Kennedy Space Center

{{Short description|NASA launch facility in Florida}} {{About|the NASA launch center in Florida|the site of other launch centers once known as "Cape Kennedy" |Cape Canaveral Space Force Station}} {{Use American English|date=January 2014}} {{Use mdy dates|date=April 2026}} {{Infobox government agency | agency_name = John F. Kennedy Space Center | logo = frameless|upright=0.4 frameless|upright=0.4 | picture = {{multiple image |border = infobox |total_width = 250 |perrow = 1 |image1 = VAB and SLS.jpg |image2 = KSC new HQ building.jpg |footer = Top: Vehicle Assembly Building<br>Bottom: Headquarters Building }} | formed = {{start date and age|1962|07|01}} | parent_agency = NASA | jurisdiction = Federal government of the United States | headquarters = Merritt Island, Florida, United States | coordinates = {{coord|28|31|29|N|80|38|55|W|region:US-FL_type:landmark|display=inline}} | employees = 17,701 civil servants and contractors (2025)<ref name="KSC-FY23-report">{{cite web |title=2023 Kennedy Space Center Annual Report |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/arfy23-508.pdf |publisher=NASA |access-date=January 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102113349/https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/arfy23-508.pdf |archive-date=January 2, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page=12}}{{update after|2027}} | chief1_name = Brian Hughes | chief1_position = director | chief2_name = | chief2_position = | budget = {{USD|2.646}} billion (2025)<ref name="KSC-FY25-report">{{cite web |title=2023 Kennedy Space Center Annual Report |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/ar-fy2025-508.pdf?emrc=0bdbc6 |publisher=NASA |access-date=January 2, 2024}}</ref>{{rp|page=13}}{{update after|2027}} | child1_agency = | child2_agency = | child3_agency = | website = {{URL|nasa.gov/kennedy}} | map = Merritt Island.jpg | map_caption = KSC shown in white; Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in green | footnotes =<ref>{{cite web |title=Kennedy Business Report |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/pdf/534076main_annrpt10.pdf |work=Annual Report FY2010 |publisher=NASA |access-date=August 22, 2011 |date=February 2011}}</ref> }} {{United States space program sidebar}}

The '''John F. Kennedy Space Center''' ('''KSC''', originally known as the NASA '''Launch Operations Center'''), located on Merritt Island, Florida, is one of the ten field centers of NASA. Since 1968, KSC has been NASA's primary launch center of American spaceflight, research, and technology. Launch operations for the Apollo, Skylab and Space Shuttle programs were carried out from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 and managed by KSC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kennedy Space Center Implementing NASA's Strategies |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/codez/plans/KSCImp00.pdf |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |year=2000 |archive-date=November 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113184022/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/codez/plans/KSCImp00.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> Located on the east coast of Florida, KSC is adjacent to Cape Canaveral Space Force Station (CCSFS). The management of the two entities work very closely together, share resources, and operate facilities on each other's property.

Though the first Apollo flights and all Project Mercury and Project Gemini flights took off from the then-Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, the launches were managed by KSC and its previous organization, the Launch Operations Directorate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Appendix 10 – Government Organizations Supporting Project Mercury |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4001/app10.htm |website=NASA History Program Office |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 6, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2. Project Support from the NASA Centers |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-45/ch2.htm |website=Mercury Project Summary (NASA SP-45) |date=October 1963 |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 6, 2015}}</ref> Starting with the fourth Gemini mission, the NASA launch control center in Florida (Mercury Control Center, later the Launch Control Center) began handing off control of the vehicle to the Mission Control Center in Houston, shortly after liftoff; in prior missions it held control throughout the entire mission.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mercury Mission Control |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/history/MCCgallery/ |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 6, 2015 |archive-date=March 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307170437/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/history/MCCgallery/ |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Lipartito">{{cite book |last1=Lipartito |first1=Kenneth |last2=Butler |first2=Orville |title='A History of the Kennedy Space Center |date=2007 |publisher=University Press of Florida |isbn=978-0-8130-3069-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofkennedy00lipa}}</ref>

Additionally, the center manages launch of robotic and commercial crew missions and researches food production and in-situ resource utilization for off-Earth exploration.<ref name="Research & Tech">{{cite web |title=Research & Technology |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/exploration/researchtech/index.html |website=Kennedy Space Center |date=March 3, 2015 |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015}}</ref> Since 2010, the center has worked to become a multi-user spaceport through industry partnerships,<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA Partnerships Launch Multi-User Spaceport |url=https://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-partnerships-launch-multi-user-spaceport |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |date=May 1, 2014}}</ref> even adding a new launch pad (LC-39C) in 2015.

There are about 700 facilities and buildings grouped throughout the center's {{Convert|144000|acre|km2}}.<ref name="Master Plan 2012">{{cite web |title=Kennedy Creating New Master Plan |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/kscmasterplanrevision.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |date=March 12, 2012 |archive-date=May 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527214639/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/kscmasterplanrevision.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Among the unique facilities at KSC are the {{convert|525|ft|adj=on}} tall Vehicle Assembly Building for stacking NASA's largest rockets, the Launch Control Center, which conducts space launches at KSC, the Operations and Checkout Building, which houses the astronauts' dormitories and suit-up area, a Space Station factory, and a {{Convert|3|mi|adj=on}} long Shuttle Landing Facility. There is also a Visitor Complex on site that is open to the public.

== Formation == Since 1949, the military had been performing launch operations at what would become Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. In December 1959, the Department of Defense transferred 5,000 personnel and the Missile Firing Laboratory to NASA to become the Launch Operations Directorate under NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/history/story/ch1.html |title=Kennedy Space Center Story |publisher=NASA |access-date=May 13, 2019 |archive-date=June 3, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603115439/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/history/story/ch1.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

President John F. Kennedy's 1961 goal of a crewed lunar landing by 1970 required an expansion of launch operations. On July 1, 1962, the Launch Operations Directorate was separated from MSFC to become the '''Launch Operations Center (LOC)'''. Also, Cape Canaveral was inadequate to host the new launch facility design required for the mammoth {{convert|363|ft|m|adj=on}} tall, {{convert|7500000|lbf|kN|adj=on}} thrust Saturn V rocket, which would be assembled vertically in a large hangar and transported on a mobile platform to one of several launch pads. Therefore, the decision was made to build a new LOC site located adjacent to Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Cape Canaveral Chapter 3 {{!}} Spaceline |url=https://www.spaceline.org/history-cape-canaveral/history-cape-canaveral-chapter-3/ |access-date=May 27, 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 1961, NASA formally announced its intent to acquire approximately 88,000 acres of land (about 138 square miles) along Florida's east coast, marking the beginning of what would become a much larger acquisition effort.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reser |first=Anna |date=March 13, 2019 |title="Where the Land that Any Sane Man Wants Runs Out" Displacement and Disruption on Florida's Space Coast |url=http://www.technologystories.org/displacement-and-disruption/ |journal=Technology's Stories |language=en |doi=10.15763/jou.ts.2019.03.13.04 |issn=2572-3413 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> NASA began land acquisition in 1962; in the years-long effort, NASA bought title to {{convert|131|sqmi}} and negotiated with the state of Florida for an additional {{convert|87|sqmi}}.<ref name="MOONPORT5-11">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch5-11.html |title=Land, Lots of Land – Much of It Marshy |work=Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations |author1=Charles D. Benson |author2=William Barnaby Faherty |publisher=NASA |access-date=August 27, 2009 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714121445/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch5-11.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> The U.S. Army{{Kennedy Space Center map|highlight=1}}<div style="display:inline-block;line-height:110%;vertical-align:middle; padding:1px 4px;border-radius:8px;border: 0.5px solid black;background-color:#4B77D6;color:#FFFFFF;font-size:88%;font-weight:bold"></div>NASA Railroad (Wilson Junction)Corps of Engineers oversaw the land acquisition process. They directly negotiated with property owners before resorting to condemnations when negotiations were inefficient.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lipartito |first1=Kenneth |title=A history of the Kennedy Space Center |last2=Butler |first2=R. Orville |publisher=University Press of Florida. |year=2007 |isbn=9780813068343}}</ref> Much of the land NASA acquired was in agricultural use, particularly for citrus farming. In Merritt Island, citrus groves were purchased by mid-1963. Still, in an effort to manage the transition, NASA allowed many farmers to lease back their properties temporarily, allowing them to operate and reap harvest from the groves until summer 1964. To regulate activity in what was newly federally acquired land, all personnel required clearance to enter the controlled zone and special security badges were even issued to grove workers.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Visit to the Three Cape Kennedys; Visit to the Three Cape Kennedys |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1964/12/13/104229054.html |access-date=August 6, 2025 |work=The New York Times |language=en |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=December 6, 1961 |title=NASA to permit harvest of 1964 M.I. citrus crop: Purchase schedule detailed |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/3124398047 |access-date=July 23, 2025 |work=Cocoa Tribune |pages=1 |id={{ProQuest|3124398047}}}}</ref>

The major buildings in KSC's Industrial Area were designed by architect Charles Luckman.<ref>{{cite news |last=Muschamp |first=Herbert |title=Charles Luckman, Architect Who Designed Penn Station's Replacement, Dies at 89 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/28/arts/charles-luckman-architect-who-designed-penn-station-s-replacement-dies-at-89.html |access-date=August 22, 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=January 28, 1999}}</ref> Construction began in November 1962, and Kennedy visited the site twice in 1962, and again just a week before his assassination on November 22, 1963.<ref name="KSC History Quiz">{{cite web |title=Kennedy History Quiz |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/history/quiz_page_prt.htm#4 |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=June 3, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603122438/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/history/quiz_page_prt.htm#4 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

On November 29, 1963, the facility was named by President Lyndon B. Johnson under Executive Order 11129.<ref>{{cite web |title=The National Archives, Lyndon B. Johnson Executive Order 11129 |url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1963-johnson.html |access-date=April 26, 2010}}</ref><ref name="KSC Story">{{cite web |title=Kennedy Space Center Story |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/history/story/kscstory.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |date=1991 |archive-date=May 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170520011616/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/history/story/kscstory.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Johnson's order joined both the civilian LOC and the military Cape Canaveral station ("the facilities of Station No. 1 of the Atlantic Missile Range") under the designation "John F. Kennedy Space Center", spawning some confusion joining the two in the public mind. NASA administrator James E. Webb clarified this by issuing a directive stating the ''Kennedy Space Center'' name applied only to the LOC, while the Air Force issued a general order renaming the military launch site ''Cape Kennedy Air Force Station''.<ref name="Moonport_appendixb">{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Charles D. |last2=Faherty |first2=William B. |title=Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations |publisher=NASA |series=History Series |volume=SP-4204 |date=August 1977 |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html |chapter=Chapter 7: The Launch Directorate Becomes an Operational Center – Kennedy's Last Visit |chapter-url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch7-7.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041106133417/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch7-7.html |archive-date=November 6, 2004}}</ref>

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== Location == Located on Merritt Island, Florida, the center is north-northwest of Cape Canaveral on the Atlantic Ocean, midway between Miami and Jacksonville on Florida's Space Coast, due east of Orlando. It is {{convert|34|mi|km}} long and roughly {{convert|6|mi|km|spell=in}} wide, covering {{convert|219|sqmi}}. KSC is a major central Florida tourist destination and is approximately one hour's drive from the Orlando area. The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex offers public tours of the center and Cape Canaveral Space Force Station.<ref>{{Cite web |title=See All Attractions {{!}} Kennedy Space Center |url=https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/explore-attractions/all-attractions |access-date=June 5, 2020 |website=www.kennedyspacecenter.com}}</ref>

Before NASA's acquisition, the region consisted of a landscape that included swampland, citrus groves, and coastal beaches – features that are typical of Florida's undeveloped east coast. Parts of the land had to be dredged to support the construction of the Center's facilities. In addition to environmental transformation, the acquisition also led to the displacement of several small communities, including the towns of Shiloh and Allenhurst, which were completely enveloped by NASA.<ref>{{Cite book |last=FAHERTY |first=WILLIAM BARNABY |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.11374747 |title=Florida's Space Coast |date=March 5, 2024 |publisher=University Press of Florida |doi=10.2307/jj.11374747 |isbn=978-0-8130-7079-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=December 20, 1962 |title=14,800 acres for nova project: Govt to get more land |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2481124108 |access-date=July 23, 2025 |work=Orlando Sentinel |pages=1 |id={{ProQuest|2481124108}}}}</ref> KSC's Environmental Management Branch has rescued over 100 mangrove seedlings during a living-shoreline restoration project, replanting them to stabilize the shoreline and reduce erosion while supporting local wildlife.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 19, 2023 |title=Kennedy Space Center ‘Rescues’ Mangroves During Shoreline Restoration – NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/kennedy-space-center-rescues-mangroves-during-shoreline-restoration/ |access-date=November 24, 2025 |language=en-US}}</ref> KSC developed an "Indian River Lagoon Health Initiative Plan" in coordination with the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore to monitor and restore ecological health through seagrass mapping, manatee and bird surveys, and shoreline resiliency projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 15, 2021 |title=NASA’s Kennedy Develops Indian River Lagoon Health Initiative Plan – NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasas-kennedy-develops-indian-river-lagoon-health-initiative-plan/ |access-date=November 24, 2025 |language=en-US}}</ref> Within its 140,000-acre property, KSC includes a variety of habitats – such as coastal dunes, saltwater estuaries, marshes, pine flatwoods, and hardwood hammocks – which support more than 1,500 species of plants and animals, including dozens of federally or state‑listed species.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Natural Resources – Environmental |url=https://public.ksc.nasa.gov/environmental/naturalresources/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250626215420/https://public.ksc.nasa.gov/environmental/naturalresources/ |archive-date=June 26, 2025 |access-date=November 24, 2025 |website=public.ksc.nasa.gov |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Historical programs == === Apollo program === {{Main|Apollo program}}

{{Main list|List of Apollo missions }} [[File:Saturn V aerial.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|A Saturn V rocket carrying Apollo 15 rolls out to Pad 39A in 1971 on Mobile Launch Platform 1.]]

From 1967 through 1973, there were 13 Saturn V launches, including the ten remaining Apollo missions after Apollo 7. The first of two uncrewed flights, Apollo 4 (Apollo-Saturn 501) on November 9, 1967, was also the first rocket launch from KSC. The Saturn V's first crewed launch on December 21, 1968, was Apollo 8's lunar orbiting mission. The next two missions tested the Lunar Module: Apollo 9 (Earth orbit) and Apollo 10 (lunar orbit). Apollo 11, launched from Pad A on July 16, 1969, made the first Moon landing on July 20. The Apollo 11 launch included crewmembers Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin, and attracted a record-breaking 650 million television viewers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo11.html |title=Apollo 11 Mission Overview |date=April 17, 2015}}</ref> Apollo 12 followed four months later. From 1970 to 1972, the Apollo program concluded at KSC with the launches of missions 13 through 17.

=== Skylab === {{Main|Skylab}}

On May 14, 1973, the last Saturn V launch put the Skylab space station in orbit from Pad 39A.<ref>{{cite web |title=14 May 1973, 17:30:00 UTC, T plus 000:00:00.22 |url=https://www.thisdayinaviation.com/tag/saturn-v-launch-vehicle/ |access-date=October 12, 2022 |publisher=This Day in Aviation}}</ref> By this time, the Cape Kennedy pads 34 and 37 used for the Saturn IB were decommissioned, so Pad 39B was modified to accommodate the Saturn IB, and used to launch three crewed missions to Skylab that year, as well as the final Apollo spacecraft for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project in 1975.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cape Canaveral LC39B |url=http://www.astronautix.com/c/capecanaverallc39b.html |access-date=October 12, 2022 |publisher=Astronautix.com}}</ref>

=== Space Shuttle === {{Main|Space Shuttle program}}

{{Main list|List of space shuttle missions }} [[File:STS-60 Launch - GPN-2000-000759.jpg|thumb|left|Shuttle ''Discovery'' launching from Pad 39A on STS-60, February 3, 1994]] [[File:STS-36 Rollout - GPN-2000-000680.jpg|thumb|left|Shuttle ''Atlantis'' is moved to Pad 39A for the 1990 launch of STS-36.]] [[File:STS-129 Atlantis Ready to Fly - edit1.jpg|thumb|left|The Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' (STS-129) is seen on launch pad 39A at the NASA Kennedy Space Center shortly after the rotating service structure was rolled back on November 15, 2009.]]

As the Space Shuttle was being designed, NASA received proposals for building alternative launch-and-landing sites at locations other than KSC, which demanded study. KSC had important advantages, including its existing facilities; location on the Intracoastal Waterway; and its southern latitude, which gives a velocity advantage to missions launched in easterly near-equatorial orbits. Disadvantages included: its inability to safely launch military missions into polar orbit, since spent boosters would be likely to fall on the Carolinas or Cuba; corrosion from the salt air; and frequent cloudy or stormy weather. Although building a new site at White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico was seriously considered, NASA announced its decision in April 1972 to use KSC for the shuttle.<ref name="heppenheimer1998">{{cite book |title=The Space Shuttle Decision |publisher=NASA |last=Heppenheimer |first=T. A. |year=1998 |pages=425–427 |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/contents.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030205042/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/contents.htm |archive-date=October 30, 2004}}</ref> Since the Shuttle could not be landed automatically or by remote control, the launch of ''Columbia'' on April 12, 1981, for its first orbital mission STS-1, was NASA's first crewed launch of a vehicle that had not been tested in prior uncrewed launches.

In 1976, the VAB's south parking area was the site of Third Century America, a science and technology display commemorating the U.S. Bicentennial. Concurrent with this event, the U.S. flag was painted on the south side of the VAB. During the late 1970s, LC-39 was reconfigured to support the Space Shuttle. Two Orbiter Processing Facilities were built near the VAB as hangars with a third added in the 1980s.

KSC's {{convert|2.9|mi|km|adj=on}} Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) was the orbiters' primary end-of-mission landing site, although the first KSC landing did not take place until the tenth flight, when ''Challenger'' completed STS-41-B on February 11, 1984; the primary landing site until then was Edwards Air Force Base in California, subsequently used as a backup landing site. The SLF also provided a return-to-launch-site (RTLS) abort option, which was not used. The SLF is among the longest runways in the world.<ref>[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/slf.html Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF)] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527194438/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/slf.html |date=May 27, 2010 }}. Science.ksc.nasa.gov. Retrieved on May 5, 2012.</ref>

===Constellation=== On October 28, 2009, the Ares I-X launch from Pad 39B was the first uncrewed launch from KSC since the Skylab workshop in 1973.

=== Expendable launch vehicles (ELVs) === Beginning in 1958, NASA and military worked side by side on robotic mission launches (previously referred to as unmanned),<ref>{{cite web |title=Style Guide for NASA History Authors and Editors |url=https://history.nasa.gov/printFriendly/styleguide.html |website=NASA's History Office |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 6, 2015}}</ref> cooperating as they broke ground in the field. In the early 1960s, NASA had as many as two robotic mission launches a month. The frequent number of flights allowed for quick evolution of the vehicles, as engineers gathered data, learned from anomalies and implemented upgrades. In 1963, with the intent of KSC ELV work focusing on the ground support equipment and facilities, a separate Atlas/Centaur organization was formed under NASA's Lewis Center (now Glenn Research Center (GRC)), taking that responsibility from the Launch Operations Center (aka KSC).<ref name="Lipartito" />

Though almost all robotics missions launched from the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station (CCSFS), KSC "oversaw the final assembly and testing of rockets as they arrived at the Cape."<ref name="Lipartito" /> In 1965, KSC's Unmanned Launch Operations directorate became responsible for all NASA uncrewed launch operations, including those at Vandenberg Space Force Base. From the 1950s to 1978, KSC chose the rocket and payload processing facilities for all robotic missions launching in the U.S., overseeing their near launch processing and checkout. In addition to government missions, KSC performed this service for commercial and foreign missions also, though non-U.S. government entities provided reimbursement. NASA also funded Cape Canaveral Space Force Station launch pad maintenance and launch vehicle improvements.

All this changed with the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984, after which NASA only coordinated its own and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ELV launches. Companies were able to "operate their own launch vehicles"<ref name=Lipartito/> and use NASA's launch facilities. Payload processing handled by private firms also started to occur outside KSC. Reagan's 1988 space policy furthered the movement of this work from KSC to commercial companies.<ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential Directive on National Space Policy |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/policy88.html |website=NASA |publisher=White House |access-date=November 6, 2015 |date=February 11, 1988 |archive-date=February 23, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223231314/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/policy88.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> That same year, launch complexes on Cape Canaveral Air Force Force Station started transferring from NASA to Air Force Space Command management.<ref name="Lipartito" />

In the 1990s, though KSC was not performing the hands-on ELV work, engineers still maintained an understanding of ELVs and had contracts allowing them insight into the vehicles so they could provide knowledgeable oversight. KSC also worked on ELV research and analysis and the contractors were able to use KSC personnel as a resource for technical issues. KSC, with the payload and launch vehicle industries, developed advances in automation of the ELV launch and ground operations to enable competitiveness of U.S. rockets against the global market.<ref name="Lipartito" />

In 1998, the Launch Services Program (LSP) formed at KSC, pulling together programs (and personnel) that already existed at KSC, GRC, Goddard Space Flight Center, and more to manage the launch of NASA and NOAA robotic missions. Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and VAFB are the primary launch sites for LSP missions, though other sites are occasionally used. LSP payloads such as the Mars Science Laboratory have been processed at KSC before being transferred to a launch pad on Cape Canaveral Space Force Station.

=== Artemis program === thumb|Artemis I launch On November 16, 2022, at 06:47:44 UTC the Space Launch System (SLS) was launched from Complex 39B as part of the Artemis I mission.<ref>{{Citation |title=Artemis I Launch to the Moon (Official NASA Broadcast) – Nov. 16, 2022 |date=November 16, 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMLD0Lp0JBg |language=en |access-date=November 16, 2022}}</ref><ref name="nasa-20221108">{{cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/08/nasa-prepares-rocket-spacecraft-ahead-of-tropical-storm-nicole-re-targets-launch/ |title=NASA Prepares Rocket, Spacecraft Ahead of Tropical Storm Nicole, Re-targets Launch |work=NASA |date=November 8, 2022 |access-date=November 8, 2022}}</ref> On April 1, 2026, at 6:35:12 EST the SLS was launched from the same location as part of the Artemis II mission.<ref>{{cite web | website=Time | url=https://time.com/article/2026/04/01/artemis-ii-moon-launch-what-to-know/ | last=Kluger | first=Jeffrey | date=April 2, 2026 | title=Artemis II Has Launched | access-date=April 4, 2026}}</ref>

=== Space station processing === [[File:SSPF interior.jpg|thumb|upright|Node 2 being hoisted by overhead cranes in the Space Station Processing Facility]]

As the International Space Station modules design began in the early 1990s, KSC began to work with other NASA centers and international partners to prepare for processing before launch onboard the Space Shuttles. KSC used its hands-on experience processing the 22 Spacelab missions in the Operations and Checkout Building to gather expectations of ISS processing. These experiences were incorporated into the design of the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF), which began construction in 1991. The Space Station Directorate formed in 1996. KSC personnel were embedded at station module factories for insight into their processes.<ref name="Lipartito" />

From 1997 to 2007, KSC planned and performed on the ground integration tests and checkouts of station modules: three Multi-Element Integration Testing (MEIT) sessions and the Integration Systems Test (IST). Numerous issues were found and corrected that would have been difficult to nearly impossible to do on-orbit.

In January 2025, NASA's Kennedy Space Center signed a memorandum of understanding with the University of Florida, University of Central Florida, and Embry‑Riddle Aeronautical University to form the Florida University Space Research Consortium, advancing Moon-to-Mars research.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 9, 2025 |title=NASA’s Kennedy Space Center and Florida universities unite to propel space exploration |url=https://news.ufl.edu/2025/01/nasa-collaboration/ |access-date=November 24, 2025 |website=news.ufl.edu |language=en}}</ref> A Systems Engineering & Integration (SE&I) bootcamp, backed by a three-year grant, was launched at KSC in 2025 by FAMU‑FSU College of Engineering in partnership with NASA to train 30 professionals in systems engineering for the Artemis campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joint College Launches Inaugural Systems Engineering Bootcamp at NASA Kennedy Space Center {{!}} FAMU-FSU |url=https://eng.famu.fsu.edu/news/joint-college-launches-inaugural-systems-engineering-bootcamp-nasa-kennedy-space-center |access-date=November 24, 2025 |website=eng.famu.fsu.edu}}</ref>

The second "SpaceU Symposium" was held in November 2025 at UCF, involving KSC researchers, university students, and space industry leaders to showcase innovation, research, and job opportunities in partnership with NASA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SpaceU Symposium |url=https://www.ucf.edu/spaceweek/symposium/ |access-date=November 24, 2025 |website=University of Central Florida |language=en-us}}</ref>

The Florida University Space Research Consortium is part of a broader Florida Space Grant program that includes dozens of universities, which provides research funding and strong ties between KSC and higher education institutions to support NASA's missions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.floridaspacegrant.org/2020/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/2025-Florida-Space-Research-Program.pdf |title=Florida Space Research Program (FSRP)2025 Program Announcement & Request for Proposals |date=March 25, 2025 |website=Florida Space Grant |access-date=December 3, 2025}}</ref>

Today KSC continues to process ISS payloads from across the world before launch along with developing its experiments for on orbit.<ref name="ISS Payloads">{{cite web |title=Kennedy Space Center Payload Processing |date=March 2, 2015 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/stationpayloads/index.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=December 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205123044/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/stationpayloads/index.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> The proposed Lunar Gateway would be manufactured and processed at the Space Station Processing Facility.

== Current programs and initiatives == thumb|Artemis I ICPS at Kennedy Space Center thumb|SAGE III at Space Station Processing Facility thumb|NASA scientist, observe ground control experiments in the Veggie Lab at NASA's Kennedy Space Center

The following are current programs and initiatives at Kennedy Space Center:<ref name="NASA KSC Home">{{cite web |title=Kennedy Space Center |date=March 27, 2015 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/home/index.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015}}</ref> * Commercial Crew Program<ref>{{cite web |title=Commercial Crew Program |date=March 31, 2015 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/commercial/crew/index.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015}}</ref> * Exploration Ground Systems Program<ref>{{cite web |title=Exploration Ground Systems |date=March 3, 2015 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/ground/index.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=October 13, 2018}}</ref> * Launch Services Program<ref>{{cite web |title=Launching Rockets |date=April 2015 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/launchingrockets/index.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015}}</ref> * Educational Launch of Nanosatellites (ELaNa)<ref>{{cite web |title=Small Satellite Missions |date=April 13, 2015 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/smallsats/elana/index.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=March 24, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324182315/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/smallsats/elana/index.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> * Research and Technology<ref name="Research & Tech" /> * Artemis program * Lunar Gateway * International Space Station Payloads<ref name="ISS Payloads" /> * Camp KSC: educational camps for schoolchildren in spring and summer, with a focus on space, aviation and robotics.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/information/camp_faq.html |title=Camp Kennedy Space Center and Space Camp |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=NASA |date=April 28, 2015 |access-date=September 18, 2019 |archive-date=August 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802181548/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/information/camp_faq.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Facilities == thumb|KSC industrial area

The KSC Industrial Area, where many of the center's support facilities are located, is {{convert|5|mi|km|0}} south of LC-39. It includes the Headquarters Building, the Operations and Checkout Building and the Central Instrumentation Facility. The astronaut crew quarters are in the O&C; before it was completed, the astronaut crew quarters were located in Hangar S<ref>{{cite web |title=Hangar S History |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/hangar-s-history |website=Kennedy Space Center |date=May 18, 2015 |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=November 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117153918/http://www.nasa.gov/content/hangar-s-history/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> at the Cape Canaveral Missile Test Annex (now Cape Canaveral Space Force Station).<ref name="KSC History Quiz" /> Located at KSC was the Merritt Island Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network station (MILA), a key radio communications and spacecraft tracking complex.

Facilities at the Kennedy Space Center are directly related to its mission to launch and recover missions. Facilities are available to prepare and maintain spacecraft and payloads for flight.<ref>{{cite web |title=iv. Kennedy Space Center Planning and Development Office – What We Offer – Physical Assets |url=http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/en/What%20We%20Offer/Physical%20Assets |access-date=March 4, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404002127/http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/en/What%20We%20Offer/Physical%20Assets |archive-date=April 4, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kennedy Space Center Resource Encyclopedia |url=http://tdglobal.ksc.nasa.gov/servlet/sm.web.Fetch/KHB-1863?rhid=1000&did=35173&type=released&rev=$latest |publisher=NASA – Kennedy Space Center |access-date=March 4, 2014 |year=2010}}</ref> The Headquarters (HQ) Building houses offices for the Center Director, library, film and photo archives, a print shop and security.<ref>[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/hq.html Headquarters Building (HQ)] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817082304/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/hq.html |date=August 17, 2016 }}. Science.ksc.nasa.gov. Retrieved on May 5, 2012.</ref> When the KSC Library first opened, it was part of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. However, in 1965, the library moved into three separate sections in the newly opened NASA headquarters before eventually becoming a single unit in 1970.<ref name=":0" /> The library contains over four million items related to the history and the work at Kennedy. As one of ten NASA center libraries in the country, their collection focuses on engineering, science, and technology. The archives contain planning documents, film reels, and original photographs covering the history of KSC. The library is not open to the public but is available for KSC, Space Force, and Navy employees who work on site.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Borchert |first1=Carol Ann |last2=Arthur |first2=Michael A. |date=2007 |editor-last=Ginanni |editor-first=Katy |title=John F. Kennedy Space Center Library |url=https://www.academia.edu/26630541 |journal=Serials Review |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=277–280 |doi=10.1016/j.serrev.2007.08.012 |s2cid=60797881 |via=Academia.edu}}</ref>

A new Headquarters Building was completed in 2019 as part of the Central Campus consolidation. Groundbreaking began in 2014.<ref name="Master Plan 2012" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Kennedy Space Center Central Campus |date=March 25, 2015 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/kennedy-central-campus |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 3, 2016 |archive-date=April 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404230355/https://www.nasa.gov/content/kennedy-central-campus/ |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Central Campus of the Kennedy Space Center |url=http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/KSC-central-campus.pdf |website=Kennedy Space Center Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 3, 2016 |ref=FS-2014-09-262-KSC |archive-date=February 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222140715/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/KSC-central-campus.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Media Invited to Groundbreaking for New Kennedy Space Center Headquarters |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2014/release-20141002b.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |date=October 2, 2014}}</ref>

The center operated its own {{convert|17|mi|adj=on}} short-line railroad.<ref>{{cite web |title=The NASA Railroad |url=http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/NASA-Railroad.pdf |website=Kennedy Space Center Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 3, 2016 |ref=FS-2013-04-075-KSC}}</ref> This operation was discontinued in 2015, with the sale of its final two locomotives. A third had already been donated to a museum. The line was costing $1.3&nbsp;million annually to maintain.<ref>{{cite news |first=James |last=Dean |title=NASA Railroad rides into sunset |url=http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2015/05/23/nasa-railroad-rides-sunset/27784213/ |newspaper=Florida Today |location=Melbourne, Florida |page=25A |date=May 24, 2015 |access-date=June 2, 2015}}</ref>

=== Payload manufacture and processing === thumb|Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building thumb|Pre-made ISS modules in the Space Station Processing Facility [[File:BlueOrigin_OLS_mfg_building,_Florida_(from_southeast).jpg|thumb|Blue Origin's manufacturing facility near KSC visitor complex]]

* The Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building (O&C) (previously known as the Manned Spacecraft Operations Building) is a historic site on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places dating back to the 1960s and was used to receive, process, and integrate payloads for the Gemini and Apollo programs, the Skylab program in the 1970s, and for initial segments of the International Space Station through the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/oc.html |title=Operations and Checkout Building |access-date=October 16, 2011 |archive-date=January 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121220555/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/oc.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Apollo and Space Shuttle astronauts would board the astronaut transfer van to launch complex 39 from the O&C building.<ref name="astrovan">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/behindscenes/astrovan.html |title=Catching a Ride to Destiny |publisher=NASA |first=Cheryl L. |last=Mansfield |date=July 15, 2008 |access-date=July 13, 2009}}</ref> * The three-story, {{convert|457000|sqft|adj=on}} Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) consists of two enormous processing bays, an airlock, operational control rooms, laboratories, logistics areas and office space for support of non-hazardous Space Station and Shuttle payloads to ISO 14644-1 class 5 standards.<ref>[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/sspf.html Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF)] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206084918/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/sspf.html |date=February 6, 2007 }}. Science.ksc.nasa.gov. Retrieved on May 5, 2012.</ref> Opened in 1994, it is the largest factory building in the KSC industrial area. * The Vertical Processing Facility (VPF) features a {{convert|71|by|38|ft|adj=on}} door where payloads that are processed in the vertical position are brought in and manipulated with two overhead cranes and a hoist capable of lifting up to {{convert|35|ST}}.<ref>[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/vpf.html Vertical Processing Facility] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017175450/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/vpf.html |date=October 17, 2016 }}. Science.ksc.nasa.gov. Retrieved on May 5, 2012.</ref> * The Hypergolic Maintenance and Checkout Facility (HMCA) comprises three buildings that are isolated from the rest of the industrial area because of the hazardous materials handled there. Hypergolic-fueled modules that made up the Space Shuttle Orbiter's reaction control system, orbital maneuvering system and auxiliary power units were stored and serviced in the HMCF.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/hmf.html |title=Hypergolic Maintenance and Checkout Facility |access-date=October 16, 2011 |archive-date=September 8, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908211507/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/hmf.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> * The Multi-Payload Processing Facility is a {{convert|19647|sqft|m2|sp=us}}<ref name="NASA_MPPF_Gas_Station">{{cite web |last=Granath |first=Bob |title=Multi-Payload Processing Facility Provides 'Gas Station' for Orion |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/multi-payload-processing-facility-provides-gas-station-for-orion |website=NASA |access-date=December 1, 2019 |date=August 25, 2016 |language=en-US |archive-date=June 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617080204/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/multi-payload-processing-facility-provides-gas-station-for-orion/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> building used for Orion spacecraft and payload processing. * The '''Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility''' ('''PHSF''') contains a {{convert|70|by|110|ft|adj=on}} service bay, with a {{convert|50|ST|lb kg|adj=on|order=out}}, {{convert|85|ft|adj=on}} hook height. It also contains a {{convert|58|by|80|ft|adj=on}} payload airlock. Its temperature is maintained at {{cvt|70|F|C}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/phsf.html |title=Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility |publisher=Science.ksc.nasa.gov |access-date=May 2, 2018 |archive-date=December 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224063325/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/phsf.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Launch Complex 39 === {{Main|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39}}

[[File:Aerial View of Launch Complex 39.jpg|thumb|The Vehicle Assembly Building (center) in 1999, with the Launch Control Center jutting out from its right, and Pads A and B in the distance]] thumb|Closeup photo of the VAB

Launch Complex 39 (LC-39) was originally built for the Saturn V, the largest and most powerful operational launch vehicle until the Space Launch System, for the Apollo crewed Moon landing program. Since the end of the Apollo program in 1972, LC-39 has been used to launch every NASA human space flight, including Skylab (1973), the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (1975), and the Space Shuttle program (1981–2011).

Since December 1968, all launch operations have been conducted from launch pads A and B at LC-39. Both pads are on the ocean, {{convert|3|mi|km}} east of the VAB. From 1969 to 1972, LC-39 was the "Moonport" for all six Apollo crewed Moon landing missions using the Saturn V,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Charles D. |last2=Faherty |first2=William B. |title=Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations |publisher=NASA |series=History Series |volume=SP-4204 |date=August 1977 |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html |chapter=Preface |chapter-url=https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/preface.html}}</ref> and was used from 1981 to 2011 for all Space Shuttle launches.

Human missions to the Moon required the large three-stage Saturn V rocket, which was {{convert|363|ft|m|sp=us|abbr=off}} tall and {{convert|33|ft|m|sp=us|abbr=off}} in diameter. At KSC, Launch Complex 39 was built on Merritt Island to accommodate the new rocket. Construction of the $800&nbsp;million project began in November 1962. LC-39 pads A and B were completed by October 1965 (planned Pads C, D and E were canceled), the VAB was completed in June 1965, and the infrastructure by late 1966.

An economic impact report indicates that companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin are developing campus-like facilities at KSC's Launch Complex 39A and Exploration Park, fostering integrated manufacturing, testing, and launch operations on-site.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kennedy Space Center Economic Impact Study FY 2021 |url=https://public.ksc.nasa.gov/partnerships/wp-content/uploads/sites/15/2024/02/ksc_economic_impact_report_fy2021.pdf |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240519111144/https://public.ksc.nasa.gov/partnerships/wp-content/uploads/sites/15/2024/02/ksc_economic_impact_report_fy2021.pdf |archive-date=May 19, 2024 |access-date=November 24, 2025 |website=public.ksc.nasa.gov}}</ref>

The complex includes: * the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), a {{convert|130000000|ft3|m3}} hangar capable of holding four Saturn Vs. The VAB was the largest structure in the world by volume when completed in 1965.<ref name="congressional record Sep 8, 2004">{{cite journal |title=Senate |journal=Congressional Record |date=September 8, 2004 |page=17598}}</ref> * a transporter capable of carrying 5,440 tons along a crawlerway to either of two launch pads; * a {{convert|446|ft|m|0|adj=on}} mobile service structure, with three Mobile Launcher Platforms, each containing a fixed launch umbilical tower; * the Launch Control Center; and * a news media facility.

=== Launch Complex 48 === {{Main|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 48}}

[[File:LC-48 EIS Image--019.jpg|thumb|A rendering of Boeing's XS-1 Phantom Express launch vehicle on LC-48]]

Launch Complex 48 (LC-48) is a multi-user launch site under construction for small launchers and spacecraft. It will be located between Launch Complex 39A and Space Launch Complex 41, with LC-39A to the north and SLC-41 to the south.<ref name="Kelly_FloridaToday_SLC-48">{{cite web |last1=Kelly |first1=Emre |title=Meet Launch Complex 48, NASA's new small rocket pad at Kennedy Space Center |url=https://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2019/06/14/meet-launch-complex-48-nasa-new-pad-kennedy-space-center-florida/1408175001/ |website=Florida Today |access-date=January 7, 2020 |language=en |date=June 14, 2019}}</ref> LC-48 will be constructed as a "clean pad" to support multiple launch systems with differing propellant needs. While initially only planned to have a single pad, the complex is capable of being expanded to two at a later date.<ref>{{cite book |title=Draft Environmental Assessment for Launch Complex 48 |date=February 19, 2019 |publisher=NASA |url=https://netspublic.grc.nasa.gov/main/LC%2048%20Environmental%20Assessment%20with%20Appendices_02.19.2019.pdf |access-date=January 7, 2020 |pages=ii–iii |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Commercial leasing === As a part of promoting commercial space industry growth in the area and the overall center as a multi-user spaceport,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/partnerships/success-stories |title=Partnering with KSC |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104061054/http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/partnerships/success-stories |archive-date=November 4, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Front Page Archive |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/the-front-page-archive |website=Doing Business With Kennedy |date=March 26, 2015 |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=November 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117132120/http://www.nasa.gov/content/the-front-page-archive/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> KSC leases some of its properties. Here are some major examples: * Exploration Park to multiple users (partnership with Space Florida) * Shuttle Landing Facility to Space Florida (who contracts use to private companies) * Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF)-3 to Boeing (for CST-100 Starliner) * Launch Complex 39A, Launch Control Center Firing Room 4 and land for SpaceX's Roberts Road facility (Hangar X) to SpaceX * O&C High Bay to Lockheed Martin (for Orion processing) * Land for FPL's Space Coast Next Generation Solar Energy Center to Florida Power and Light (FPL)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/Success-Stories/Partnerships/Florida-Power-and-Light |title=Partnering with KSC |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=November 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022802/http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/Success-Stories/Partnerships/Florida-Power-and-Light |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Solar Energy Centers |url=https://www.fpl.com/clean-energy/solar/energy-centers.html |publisher=FPL}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Space Coast Next Generation Solar Energy Center |url=http://www.nasa.gov/agency/sustainability/energyandwater/spacecoastsolar.html |website=Sustainability |date=June 7, 2013 |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304225117/http://www.nasa.gov/agency/sustainability/energyandwater/spacecoastsolar.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> * Hypergolic Maintenance Facility (HMF) to United Paradyne Corporation (UPC)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/Success-Stories/Partnerships/United-Paradyne-Corporation |title=Partnering with KSC |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=November 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117142511/http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/Success-Stories/Partnerships/United-Paradyne-Corporation |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Visitor complex === {{Main|Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex}}

[[File:KennedySpaceCentreVisitor'sCentreFrontGate.JPG|thumb|Gate to the KSC Visitor Complex in 2006; ''Explorer'', a Space Shuttle mock-up, is in the background]]

The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, operated by Delaware North since 1995, has a variety of exhibits, artifacts, displays and attractions on the history and future of human and robotic spaceflight. Bus tours of KSC originate from here. The complex also includes the separate Apollo/Saturn V Center, north of the VAB and the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, six miles west near Titusville. There were 1.5&nbsp;million visitors in 2009. It had some 700 employees.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Amanda |last=Stratford |title=NASA's new image |url=http://www.app.com/article/A9/20100112/NEWS02/1120326/-1/SCIENCE |work=Florida Today |location=Melbourne, Florida |pages=1A |date=January 12, 2010}}</ref>

It was announced on May 29, 2015, that the Astronaut Hall of Fame exhibit would be moved from its current location to another location within the Visitor Complex to make room for an upcoming high-tech attraction entitled "Heroes and Legends". The attraction, designed by Orlando-based design firm Falcon's Treehouse, opened November 11, 2016.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dean |first=James |title=KSC Visitor Complex introduces 'Heroes and Legends' |url=http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/2015/05/29/ksc-visitor-complex-breaks-ground-on-major-new-attraction/28142981/ |website=Florida Today |access-date=August 6, 2015}}</ref>

In March 2016, the visitor center unveiled the new location of the iconic countdown clock at the complex's entrance; previously, the clock was located with a flagpole at the press site. The clock was originally built and installed in 1969 and listed with the flagpole in the National Register of Historic Places in January 2000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mynews13.com/content/news/cfnews13/news/article.html/content/news/articles/cfn/2016/3/1/countdown_clock_kennedy_space_center_moved.html |title=Iconic KSC countdown clock gets a new home |date=March 1, 2016 |publisher=News 13 |access-date=March 2, 2016}}</ref> In 2019, NASA celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Apollo program, and the launch of Apollo 10 on May 18.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/launches-and-events/events-calendar/2019/may/event-apollo-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408183633/https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/launches-and-events/events-calendar/2019/may/event-apollo-10 |archive-date=April 8, 2019 |title=Honoring Apollo 10 {{!}} Apollo Program 50th Anniversary Celebrations}}</ref> In summer of 2019, Lunar Module 9 (LM-9) was relocated to the Apollo/Saturn V Center as part of an initiative to rededicate the center and celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Apollo Program.

===Historic locations=== NASA lists the following Historic Districts at KSC; each district has multiple associated facilities:<ref name="Historic Sites">{{cite web |title=Historic Properties at Kennedy Space Center As of January 2015 |url=http://environmental.ksc.nasa.gov/projects/documents/historicalSites.pdf |website=Environmental Planning – Cultural Resources |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223911/http://environmental.ksc.nasa.gov/projects/documents/historicalSites.pdf |archive-date=March 3, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Understanding NASA's Historic Districts |url=http://environmental.ksc.nasa.gov/projects/documents/NASAHistroric.pdf |website=Environmental Program at KSC |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |date=June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117025227/http://environmental.ksc.nasa.gov/projects/documents/NASAHistroric.pdf |archive-date=November 17, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Environmental Planning – Cultural Resources |url=http://environmental.ksc.nasa.gov/projects/cultural.htm |website=Environmental Program at KSC |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922143748/http://environmental.ksc.nasa.gov/projects/cultural.htm |archive-date=September 22, 2015 }}</ref> * Launch Complex 39: Pad A Historic District * Launch Complex 39: Pad B Historic District * Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) Area Historic District * Orbiter Processing Historic District * Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) Disassembly and Refurbishment Complex Historic District * NASA KSC Railroad System Historic District * NASA-owned Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Industrial Area Historic District

There are 24 historic properties outside these historic districts, including the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Vehicle Assembly Building, Crawlerway, and Operations and Checkout Building.<ref name="Historic Sites" /> KSC has one National Historic Landmark, 78 National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) listed or eligible sites, and 100 Archaeological Sites.<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA's Historic Preservation Program: Celebrating and Managing Significant Historic Resources |url=http://pbhistoryb1b3.grc.nasa.gov/assets/mitigation/NASAs%20Historic%20Preservation%20Program.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117025808/http://pbhistoryb1b3.grc.nasa.gov/assets/mitigation/NASAs%20Historic%20Preservation%20Program.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 17, 2015 |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 5, 2015}}</ref>

{{further|John F. Kennedy Space Center MPS}}

=== Other facilities === * The '''Rotation, Processing and Surge Facility''' ('''RPSF''') is responsible for the preparation of solid rocket booster segments for transportation to the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB). The RPSF was built in 1984 to perform SRB operations that had previously been conducted in high bays 2 and 4 of the VAB at the beginning of the Space Shuttle program. It was used until the Space Shuttle's retirement, and will be used in the future by the Space Launch System<ref name="RPSF_Factsheet">{{cite web |title=NASAfacts: Rotation, Processing and Surge Facility (RPSF) at Kennedy Space Center |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/rpsf_factsheet_508_20180525.pdf |publisher=NASA |access-date=December 21, 2019}}</ref> (SLS) and OmegA rockets.

==Weather== thumb|A Mercury Redstone rocket on display at Gate 3 was toppled by Hurricane Frances on September 7, 2004. Florida's peninsular shape and temperature contrasts between land and ocean provide ideal conditions for electrical storms, earning Central Florida the reputation as "lightning capital of the United States".<ref name="climatology">{{cite book |last=Oliver |first=John E. |title=Encyclopedia of world climatology |year=2005 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-3264-6 |page=452}}</ref><ref name="Lightning FAQ">{{cite web |title=Lightning: FAQ |url=http://www.ucar.edu/communications/infopack/lightning/faq.html |work=UCAR Communications |publisher=University Corporation for Atmospheric Research |access-date=June 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316205727/http://www.ucar.edu/communications/infopack/lightning/faq.html |archive-date=March 16, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> This makes extensive lightning protection and detection systems necessary to protect employees, structures and spacecraft on launch pads.<ref>[http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/lightningprot.htm KSC – Lightning and the Space Program] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924115858/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/lightningprot.htm |date=September 24, 2008 }} Retrieved May 28, 2008</ref> On November 14, 1969, Apollo 12 was struck by lightning just after lift-off from Pad 39A, but the flight continued safely. The most powerful lightning strike recorded at KSC occurred at LC-39B on August 25, 2006, while shuttle ''Atlantis'' was being prepared for STS-115. NASA managers were initially concerned that the lightning strike caused damage to ''Atlantis'', but none was found.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/12207-space-shuttle-lightning-strike-launch-pad.html |title=NASA Checks Shuttle After Lightning Strike Near Launch Pad |website=Space.com |access-date=October 19, 2017}}</ref>

On September 7, 2004, Hurricane Frances directly hit the area with sustained winds of {{convert|70|mph}} and gusts up to {{convert|94|mph}}, the most damaging storm to date. The Vehicle Assembly Building lost 1,000 exterior panels, each {{convert|3.9|ft}} x {{convert|9.8|ft}} in size. This exposed {{cvt|39800|sqft|m2|-1}} of the building to the elements. Damage occurred to the south and east sides of the VAB. The shuttle's Thermal Protection System Facility suffered extensive damage. The roof was partially torn off and the interior suffered water damage. Several rockets on display in the center were toppled.<ref name="RELEASE : 04-288">{{cite news |title=NASA Assesses Hurricane Frances Damage |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2004/sep/HQ_04288frances_update.html |newspaper=NASA Press Release |access-date=July 4, 2010 |archive-date=June 14, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614145624/https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2004/sep/HQ_04288frances_update.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Further damage to KSC was caused by Hurricane Wilma in October 2005.

The conservative estimate by NASA is that the Space Center will experience 5 to 8 inches of sea level rise by the 2050s. Launch Complex 39A, the site of the Apollo 11 launch, is the most vulnerable to flooding, and has a 14% annual risk of flooding beginning in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.climatecentral.org/news/could-kennedy-space-center-launch-pads-be-at-risk-as-climate-changes-experts-say-yes |title=Could Kennedy Space Center launch pads be at risk as climate changes? Experts say yes |last1=Horn-Muller |first1=Ayurella |last2=Joy |first2=Rachael |date=November 14, 2019 |website=Climate Central / Florida Today |language=en |access-date=December 11, 2019 |archive-date=June 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619180802/https://www.climatecentral.org/news/could-kennedy-space-center-launch-pads-be-at-risk-as-climate-changes-experts-say-yes |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.climatecentral.org/pdfs/2019-10-21-SpaceCoastReport_Final.pdf |title=Future Flood Risk: John F. Kennedy Space Center & Cape Canaveral Air Force Station |date=October 2019 |website=Climate Central |access-date=December 11, 2019 |archive-date=December 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211023828/https://www.climatecentral.org/pdfs/2019-10-21-SpaceCoastReport_Final.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== KSC directors == Since KSC's formation, 12 NASA officials have served as directors, including three former astronauts (Crippen, Bridges and Cabana):<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www3.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/pdf/642415main_Center%20Directors%20Portraits.pdf |title=Celebrating KSC's 50th Annversary |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/history/historic-personnel/#centers |title=Personnel |publisher=NASA}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! {{abbr|No.|Number}} ! Image ! Director ! Start ! End ! {{Refh}} |- | 1 | 70px | Kurt H. Debus | July 1962 | November 1974 |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/debus.html |title=Dr. Kurt H. Debus |publisher=NASA |access-date=May 5, 2012}}</ref> |- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" | acting | | Miles Ross | November 1974 | January 18, 1975 | |- | 2 | 70px | Lee R. Scherer | January 19, 1975 | September 25, 1979 |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/scherer.html |title=Lee R. Scherer |publisher=NASA |access-date=May 5, 2012}}</ref> |- | 3 | 70px | Richard G. Smith | September 26, 1979 | August 2, 1986 |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/smith-r.html |title=Richard G. Smith |publisher=NASA |access-date=May 5, 2012}}</ref> |- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" | acting | | Thomas E. Utsman | August 3, 1986 | September 30, 1986 | |- | rowspan="2" | 4 | rowspan="2" | 70px | rowspan="2" | Forrest S. McCartney | October 1, 1986 | August 31, 1987 | as USAF<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/mccartney.html |title=Forrest S. McCartney |publisher=NASA |access-date=May 5, 2012}}</ref> |- |September 1, 1987 |December 31, 1991 | as civilian |- | 5 | 70px | Robert L. Crippen | January 1, 1992 | January 21, 1995 |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/crippen.html |title=Robert L. Crippen |publisher=NASA |access-date=May 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/01/06/Crippen-takes-helm-at-Florida-space-center/1793694674000/ |title=Crippen takes helm at Florida space center |first=William |last=Harwood |date=January 6, 1992 |work=United Press International}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1994/12/13/director-of-space-center-quits/ |title=Director of Space Center quits |date=December 13, 1994 |newspaper=Tampa Bay Times}}</ref> |- | 6 | 70px | Jay F. Honeycutt | January 22, 1995 | March 2, 1997 |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/honeycut.html |title=Jay F. Honeycutt |publisher=NASA |access-date=May 5, 2012}}</ref> |- | 7 | 70px | Roy D. Bridges, Jr. | March 2, 1997 | June 13, 2003 |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/bridges.html |title=Roy D. Bridges |publisher=NASA |access-date=May 5, 2012}}</ref> |- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" | acting | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | 70px | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | James W. Kennedy | June 13, 2003 | August 10, 2003 | |- | 8 | August 10, 2003 | January 4, 2007 |<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/people/james-w-kennedy/ |title=James W. Kennedy |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2006/release-20060501.html |title=NASA KSC Director Announces Retirement |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503201722/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2006/release-20060501.html |archive-date=May 3, 2008 |publisher=NASA |date=May 1, 2006 |access-date=May 5, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.astronomy.com/space-exploration/new-kennedy-space-center-director/ |title=New Kennedy Space Center director |date=January 5, 2007 |magazine=Astronomy}}</ref><ref name="parson replaces kennedy" /> |- | 9 | 70px | William W. Parsons | January 4, 2007 | October 26, 2008 |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/parsons.html |title=William W. Parsons |publisher=NASA |access-date=May 5, 2012}}</ref><ref name="parson replaces kennedy">{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0701/07kscparsons/ |title=Parsons becomes Kennedy Space Center director |date=January 7, 2007 |publisher=SpaceFlight Now}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0809/30cabana/ |title=Cabana to succeed Parsons as Kennedy Space Center director |date=September 30, 2008 |publisher=SpaceFlight Now}}</ref> |- | 10 | 70px | Robert D. Cabana | October 26, 2008 | May 17, 2021 |<ref>{{cite press release |title=Cabana to Succeed Parsons as Kennedy Space Center Director |publisher=NASA |date=September 30, 2008 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/sep/HQ_08-249_Parsons_leaves.html |access-date=September 30, 2008 |archive-date=October 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001224954/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/sep/HQ_08-249_Parsons_leaves.html |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/people/former-nasa-associate-administrator-robert-d-cabana/ |title=Robert D. Cabana |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://spacenews.com/cabana-assumes-role-as-tenth-nasa-kennedy-space-center-director/ |title=Cabana Assumes Role As Tenth NASA Kennedy Space Center Director |date=October 30, 2008 |work=SpaceNews}}</ref><ref name="Cabana promoted">{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2021/05/12/long-time-kennedy-space-center-director-to-take-job-at-nasa-headquarters/ |title=Long-time Kennedy Space Center director to take job at NASA Headquarters |date=May 12, 2021 |first=Stephen |last=Clark |work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref> |- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" | acting | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | 70px | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | Janet E. Petro | May 17, 2021 | June 29, 2021 |<ref name="Cabana promoted" /> |- | 11 | June 30, 2021 | May 1, 2026 |<ref>{{cite news |title=Kennedy Space Center gets first woman director, Janet Petro, after Bob Cabana promoted to NASA |newspaper=Orlando Sentinel |date=June 30, 2021 |url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/space/os-bz-kennedy-space-center-new-director-20210630-nqpxqwa4zff5bahkoec4m6cx5m-story.html |access-date=July 1, 2021 |first=Caroline |last=Glenn |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/people/janet-e-petro/ |title=Janet Petro |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.space.com/space-exploration/missions/who-is-janet-petro-trumps-pick-for-acting-nasa-administrator |title=Who is Janet Petro, Trump's pick for acting NASA administrator? |first=Andrew |last=Jones |date=February 10, 2025 |work=Space.com}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> |- bgcolor="#e6e6aa" | acting | | Kelvin Manning | May 1, 2026 | May 22, 2026 |<ref name=":1">{{cite web | title=NASA Kennedy Center Director Announces Plans to Retire | website=NASA | date=May 1, 2026 | url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-kennedy-center-director-announces-plans-to-retire/ | access-date=May 19, 2026|last=Low|first=Lauren E.}}</ref> |- | 12 | 70px | Brian Hughes | May 22, 2026 | present |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Warner |first=Cheryl |date=May 22, 2026 |title=NASA Announces Realignment to Accelerate Mission Delivery |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-announces-realignment-to-accelerate-mission-delivery/ |access-date=May 22, 2026 |website=NASA |language=en-US}}</ref> |}

==In popular culture==

In addition to being frequently featured in documentaries, Kennedy Space Center has been portrayed on film many times. Some studio movies have even gained access and filmed scenes within the gates of the space center. If extras are needed in those scenes, space center employees are recruited (employees use personal time during filming). Films with scenes at KSC include:<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sangalang |first1=Jennifer |title=Hey, girl: Casting call for Ryan Gosling movie 'First Man' at Kennedy Space Center |url=https://www.floridatoday.com/story/entertainment/2018/01/19/casting-call-ryan-gosling-movie-first-man-kennedy-space-center/1046767001/ |website=Florida Today |publisher=USA Today Network |access-date=January 30, 2018 |date=January 19, 2018}}</ref> * ''Moonraker'' * ''Stowaway to the Moon'' * ''SpaceCamp'' * ''Apollo 13'' * ''Contact'' * ''Armageddon''<ref>{{cite web |title=Armageddon Production Notes |date=October 4, 2012 |url=https://www.michaelbay.com/articles/armageddon-production-notes/ |publisher=Michael Bay |access-date=January 30, 2018}}</ref> * ''Space Cowboys'' * ''Swades'' * ''Transformers: Dark of the Moon'' * ''Tomorrowland'' * ''Sharknado 3: Oh Hell No!'' * ''First Man'' * ''Geostorm'' * ''Men in Black 3'' * ''Fly Me to the Moon'' * ''Simon''<ref>{{Cite web |title=AFI{{!}}Catalog |url=https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/56502 |access-date=July 22, 2025 |website=catalog.afi.com}}</ref>

The location appears as a major plot point in the finale of ''Stone Ocean'', the 6th part of the manga and anime series ''JoJo's Bizarre Adventure.''

KSC is also one of the two primary settings of the 1965–1970 television series ''I Dream of Jeannie'' (along with a home in nearby Cocoa Beach), though it was filmed entirely in Los Angeles.

== See also == {{Portal|Florida|United States|Rocketry|Spaceflight}} * Air Force Space and Missile Museum * Astronaut beach house * Launch Complex 34 – used for the smaller Apollo Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets * Launch Complex 37 – used for the smaller Apollo Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets * List of memorials to John F. Kennedy * List of tallest buildings and structures in the world * Mobile launcher platform * NASA Causeway * Solar eclipse of August 12, 2045 (Kennedy Space Center will be in the path of totality) * Swamp Works * Crawler-transporter

== References == === Citations === {{Reflist}}

=== Sources === {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Charles W. |last2=Faherty |first2=William Barnaby |title=Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4204/contents.html |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA |year=1978 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041117050424/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4204/contents.html |archive-date=November 17, 2004 }}. * Middleton, Sallie. "Space Rush: Local Impact of Federal Aerospace Programs on Brevard and Surrounding Counties," ''Florida Historical Quarterly,'' Fall 2008, Vol. 87 Issue 2, pp.&nbsp;258–289. * {{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=David West |title=Kennedy Space Center: Gateway to Space |url=https://archive.org/details/kennedyspacecent00reyn |access-date=January 30, 2010 |date=September 2006 |publisher=Firefly Books |location=Buffalo, NY |isbn=978-1-55407-039-8 }} * {{include-NASA}} {{refend}}

== External links == {{Commons category|Kennedy Space Center}} {{Wikivoyage|Cape Canaveral}} * {{official website|https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/home/index.html}} * [http://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/ KSC Visitor Complex Web site] * [http://www.radioreference.com/apps/audio/?ctid=320 Streaming audio of KSC radio communications] * [http://www.amfcse.org/ Astronauts Memorial Foundation Web site] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070630011305/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/101space/101space.htm "America's Space Program: Exploring a New Frontier", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places lesson plan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070703230334/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/aviation/ "Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms", a National Park Service ''Discover Our Shared Heritage'' travel itinerary] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100312044757/http://web.mac.com/jimgerard/AFGAS/pages/aaindex/home1.html A Field Guide to American Spacecraft] * Documentary of the [https://richesmi.cah.ucf.edu/omeka2/items/show/2458 U.S. Space Program] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305010601/https://richesmi.cah.ucf.edu/omeka2/items/show/2458 |date=March 5, 2016 }} in Florida

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