg2202010001 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xiaoming |last2=Ji |first2=Xueping |last3=Li |first3=Chunmei |last4=Yang |first4=Tingyu |last5=Huang |first5=Jiahui |last6=Zhao |first6=Yinhui |last7=Wu |first7=Yun |last8=Ma |first8=Shiwu |last9=Pang |first9=Yuhong |last10=Huang |first10=Yanyi |last11=He |first11=Yaoxi |last12=Su |first12=Bing |date=25 July 2022 |title=A Late Pleistocene human genome from Southwest China |journal=Current Biology |volume=32 |issue=14 |pages=3095–3109.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.016 |pmid=35839766 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022CBio...32E3095Z }}</ref>

Analysis of genetic markers has also been used to link the two groups of Indigenous peoples. These studies focused on looking at markers on the Y chromosome, which is always inherited by sons from their fathers. Haplogroup Q is a unique mutation shared among most Indigenous peoples of the Americas, less among Siberian populations. Studies have found that 93.8% of Siberia's Ket people and 66.4% of Siberia's Selkup people possess the mutation, while it is largely absent from other populations in Eastern Asia or Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genebase.com/learning/article/16 |title=Learning Center :: Genebase Tutorials |publisher=Genebase.com |date=22 October 1964 |access-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117011216/http://www.genebase.com/learning/article/16 |archive-date=17 November 2013 }}</ref>

The principal-component analysis suggests a close genetic relatedness between some North American Amerindians (the Chipewyan [Dënesųłı̨ne] and the Cheyenne) and certain populations of central/southern Siberia (particularly the Kets, Siberian Tatars, Yakuts, Selkups, and Altaians), at the resolution of major Y-chromosome haplogroups.<ref name="Bortolini Y-Chromosome Evidence">{{cite journal |last1=Bortolini |first1=Maria-Catira |last2=Salzano |first2=Francisco M. |last3=Thomas |first3=Mark G. |last4=Stuart |first4=Steven |last5=Nasanen |first5=Selja P.K. |last6=Bau |first6=Claiton H.D. |last7=Hutz |first7=Mara H. |last8=Layrisse |first8=Zulay |last9=Petzl-Erler |first9=Maria L. |last10=Tsuneto |first10=Luiza T. |last11=Hill |first11=Kim |last12=Hurtado |first12=Ana M. |last13=Castro-de-Guerra |first13=Dinorah |last14=Torres |first14=Maria M. |last15=Groot |first15=Helena |last16=Michalski |first16=Roman |last17=Nymadawa |first17=Pagbajabyn |last18=Bedoya |first18=Gabriel |last19=Bradman |first19=Neil |last20=Labuda |first20=Damian |last21=Ruiz-Linares |first21=Andres |title=Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=September 2003 |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=524–539 |doi=10.1086/377588 |pmid=12900798 |pmc=1180678 }}</ref> This pattern agrees with the distribution of mtDNA haplogroup X, which is found in North America and the Altaians of southern central Siberia, but is absent from eastern Siberia.<ref name="Bortolini Y-Chromosome Evidence"/>

According to a 2025 study, Native American-related Paleosiberian ancestry in continental Siberia mixed with ancestries related to Inland East Asians (China_NEastAsia_Inland_EN) and Amur River populations (China_AmurRiver_Mesolithic 14K). This created two distinct ancestries: Cis-Baikal Late Neolithic–Bronze Age and Yakutia Late Neolithic–Bronze Age ancestries. The first was associated with the expansion of Yeniseian-speaking groups whilst the second was associated with the expansion of Uralic-speaking groups. Cis-Baikal Late Neolithic-Bronze Age ancestry is closely related to present Central Siberians from the Yenisei River Basin. Meanwhile, Yakutia Late Neolithic-Bronze Age ancestry is associated with ancient and present Bering Straits populations. It is also associated with the dispersal of haplogroup N, which is common for present Uralic speaking-groups. Populations from the Amur River region always have high affinity to Amur River-related East Asian ancestry while those on the Mongolian Plateau and Baikal area share more affinity with Inland East Asian-related ancestry. However, there is minor genetic input from North Eurasian Hunter-Gatherers, who lived about ~10–4kya and are characterized by distinct West and East Eurasian admixture, into ancient and present Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic-speaking populations from Central and Northern Eurasia, as well as pastoralists from the Late Bronze Age and Iron age such as Scythians, Sarmatians, and Xiongnu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Tian Chen |last2=Vyazov |first2=Leonid A. |last3=Kim |first3=Alexander |last4=Flegontov |first4=Pavel |display-authors=3 |date=2025 |title=Ancient DNA reveals the prehistory of the Uralic and Yeniseian peoples |journal=Nature |volume=644 |issue=8075 |pages=122–132 |doi=10.1038/s41586-025-09189-3 |pmid=40604287 |pmc=12342343 |bibcode=2025Natur.644..122Z }}</ref>

Another study detected a much wider distribution of Ancient Paleosiberian ancestry since the Early Holocene and is present in sites such as northern Mongolia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Tianxiang |last2=Zhao |first2=Zhanhu |last3=Guo |first3=Mingjian |last4=Bennett |first4=E. Andrew |last5=Cao |first5=Peng |last6=Zhuang |first6=Lina |last7=Dai |first7=Qingyan |last8=Zhang |first8=Wenrui |last9=Liu |first9=Feng |last10=Shi |first10=Han |last11=Song |first11=Meiling |last12=Wang |first12=Tianyi |last13=Bai |first13=Fan |last14=Ran |first14=Jingkun |last15=Ping |first15=Wanjing |last16=Zhang |first16=Ganyu |last17=Feng |first17=Xiaotian |last18=Fu |first18=Qiaomei |title=The genetic history around the southeastern Mongolian Plateau traces Neolithic cultural diffusions in northern East Asia |journal=The Innovation |date=2025 |volume=7 |article-number=101186 |doi=10.1016/j.xinn.2025.101186 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Culture and customs== {{Expand section|date=December 2009}} [[File:Кожаный панцирь.jpg|thumb|Laminar armour from hardened leather reinforced by wood and bones such as this was worn by native Siberians.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tlingit, Eskimo and Aleut armors|website=Kunstamera|url= http://www.kunstkamera.ru/en/museum_exhibitions/encyclopedia/america/military_science/tlingit_eskimo_and_aleut_armors/|access-date=10 February 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140222042724/http://www.kunstkamera.ru/en/museum_exhibitions/encyclopedia/america/military_science/tlingit_eskimo_and_aleut_armors/|archive-date=22 February 2014}}</ref>]] [[File:Koryak armor.jpeg|thumb|Lamellar armour traditionally worn by the Koryak people ({{circa|1900}})]] thumb|Indigenous Siberian canoe at Krasnoyarsk Regional Museum, Russia [[File:Siberian Musical Instrument.jpg|thumb|Indigenous Siberian musical instrument used with throat singing, at Krasnoyarsk Regional Museum, Russia]]

Customs and beliefs vary greatly among different tribes.

The Chukchi wore laminar armour of hardened leather reinforced by wood and bones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tlingit, Eskimo, and Aleut armors|date=22 February 2014|website=Kunst Kamera|url=http://www.kunstkamera.ru/en/museum_exhibitions/encyclopedia/america/military_science/tlingit_eskimo_and_aleut_armors/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222042724/http://www.kunstkamera.ru/en/museum_exhibitions/encyclopedia/america/military_science/tlingit_eskimo_and_aleut_armors/|archive-date=22 February 2014}}</ref>

Kutkh (also Kutkha, Kootkha, Kutq Kutcha and other variants, Russian: Кутх), is a raven spirit traditionally revered by the Chukchi and other Siberian tribal groups. He is said to be very powerful.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stepan P.|last=Krasheninnikov|year=1972|title=Explorations of Kamchatka 1735-1741|chapter=The Kamchadal beliefs about God, the creation of the World and the tenets of their religion|translator-last=Crownheart-Vaughn|translator-first=E. A. P.|publisher=Oregon Historical Society|location=Portland, OR|pages=238–243|chapter-url=http://www.nordic-life.org/nmh/KamGods.htm|via=www.nordic-life.org|access-date=16 May 2019|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227042623/https://www.nordic-life.org/nmh/KamGods.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Toko'yoto or the "Crab" was the Chukchi god of the sea.<ref>{{cite book|title=Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis: Stockholm studies in comparative religion|year=1961|publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell|page=68|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooXXp0UNeAwC}}</ref>

Nu'tenut is the chief god of the Chukchi.<ref name="Bogoras1909">{{cite book|first=Waldemar|last=Bogoras|year=1909|title=The Chukchee|publisher=E. J. Brill Limited|page=306|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjBAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA306}}</ref>

The Chukchi also respect reindeer in both mortal and holy life. They have several rituals involving them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Malandra |first1=W. W. |title=The Concept of Movement in History of Religions: A Religio-Historical Study of Reindeer in the Spiritual Life of North Eurasian Peoples |journal=Numen |date=1967 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=23–69 |id={{ProQuest|1299150896}} |doi=10.1163/156852767X00030 |jstor=3269697 }}</ref>

The Supreme Deity of the Yukaghirs is called ''Pon'', which means "Something".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lurker |first1=Manfred |title=The Routledge Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses, Devils and Demons |date=2004 |doi=10.4324/9780203643518 |page=153 |isbn=978-0-203-64351-8 }}</ref> He is described as very powerful.<ref>{{cite book|last=Norenzayan|first=Ara|year=2013|title=Big Gods: How religion transformed cooperation and conflict|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400848324|page=129}}</ref>

==Notable people== [[File:Daria Egereva (Kostrova Olga) 1.jpg|thumb|Daria Egereva at COP29 (Photo: Olga Kostrova)]]

On 17 December 2025, Daria Egereva, a representative of the Selkup people and the IIPFCC Co-Chair, was arrested in Russia shortly after returning from the UN Climate Change Conference in Belém<ref>{{cite web |title=Russia: Alarming arbitrary arrest, detention and judicial harassment of Indigenous rights defender |url=https://www.fidh.org/en/issues/human-rights-defenders/russia-alarming-arbitrary-arrest-detention-and-judicial-harassment-of |publisher=International Federation for Human Rights |date=2026-02-11 |access-date=2026-02-17}}</ref> and has been held in pre-trial detention in Russia since 18 December 2025. She has been accused of extremism and terrorism<ref name="valasz">{{cite web |title=Putyin ágyútöltelékei – Dárja Jegereva és az őshonos északi népek tragédiája |author=Nagy Zoltán |website=Válasz Online |date=2 February 2026 |url=https://www.valaszonline.hu/2026/02/02/putyin-agyutoltelekei-darja-jegereva-oshonos-eszaki-nepek-oroszorszag-sziberia-kisebbsegek-haboru/ |language=hu |access-date=21 February 2026}}</ref> and faces a possible sentence of up to 20 years in prison.<ref name="ob">{{cite web |url=https://iwgia.org/en/news/5938-indigenous-peoples-open-letter-russia-putin-release-daria-egereva.html |title=Indigenous Peoples Send Open Letter to Russian President Putin to Release Daria Egereva |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs |access-date=15 February 2026 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="memorial"/> The Russian human rights organization Memorial has designated Egereva as a political prisoner.<ref name="memorial">{{cite web |url=https://memopzk.org/figurant/egereva-darya-anatolevna/ |title=Егерёва Дарья Анатольевна |website=Мемориал. Поддержка политзаключённых |publisher=Международное общество «Мемориал» |language=ru |access-date=14 February 2026}}</ref> The IIPFCC has called for her release.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=International Indigenous Peoples Forum on Climate Change |language=en |url=https://iipfcc.squarespace.com/blog/2025/12/19/international-indigenous-peoples-forum-on-climate-change-iipfcc-calls-for-the-immediate-release-of-imprisoned-co-chair-daria-egereva |date=19 December 2025 |access-date=22 February 2026 |title=International Indigenous Peoples’ Forum on Climate Change (IIPFCC) calls for the immediate release of imprisoned Co-Chair, Daria Egereva}}</ref>

==Literature== * Rubcova, E. S.: Materials on the Language and Folklore of the Eskimoes, Vol. I, Chaplino Dialect. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moskva * Leningrad, 1954 * {{cite book |last=Menovščikov |first=G. A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) |chapter=Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes |editor=Diószegi, Vilmos |title=Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1968}} * Barüske, Heinz: Eskimo Märchen. Eugen Diederichs Verlag, Düsseldorf and Köln, 1969. * Merkur, Daniel: Becoming Half Hidden / Shamanism and Initiation Among the Inuit. Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis / Stockholm Studies in Comparative Religion. Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm, 1985. * Kleivan, I. and Sonne, B.: Eskimos / Greenland and Canada. (Series: Iconography of religions, section VIII /Arctic Peoples/, fascicle 2). Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill, Leiden (The Netherland), 1985. {{ISBN|90-04-07160-1}}.

==Footnotes== {{reflist|group=note}}

==Citations== {{reflist}}

==References== * {{cite book|title=The Newly Independent States of Eurasia: Handbook of Former Soviet Republics|first=Stephen K.|last=Batalden|others=Contributor Sandra L. Batalden|edition=revised|year=1997|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WFjPAxhBEaEC|isbn=978-0897749404|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite book|title=White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian|first=Jamie|last=Bisher|date=16 January 2006|publisher=Routledge|pages=492|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6RAgAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1135765958|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite news|last=Bobrick|first=Benson|date=15 December 2002|title=How the East Was Won|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/15/books/how-the-east-was-won.html|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date= 24 May 2014}} * {{cite book|title=War and the World: Military Power and the Fate of Continents, 1450-2000|first= Jeremy|last=Black|year=2008|publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpI_YYtvlCAC|isbn=978-0300147698|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite book|title=Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience|first=Alexander|last=Etkind|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpz5q44VVk0C|isbn=978-0745673547|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite book|title=A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990|first=James|last=Forsyth|edition=illustrated, reprint, revised|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC|isbn=978-0521477710|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite book|title=Inside the Ropes: Sportswriters Get Their Game On|editor-first=Zachary Michael|editor-last=Jack|year=2008|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ezDG4aTNIeoC|isbn=978-0803219076|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite journal|last=Kang|first=Hyeok Hweon|date=2013|title=Big Heads and Buddhist Demons: The Korean Musketry Revolution and Northern Expeditions of 1654 and 1658|journal=Journal of Chinese Military History|volume=2|issue=2|pages=127–189|doi=10.1163/22127453-12341256}} * {{cite book|title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide|first= Mark|last=Levene|year=2005|publisher=I. B. Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VzYBAwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0857712899|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite book|title=Siberia: worlds Apart|series= Westview series on the post-Soviet republics|first= Victor L.|last=Mote |edition=illustrated|year=1998|publisher=Westview Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qEAjAQAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0813312989|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite conference |last1=Pesterev |first1=V. V. |date=2015 |title=Siberian frontier: the territory of fear |conference=International Conference of Historical Geographers }} * {{cite book|title=The Russian Far East: A History|first=John J.|last=Stephan|edition=illustrated, reprint|year=1996|publisher=Stanford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC|isbn=978-0804727013|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite book|title=Russia's Frozen Frontier: A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East 1581{{dash}}1991|first=Alan|last=Wood|edition=illustrated|date=15 April 2011|publisher=A&C Black|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VZZLAQAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0340971246|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite book|title=Condé Nast's Traveler, Volume 36|year=2001|publisher=Condé Nast Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVosAQAAMAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}} * {{cite book|title=Yearbook|others=Contributor International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs|year=1992|publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beJAAQAAIAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}

==External links== {{commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080517025403/http://www.raipon.org/english/ Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North] * {{cite web|url=https://lingsib.iea.ras.ru/en/|title=Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia |publisher=UNESCO}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/endangered-languages/atlas-of-languages-in-danger/|title=Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger|publisher=UNESCO}} * [http://www.suri.ee/eup/ Endangered Uralic Peoples] * [http://www.peoples.org.ru/eng_index.html Minority languages of Russia on the Net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420130207/http://www.peoples.org.ru/eng_index.html|date=20 April 2009}} * [http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/index1.shtml The Red Book of the peoples of the Russian Empire] * [http://www.survival-international.org/tribes/siberian Survival International page on the Siberian Tribes] * [http://www.indigenous.ru/index.php?newlang=english L'auravetl'an Indigenous Information Network by Indigenous Peoples of Russia] * {{in lang|ru}} [http://www.kommersant.ru/k-money-old/story.asp?m_id=32801 В погоне за малыми], an article about treatment of minorities in the Russian Empire, Kommersant-Money, 25 October 2005 * {{cite journal |last1=Sablin |first1=Ivan |last2=Savelyeva |first2=Maria |title=Mapping Indigenous Siberia: Spatial Changes and Ethnic Realities, 1900–2010 |journal=Settler Colonial Studies |date=January 2011 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=77–110 |doi=10.1080/2201473X.2011.10648802 |hdl=1959.3/357372 |hdl-access=free }}

Category:Ethnic groups in Siberia Category:Indigenous peoples of Siberia Category:Russian Far East