Nabataean Kingdom

{{Short description|Ancient Arab kingdom (3rd century BC – 106 AD)}} {{Infobox Former Country | native_name = 𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈 | conventional_long_name = Nabataean Kingdom | common_name = Nabatea | national_motto = | coordinates = {{coord|30.3286|N|35.4419|E|source:wikidata|display=title,inline}} | era = [[ancient history|Antiquity]] | government_type = Monarchy | year_start = 3rd century BC | year_end = 106 AD | event_start = | event_end = Conquered by the [[Roman Empire]] | p1 = Nabataeans | flag_p1 = | p2 = Lihyan | p3 = Qedarites | s1 = Arabia Petraea | image_coat = | image_map = Nabatean Kingdom (flat map).svg | image_map_caption = The Nabataean Kingdom at its greatest extent | capital = [[Petra]] | common_languages = * [[Nabataean Aramaic]] (official) * [[Nabataean Arabic]] (native) | religion = [[Nabataean religion]] | currency = [[Nabataean coinage|Nabataean Denarius]] | title_leader = [[List of Nabataean Kings|King]] | leader1 = [[Aretas I]], 168–144 BC | leader2 = [[Rabbel I]], 140–120 BC | leader3 = [[Aretas II]], 120–96 BC | leader4 = [[Obodas I]], 96–86 BC | leader5 = [[Aretas III]], 86–62 BC | leader6 = [[Obodas II]], 62–59 BC | leader7 = [[Malichus I]], 59–30 BC | leader8 = [[Obodas III]], 30–9 BC | leader9 = [[Aretas IV]], 9 BC– 40 AD | leader10 = [[Malichus II]], 40–70 AD | leader11 = [[Rabbel II]], 70–106 AD | demonym = [[Nabataeans|Nabataean]] }} {{Historical Arab states and dynasties}} The '''Nabataean Kingdom''' ({{langx|sem-x-nabat|{{script|Nbat|𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈}}|translit=Nabāṭū}}), also named '''Nabatea''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|n|æ|b|ə|ˈ|t|iː|ə}}) was a political state of the [[Nabataeans|Nabataean Arabs]] during [[classical antiquity]]. The Nabataean Kingdom stretched south along the [[Tihamah]] into the [[Hejaz]], up as far north as [[Damascus]], which it controlled for a short period (85–71 BC). Nabatea controlled many of the trade routes in the region and remained an independent political entity from the mid-3rd century BC until it was annexed in AD 106 by the [[Roman Empire]], which renamed it to [[Arabia Petraea]].

==History== ===Nabataeans=== The [[Nabataeans]] were among several Arab tribes that originally led a [[Bedouin|nomadic]] existence in the [[Arabian Desert]], migrating with their herds along established routes in search of pasture and water. Their survival depended on intimate knowledge of seasonal resources, especially in years of drought or insufficient rainfall.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=14}}

The origin of the specific tribe of Arab nomads remains uncertain. One hypothesis locates their original homeland in today's [[Yemen]], in the southwest of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], but their deities, language and script share nothing with those of southern Arabia.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=14}} Another hypothesis argues that they came from the eastern coast of the peninsula.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=14}} It has also been suggested that they came from the Hejaz area, which is considered to be more convincing, as they share many deities with the ancient people there; ''nbṭw'', the root consonant of the tribe's name, is found in the early [[Semitic languages]] of Hejaz.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=14}} Linguistic similarities between the late [[Nabataean Arabic]] dialect and those attested in Mesopotamia during the [[Neo-Assyrian]] period, along with [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] records listing a group called "Nabatu" among rebellious Arab tribes in the region, indicate another possible connection. This evidence suggests that the Nabataeans may have originated in Mesopotamia and migrated westward between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, eventually settling in northwestern Arabia and much of present-day Jordan.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=14}}

Nabataeans have been falsely associated with other groups of people. A people called the "Nabaiti", who were defeated by the [[Assyria]]n King [[Ashurbanipal]], were associated by some with the Nabataeans because of the temptation to link their similar names. Another misconception is their identification with the [[Nebaioth]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]], the descendants of [[Ishmael]], [[Abraham]]'s son.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=14}}

===Emergence=== {{see also|Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations}} [[File:NABATAEAN TRADE ROUTES.png|thumb|left|Trading routes of the ancient [[Middle East]], when [[Petra]] was the last stop for caravans carrying spices before being shipped to European markets through the [[Port of Gaza]]|241x241px]] The literate Nabataeans left no lengthy historical texts. However, thousands of inscriptions have been found in their settlements, including graffiti and on minted coins.<ref name="lost kingdom">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FcAoBq4_EnEC|title=Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans |first= Taylor|last=Jane|pages=14, 17, 30, 31|year=2001|publisher=[[I.B.Tauris]]|location=London, United Kingdom|isbn=9781860645082 |access-date=8 July 2016}}</ref> The Nabataeans appear in historical records from the 4th century BC.{{sfn|Wenning|2007|p=26}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Felix |first1=Jacoby |title=Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker - Zweiter Teil |date=1957 |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden |page=829 |url=https://archive.org/details/fgrhist-die-fragmente-der-griechischen-historiker-vols-1-8/FGHist%20Part%202b%20nos%20106-261%20%28Special%20histories%2C%20autobiography%29/page/828/mode/2up}}</ref> Up to that time, the [[Qedarites]] dominated the area and likely controlled the lucrative [[frankincense]] trade.{{sfn|Wenning|2007|p=26}} Aramaic [[Ostracon|ostraca]] finds indicate that the [[Achaemenid]] province [[Idumaea]] must have been established before 363 BC, after the failed revolt of [[Hakor]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Evagoras I]] of [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]] against the [[History of Iran|Persians]]. The establishment of the province meant a significant loss of territory for the Qedarites who had joined the failed revolt and consequently also lost their privileged position in the frankincense trade, where they were presumably replaced by the Nabataeans.{{sfn|Wenning|2007|p=26}} It has been argued that either the Nabateans lived mainly outside Idumea and functioned as middlemen to the Persian incense trade, or that the Persians lost interest in Idumea after 400 BC, allowing the Nabataeans to gain prominence in that area.{{sfn|Wenning|2007|p=26}} These changes would have allowed the Nabataeans to control the frankincense trade from [[Lihyan]] to [[Gaza City|Gaza]].{{sfn|Wenning|2007|p=26}} {{multiple image|perrow=3|total_width=350|image1=Facade Siq al-Barid Jordan1501.jpg|image2=Petra Jordan BW 37.JPG|image3=Petra Renaissance Tomb 1885.jpg|image4=Petra Palace Tomb 2041.jpg|image5=Petra Al Khazneh 1975.jpg|image6=Details of Al Khazneh.jpg|image7=Petra Great Temple 2380.jpg|image8=Little Petra - Flickr - GregTheBusker (2).jpg|image9=Qasr al-Bint, Hegra (Madain Salih), Saudi Arabia, 1st cent. CE (2).jpg|footer=A number of Nabataean monuments in Saudi Arabia and Jordan}}

The first historical reference to the Nabataeans of significant length is by Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]] who lived around 30 BC. Diodorus refers accounts made 300 years earlier by [[Hieronymus of Cardia]], one of [[Alexander the Great]]'s generals, who had a first-hand encounter with the Nabataeans. Diodorus relates how the Nabataeans survived in a waterless desert and managed to defeat their enemies by hiding in the desert until the latter surrendered for lack of water. The Nabataeans dug cisterns that were covered and marked by signs known only to themselves.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=17}} Diodorus wrote about how they were "exceptionally fond of freedom" and includes an account about unsuccessful raids that were initiated by Greek general [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus I]] in 312 BC.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=14}}

{{blockquote|neither the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] of old, nor the kings of the [[Medes]] and Persians, nor yet those of the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonians]] have been able to enslave them, and... they never brought their attempts to a successful conclusion. - ''Diodorus''.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=14}}}} [[File:The_Monastery,_Petra,_Jordan8.jpg|thumb|[[Ed-Deir, Petra|Ed-Deir]] monastery, located at the ancient capital city of [[Petra]], Jordan]] [[File:Qasr_al_Farid.JPG|thumb|A [[Nabataeans|Nabataean]] tomb, [[Qasr al-Farid]], part of [[Mada'in Saleh]] archaeological site, located at [[al-Ula]], [[Hejaz]], Saudi Arabia]] After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals. During [[Wars of the Diadochi|the conflict]] between Alexander's generals, Antigonus conquered the [[Levant]], and this brought him to the borders of [[Edom]], just north of [[Petra]].{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=30}} According to Diodorus, Antigonus sought to add "''the land of the Arabs who are called Nabataeans''" to his existing territories of [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and [[Phoenicia]].{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=13}} The Nabataeans were distinguished from the other Arab tribes by wealth.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|McKnight|1990|p=598}} The Nabataeans generated revenues from the trade caravans that transported frankincense, [[myrrh]] and other spices from [[Eudaemon]] in today's Yemen, across the Arabian Peninsula, passing through Petra and ending up in the [[Port of Gaza]] for shipment to European markets.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=8}}

Antigonus ordered one of his officers, Athenaeus, to raid the Nabataeans with 4,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, and loot their herds. Athenaeus learned that every year the Nabataeans gathered for a festival during which women, children, and elders were left at "a certain rock"<ref name="Loeb">[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/19E*.html Diodorus Siculus, Book XIX, 95-100], Loeb Classical Library edition, 1954, accessed 27 December 2019</ref> (later interpreted by some as the future city of Petra, by others as [[Sela (Edom)|Es-Sela]]{{sfn|Wenning|2007|p=28}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Meeus |first1=Alexander |title=The History of the Diadochoi in Book XIX of Diodorus' Bibliotheke |date=2022 |publisher=De Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=9783110741957 |page=531}}</ref>) Athenaeus attacked "the rock" in 312 BC while the Nabataeans were away trading; the inhabitants were taken by surprise, and tonnes of spices and silver were looted. Athenaeus departed before nightfall and made camp to rest 200 [[Stadion (unit)|stadia]] away, where they thought they would be safe from Nabataean counter-attack. The camp was attacked by 8,000 pursuing Nabataean soldiers and—as Diodorus describes it—"all the 4,000 foot-soldiers were slain, but of the 600 horsemen about 50 escaped, and of these the larger part were wounded";<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=31}} Athenaeus was killed.<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|Groot|1879|p=7}} The army had deployed no scouts, a failure that Diodorus ascribes to Athenaeus's failure to anticipate the rapidity of the Nabataean response. After the Nabataeans returned to their rock, they wrote a letter to Antigonus accusing Athenaeus and declaring that they had destroyed his army in self-defence.<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=31}} Antigonus replied by blaming Athenaeus for acting unilaterally, intending to lull the Nabataeans into a false sense of security.<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=14}} But the Nabataeans, though pleased with Antigonus' response, remained suspicious and established outposts on the edge of the mountains in preparation for future attacks.<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|Healey|2001|p=28}}{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=14}}

[[File:Demetrius_I_of_Macedon.jpg|thumb|200px|Marble bust of [[Demetrius I Poliorcetes]]. Roman copy from 1st century AD of a Greek original from 3rd century BC.]] Antigonus' second attack was with an army of 4,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry led by Antigonus' son [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius]] "the Besieger".<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|McLaughlin|2014|p=51}} The Nabataean scouts spotted the marching enemy and used [[smoke signal]]s to warn of the approaching army.<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|McLaughlin|2014|p=52}} The Nabataeans dispersed their herds and possessions to guarded locations in harsh terrain—such as deserts and mountain tops—which would be difficult for the Demetrius to attack, and garrisoned "the rock" to defend what remained.<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|McLaughlin|2014|p=52}} Demetrius attacked "the rock" through its "single artificial approach", but the Nabataeans managed to repulse the invading force.<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|McLaughlin|2014|p=52}} A Nabataean called out to Demetrius pointing out that his aggression made no sense, for the land was semi-barren and the Nabataeans had no desire to be their slaves.<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=14}}{{#tag:ref|"King Demetrios, with what desire or under what compulsion do you war against us who live in the desert and in a land that has neither water nor grain nor wine nor any other thing whatever of those that pertain to the necessities of life among you? (4) For we, since we are in no way willing to be slaves, have all taken refuge in a land that lacks all the things that are valued among other peoples and have chosen to live a life in the desert and one altogether like that of wild beasts, harming you not at all. We therefore beg both you and your father to do us no injury but, after receiving gifts from us, to withdraw your army and from now on regard the Nabateans as your friends.(5) For neither can you, if you wish, remain here many days since you lack water and all the other necessary supplies, nor can you force us to live a different life; but you will have a few captives, disheartened slaves who would not consent to live among strange ways." Oldfather's English translation of [[Diodorus Siculus]]' account}} Realizing his limited supplies and the determination of the Nabataean fighters, Demetrius accepted peace and withdrew with hostages and gifts.<ref name="Loeb"/>{{sfn|McLaughlin|2014|p=52}}{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=14}} Demetrius drew Antigonus' displeasure for the peace, but this was ameliorated by Demetrius' reports of [[bitumen]] deposits in the [[Dead Sea]],<ref name="Loeb"/> a valuable commodity.{{sfn|McLaughlin|2014|p=52}}{{sfn|Hammond|1973|p=68}}

Antigonus sent an expedition, this time under [[Hieronymus of Cardia]], to extract bitumen from the Dead Sea.<ref name="Loeb"/> A force of 6,000 Arabs sailing on reed rafts approached Hieronymus's troops and killed them with arrows.<ref name="Loeb"/> These Arabs were almost certainly Nabataeans.{{sfn|Hammond|1973|p=68}} Antigonus thus lost all hope of generating revenue in that manner.<ref name="Loeb"/> The event is described as the first conflict caused by a Middle Eastern petroleum product.{{sfn|Waterfield|2012|p=123}} The series of wars among the Greek generals ended in a dispute over the lands of modern-day Jordan between the [[Ptolemaic kingdom|Ptolemies]] based in Egypt and the [[Seleucids]] based in Syria. The conflict enabled the Nabataeans to extend their kingdom beyond Edom.{{sfn|Salibi|1998|p=10}}

Diodorus mentions that the Nabataeans had attacked merchant ships belonging to the Ptolemies in Egypt at an unspecified date, but were soon targeted by a larger force and "punished as they deserved".{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=38}} While it is unknown why the wealthy Nabataeans turned to piracy, one possible reason is that they felt that their trade interests were threatened by the gradual understanding of the nature of [[monsoon]] in the Red Sea from the 3rd century BC onward{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=38}} (see ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'').

The Nabataean Arabs did not emerge as a political power suddenly; their rise instead went through two phases.{{sfn|Al-Abduljabbar|1995|p=8}} The first phase was in the 4th century BC (ruled then by an elders' council),{{sfn|Al-Abduljabbar|1995|p=136}} which was marked by the growth of Nabataean control over trade routes and various tribes and towns. Their presence in [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]] by the end of the 4th century BC is guaranteed by Antigonus' operations in the region, and despite recent suggestions that there is no evidence of Nabataean occupation of the [[Hauran]] in the early period, the Zenon papyri firmly attest the penetration of the Hauran by the Nabataeans in the mid-3rd century BC, and according to Bowersock it "establish[es] these Arabs in one of the principal areas of subsequent splendor".{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|pages=17-18}} Simultaneously, the Nabataeans had probably moved across the 'Araba to the west into the desert tracts of the [[Negev]].{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=18}} In their early history, before establishing urban centers the Nabataeans demonstrated on several occasions their impressive and well organized military prowess by successfully defending their territory against larger powers.{{sfn|Bowes|1998|p=4}}

The second phase saw the creation of the Nabataean political state in the mid-3rd century BC.{{sfn|Al-Abduljabbar|1995|p=8}} Kingship is regarded as a characteristic of a state and urban society.{{sfn|Bowes|1998|p=106}} The Nabataean institution of kingship came about as a result of multiple factors, such as the indispensabilities of trade organization and war;{{sfn|Pearson|2011|p=10}} the subsequent outcomes of the Greek expeditions on the Nabataeans played a role in the political centralization of the [[Nabatu]] tribe. The earliest evidence of Nabataean kingship comes from a Nabataean inscription in the Hauran region, probably Bosra,{{sfn|Milik|2003|p=275}} which mentions a Nabataean king whose name was lost, dated by Stracky to the early 3rd century BC.{{sfn|Al-Abduljabbar|1995|p=147}} The dating is significant, since the available evidence does not attest the existence of Nabataean monarchy until the 2nd century BC.{{sfn|Al-Abduljabbar|1995|p=147}} This nameless Nabataean king perhaps could be linked with a reference from the Zenon archive (the second historical mention of the Nabataeans){{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=38}}{{#tag:ref|The Zenon archive mentions Dionysius, one of two Greek employees who sought an alternative career of selling women as sex slaves, he was once detained by the Nabataeans for a week during one of his expeditions.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=38}} Considering what is known of the Nabataean society's remarkable gender equality at later time, it is likely that they were objecting to the treatment of women in their area, for whom they believed they were responsible in the course of maintaining law and order.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=38}}|group=note}} to deliveries of grain to "Rabbel's men", Rabbel being a characteristically royal Nabataean name,{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=17}} it is thus possible to link Rabbel of the Zenon archive with the nameless king of Bosra's inscription, though it is highly speculative.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=40}}

A recent papyrological discovery, the [[Milan Papyrus]] published in 2001, provides further evidence. The relevant part of the Lithika section of the papyrus describes an Arabian cavalry of a certain Nabataean king,{{sfn|Levy|Daviau|Younker|2016|p=335}} providing an early 3rd century BC reference to a Nabataean monarch.{{sfn|Pearson|2011|p=10}} The word Nabataean stands alone beside a missing word that start with the letter M; one of the suggested words for filling the gap is the traditional name of Nabataean kings, Malichus.{{sfn|Barkay|2015|p=433}} Furthermore, the anonymous Nabataean coins dated by Barkay to the second half of the 3rd century BC, found mainly in Nabataean territory, support such an early date of the Nabataean Kingdom. This is in line with [[Strabo]]'s account (whose description of Arabia derives ultimately from reports by 3rd century BC Ptolemaic officials) that the Nabataean kingship was old and traditional.{{sfn|Barkay|2011|p=69}} Rachel Barkay concludes "the Nabataean economy and political regime were in existence by the 3rd century BC".{{sfn|Barkay|2015|p=433}} The kingship of the Nabataeans was, in the view of Strabo, an effective one, where the Nabataean kingdom was "very well governed" and the king was "a man of the people".{{sfn|Sullivan|1990|p=72}} For more than four centuries the Nabataean kingdom dominated, politically and commercially, a large territory and was arguably the first Arab kingdom in the area.{{sfn|Al-Abduljabbar|1995|p=1}}

The testimony of the 4th and 3rd century external accounts and local materialistic evidence demonstrate that the Nabataeans played a relatively substantial political and economic role in the sphere of the early [[Hellenistic]] world.{{sfn|Pearson|2011|p=10}} While the Nabataeans did not attain observable characteristics of a Hellenistic state (i.e. monumental architecture) in their early period, similar to contemporary Seleucid Syria, the Milan papyrus speaks of their wealth and prestige in this period. In that respect, the Nabataeans must be considered a unique entity.{{sfn|Pearson|2011|p=10}}

[[Aretas I]], mentioned in the [[2 Maccabees|Second Book of Maccabees]] as "the tyrant of the Arabs" (169-168 BC), is regarded as the first explicitly named king of the Nabataeans. In 2 Maccabees, the [[Jason (High Priest)|high-priest Jason]], driven by his rival Menelaus, seeks the protection of Aretas.{{sfn|Starcky|1955|p=84}} Upon his arrival at the land of the Nabataeans, Aretas imprisons Jason.{{sfn|Kasher|1988|p=24}} It is not clear why or when that happened; his arrest by Aretas was either after he escaped Jerusalem where Aretas, fearing the retaliation of [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] for "openly demonstrating pro-Ptolemaic stand" (in Hammond's view however, Aretas hoped to use Jason as a political bargaining counter with the Seleucids), arrested Jason.{{sfn|Kasher|1988|p=24}} Or his imprisonment might have happened at a later date (167 BC) as a result of the established friendship between the Nabataeans and [[Judas Maccabaeus]], aimed to hand Jason to the Jews. "Either suggestion is feasible and so the riddle remains unresolved", according to Kasher.{{sfn|Kasher|1988|p=24}}

A Nabataean inscription in the Negev mentions a Nabataean king called Aretas; the date given by Starcky is not later than 150 BC.{{sfn|Kropp|2013|p=41}} However, the dating is difficult. It has been claimed that the inscription dates to the 3rd century BC, based on the pre-Nabataean writing style,{{sfn|Sartre|2005|p=17}} or somewhere in the 2nd century BC.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=219}} Generally, the inscription is attributed to Aretas I or perhaps to [[Aretas II]].{{sfn|Pearson|2011|p=13}}

Around the same time, the Arab Nabataeans and the neighboring Jewish [[Maccabees]] had maintained a friendly relationship; the former had sympathized with the Maccabees who were being mistreated by the Seleucids.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=40}} [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Romano-Jewish]] historian [[Josephus]] reports that Judas Maccabeus and his brother Jonathan marched three days into the wilderness before encountering the Nabataeans in the Hauran, where they were settled in for at least a century.{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=19}} The Nabataeans treated them peacefully and told them of what happened to the Jews residing in the land of [[Gilead|Galaad]]. This peaceful meeting between the Nabataeans and two brothers in the [[1 Maccabees|First Book of Maccabees]] seems to contradict a parallel account from the second book where a pastoral Arab tribe launches a surprise attack on the two brothers.{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=19}} Despite open contradiction between the two accounts, scholars tend to identify the plundering Arab tribe of the second book with the Nabataeans in the first book.{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=19}}

They were evidently not Nabataeans, for good relations between the Maccabees and their "friends", the Nabataeans, continued to exist.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=40}} The friendly relations between them is further emphasized by Jonathan's decision to send his brother [[John Gaddi|John]] to "lodge his baggage" with the Nabataeans until the battle with the Seleucids is over.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=40}} Again, the Maccabean caravan suffers an attack by a murderer Arab tribe in the vicinity of [[Madaba]].{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=20}} This tribe was clearly not Nabataean, for they are identified as the sons of Amrai.{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=20}} In Bowersock's view, the interpretation of the evidence in the Books of Maccabees "illustrates the danger of assuming that any reference to Arabs in areas known to have been settled by the Nabataeans must automatically refer to them".{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=20}} But the picture is different, many Arab tribes in the region continued to be nomadic and moved in and out of the emerging Nabataean kingdom, and the Nabataeans, as well as invading armies and eventually the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] also, had to cope with these people.{{sfn|Bowersock|1994|p=20}}

The Nabataeans began to mint coins during the 2nd century BC, revealing the extensive economic and political independence they enjoyed.<ref name="lost kingdom"/> Petra was included in a list of major cities in the Mediterranean area to be visited by a notable from [[Priene]], a sign of the significance of Nabataea in the ancient world. Petra was counted with [[Alexandria]], which was considered to be a supreme city in the civilized world.<ref name="lost kingdom" />

===Relationship with Hasmoneans=== [[File:Avdat 260914 04.jpg|thumb|Remains of Byzantine church at [[Avdat]] in the [[Negev]], which reused elements of a temple built by the Nabataeans to commemorate king [[Obodas I]] and his victories against the Hasmoneans and the Seleucids|279x279px]] [[File:Aretas III.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|Aretas III on a Roman coin, depicted in a pose of submission]]

The Nabataeans were allies of the Maccabees during their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of their successors, the Judaean [[Hasmonean dynasty]], and a chief element in the disorders which invited [[Pompey]]'s [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|intervention in Judea]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Paul|title=A History of the Jews|year=1987|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-79091-4}}</ref> [[Gaza City]] was the last stop for spices that were carried by [[camel train |trade caravans]] before shipment to European markets, giving the Nabataeans considerable influence over the Gazans.<ref name="lost kingdom" /> Hasmonean King [[Alexander Jannaeus]] besieged and occupied Gaza in 96 BC, murdering many of its inhabitants.<ref name="lost kingdom" /> Jannaeus then captured several territories in Transjordan north of Nabataea, along the road to [[Damascus]], including northern [[Moab]] and [[Gilead]]. These territorial acquisitions threatened Nabataean trade interests in Gaza and in Damascus.<ref>{{cite book|last=Josephus|first=Flavius|author-link=Josephus|title=The Jewish War |year=1981 |publisher=Penguin |location=Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England|page=40|volume= 1|isbn=978-0-14-044420-9|others=Trans. G. A. Williamson 1959|issue=87 }}</ref> Nabataean King [[Obodas I]] regained control of these areas after his forces defeated Jannaeus in the [[Battle of Gadara]] around 93 BC.<ref name="lost kingdom" />

After the Nabataean victory over the Judaeans, the Nabataeans were at odds with the Seleucids, who were concerned about the increasing influence of the Nabataeans to the south of their territories.<ref name="evfn">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hblTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire|access-date=10 July 2016|publisher=[[Routledge]]|page=65|date=10 June 2016|first=Warwick|last=Ball|isbn=9781317296355}}</ref> During the [[Battle of Cana]] in 84 BC, the Seleucid king [[Antiochus XII]] waged war against the Nabataeans. Antiochus was slain during combat, and his army fled and perished in the desert from starvation. After Obodas's victories over the Judaeans and the Seleucids, he was [[Apotheosis|worshipped as a god]] by his people. He was buried in the [[Avdat#Temple_of_Oboda|Temple of Oboda]] in [[Avdat]], where inscriptions have been found referring to "Obodas the god".<ref name="lost kingdom" />

The kingdom seems to have reached its territorial zenith during the reign of [[Aretas III]] (87 to 62 BC). In 62 BC, a Roman army under the command of [[Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Scaurus]] besieged Petra. The defeated Aretas paid tribute to Scaurus and recognized [[Roman Republic|Roman]] supremacy over Nabataea.<ref name="Taylor">Taylor, Jane; Petra; p.25-31; Aurum Press Ltd; London; 2005; {{ISBN|9957-451-04-9}}</ref> The Nabataean Kingdom was slowly surrounded by the expanding [[Roman Empire]], which conquered Egypt and annexed Hasmonean [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]]. While the Nabataean kingdom managed to preserve its formal independence, it became a [[Vassal state|client kingdom]] under the influence of Rome.<ref name="Taylor" />

===Roman annexation=== [[File:Arabia Petraea.svg|thumb|189x189px|A map of the [[Roman Empire]], at its greatest extent, showing the territory of Trajan's Nabataean conquests in red]] {{main|Arabia Petraea}}

In 106 AD, during the reign of Roman emperor [[Trajan]], the last king of the Nabataean kingdom [[Rabbel II Soter]] died,<ref name=Taylor/> which may have prompted the official annexation of Nabatea to the Roman Empire.<ref name=Taylor/> The event is attested in three contemporary sources: two papyri from 107 AD, as well as a [[Pre-Islamic Arabian inscriptions|Safaitic inscription]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |last2=Macdonald |first2=Michael C. A. |date=2024 |title=The Roman annexation of the Nabataean kingdom: a Safaitic witness |url=https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.SEC.5.144599 |journal=Semitica et Classica |volume=17 |pages=303–312 |doi=10.1484/J.SEC.5.144599 |issn=2031-5937|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military campaign, commanded by [[Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus|Cornelius Palma]], the governor of [[Roman Syria|Syria]]. Roman forces seem to have come from Syria and also from [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]]. It is clear that by 107 Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bosra, as is shown by a papyrus found in Egypt.

The kingdom was annexed by the empire to become the province of [[Arabia Petraea]]. Trade seems to have largely continued thanks to the Nabataeans' undiminished talent for trading.<ref name="Taylor" /> Under [[Hadrian]], the ''[[limes Arabicus]]'' ignored most of the Nabatæan territory and ran northeast from Aila (modern [[Aqaba]]) at the head of the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]. A century later, during the reign of [[Alexander Severus]], the local issue of coinage came to an end. There was no more building of sumptuous tombs, apparently because of a sudden change in political ways, such as an invasion by the neo-[[Iran|Persia]]n power under the [[Sassanid Empire]]. The city of [[Palmyra]], for a time the capital of the breakaway [[Palmyrene Empire]], grew in importance and attracted the Arabian trade away from Petra.<ref name=teller>

Teller, Matthew; Jordan; p.265; Rough Guides; Sept 2009; {{ISBN|978-1-84836-066-2}}</ref><ref name="googlebooks">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sew9Lby_MVsC&pg=PA385 | title='Al Kanfei Yonah | isbn=9004121706 | access-date=27 August 2014| last1=Greenfield | first1=Jonas Carl | year=2001 | publisher=BRILL }}</ref>

==Geography== The Nabataean Kingdom lay across the southernmost reaches of the Levant, the northwestern Arabian Peninsula, and Sinai, encompassing parts of what are now Jordan, Israel, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. To its north lay [[Hasmonean Judea]] (later the Roman province of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]]), while to the west was [[History of Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic Egypt]]. Its capital was Raqmu (Petra). Nabataean towns included [[Bosra]] in the [[Hauran]];{{Sfn|Millar|1995|pp=388–389}} Hegra ([[Mada'in Saleh]]) in the Hejaz;{{Sfn|Millar|1995|pp=388–389}} [[Leuke Kome]] on the Red Sea,{{Sfn|Millar|1995|pp=388–389}} and, in the Negev along the Judaean frontier, [[Nitzana (Nabataean city)|Nitzana]] (Nessana), [[Elusa (Haluza)|Elusa]], Mamshit ([[Mampsis]]), and [[Avdat]] (Oboda).{{Sfn|Millar|1995|pp=388–389}}

Raqmu was a wealthy trading town, located at a convergence of several important [[trade route]]s. One of them was the [[Incense Route]] which was based around the production of both myrrh and frankincense in southern Arabia,<ref name=teller/> and ran through Mada'in Saleh to Petra. From there, aromatics were distributed throughout the Mediterranean region.

==See also== * [[List of Nabataean kings]] * [[Nabataean language (disambiguation)|Nabataean language]]

==References== ===Notes=== {{reflist|group=note}} ===Citations=== {{Reflist|25em}} ===Sources=== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite thesis|type=PhD |first=Abdullah |last=Al-Abduljabbar |date=1995 |title=The rise of the Nabataeans: sociopolitical developments in 4th and 3rd century BC Nabataea |publisher=Indiana University}} * {{cite journal|first=Rachel |last=Barkay|title=NEW ASPECTS OF NABATAEAN COINS|journal=ARAM|volume=27|year=2015|pages=431–439}} * {{cite journal|first=Rachel |last=Barkay|title=The Earliest Nabataean Coinage|journal=The Numismatic Chronicle|volume=171|year=2011|pages=67–73|jstor=42667225}} * {{cite book|first=Glen |last=Bowersock|title=Roman Arabia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L4NBigJ3NF4C|year=1994|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-77756-9}} * {{cite book|first=Alan R. |last=Bowes|title=The Process of Nabataean Sedentarization: New Models and Approaches|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yGI8OAAACAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Department of Anthropology, University of Utah}} * {{cite book|first=N. G. De |last=Groot|title=The History of the Israelites and Judæans: Philosophical and Critical|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E7o9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7|year=1879|publisher=Trübner & Company}} * {{cite journal|last1=Hammond|first1=Philip C.|title=The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea|journal=The Biblical Archaeologist|volume=22|issue=2|year=1959|pages=40–48|issn=0006-0895|doi=10.2307/3209307|jstor=3209307|s2cid=133997328}} * {{cite book|first=Philip C. |last=Hammond|author-link=Philip C. Hammond|title=The Nabataeans -- their history, culture and archaeology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HVxGAQAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=P. Åström (S. vägen 61)|isbn=978-91-85058-57-0}} * {{cite book|first=John F. |last=Healey|title=The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=coso-V3gCEAC&pg=PA28|year=2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-10754-1}} * {{cite book|first=Aryeh |last=Kasher|title=Jews, Idumaeans, and Ancient Arabs: Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Nations of the Frontier and the Desert During the Hellenistic and Roman Era (332 BCE-70 CE)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gw5BswLtBsAC&pg=PA24|year=1988|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-145240-6}} * {{cite book|first=Andreas J. M. |last=Kropp |title=Images and Monuments of Near Eastern Dynasts, 100 BC - AD 100|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsoipziOWpYC&pg=PA41|date=27 June 2013|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-967072-7}} * {{cite book|first1=Thomas Evan |last1=Levy |first2=P.M. Michele |last2=Daviau |first3=Randall W. |last3=Younker|title=Crossing Jordan: North American Contributions to the Archaeology of Jordan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-RmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA335|date=16 June 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-47856-2}} * {{cite book|first=Raoul |last=McLaughlin|title=The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WmZtBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA51|date=11 September 2014|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-78346-381-7}} * {{citation|first=J.T. |last=Milik |chapter=Appendice, inscription nabatéenne archaïque. Une bilingue arameo-grecque de 105/104 avant J.-C. |editor1=J. Dentzer-Feydy |editor2=J.-M. Dentzer |editor3=P.-M. Blanc |title=Hauran II: Les Installations de Sī 8 du Sanctuaire à l'Etablissement Viticole I |location=[[Beirut]] |year=2003 |language=fr}} * {{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Fergus |author-link=Fergus Millar |title=The Roman Near East: 31 BC–AD 337 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-674-77886-3}} * {{cite book|first1=Watson E. |last1=Mills|first2=Roger Aubrey |last2=Bullard |first3=Edgar V. |last3=McKnight|title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA598|year=1990|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=978-0-86554-373-7}} * {{cite thesis|type=PhD |first=Jeffrey Eli |last=Pearson |date=2011 |title=Contextualizing the Nabataeans: A Critical Reassessment of Their History and Material Culture |publisher=University of California, Berkeley}} * {{cite book|first=Kamal S. |last=Salibi|title=The Modern History of Jordan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7zdi2sCuIh8C&pg=PA10|date=15 December 1998|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-331-6}} * {{cite book|first=Maurice |last=Sartre|title=The Middle East Under Rome|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9y7nTpFcN3AC&pg=PA17|year=2005|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01683-5}} * {{cite journal|first=Jean |last=Starcky|title=The Nabataeans: A Historical Sketch|journal=The Biblical Archaeologist|volume=18|issue=4|year=1955|pages=84–106|issn=0006-0895|doi=10.2307/3209134|jstor=3209134|s2cid=134256604}} * {{cite book|first=Richard |last=Sullivan|title=Near Eastern royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E70wAAAAIAAJ|year=1990|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-2682-8}} * {{cite book|first=Jane |last=Taylor|title=Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FcAoBq4_EnEC&pg=PA14|year=2001|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-508-2}} *{{cite book|first=Robin |last=Waterfield|title=Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great's Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2McVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123|date=11 October 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-993152-1}} * {{cite book|first=Robert |last=Wenning|chapter= The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106).|editor=Konstantinos D. Politis|title=The World of the Nabataeans|volume= 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9oMAQAAMAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|isbn=978-3-515-08816-9}} {{refend}}

==Further reading== *Benjamin, Jesse. "Of Nubians and Nabateans: Implications of research on neglected dimensions of ancient world history." ''Journal of Asian and African Studies'' 36, no. 4 (2001): 361–82. *Fittschen, Klaus, and G Foerster. ''Judaea and the Greco-Roman World In the Time of Herod In the Light of Archaeological Evidence: Acts of a Symposium''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996. *Kropp, Andreas J. M. "Nabatean Petra: the royal palace and the Herod connection." ''Boreas'' 32 (2009): 43–59. *Negev, Avraham. ''Nabatean Archaeology Today''. New York: [[New York University Press]], 1986. *del Rio Sánchez, Francisco, and Juan Pedro Monferrer Sala. ''Nabatu: The Nabataeans through their Inscriptions''. Barcelona: University of Barcelona, 2005.

==External links== {{Commons category|Nabataean Kingdom}} {{Library resources box|by=no|others=yes|about=yes|label=Nabatean Kingdom}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305124833/http://www.rejsebasar.dk/foto/foto/kingshighway.jpg A map of the ''{{sc|Via Nova Traiana}}''] showing the outposts that made up Hadrian's ''limes''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nabataean Kingdom}} [[Category:168 BC]] [[Category:160s BC establishments]] [[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd century BC]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century]] [[Category:Nabataea]] [[Category:Roman client kingdoms]] [[Category:100s disestablishments]] [[Category:Political entities in the Land of Israel]] [[Category:Gilead]] [[Category:Former kingdoms]]