Muskogean languages

{{Short description|Language family of Southeast US}} {{Redirect|Muskogean|the indigenous people|Muscogee}} {{Infobox language family | name = Muskogean | region = Southeastern North America | familycolor = American | family = One of the world's primary language families | glotto = musk1252 | glottorefname = Muskogean | child1 = Choctaw–Chickasaw | child2 = Alabama–Koasati | child3 = Hitchiti–Mikasuki | child4 = Muscogee | child5 = Apalachee {{extinct}} | child6 = Houma {{extinct}} | map = Muskogean map labeled.svg | mapcaption = Pre-contact distribution of Muskogean languages | ancestor = Proto-Muskogean | glottoname = | notes = }}

'''Muskogean''' ({{IPAc-en|m|@|'|s|k|ou|g|i|@n}} {{respell|mə|SKOH|ghee|ən}}; also '''Muskhogean''') is a language family spoken in the Southeastern United States. The state with the largest population of speakers today is Oklahoma. Members of the family are Indigenous languages of the Americas. Typologically, Muskogean languages are highly synthetic and agglutinative. One documented language, Apalachee, is no longer spoken, and the remaining languages are critically endangered.

==Genetic relationships==

===Family division=== The Muskogean family consists of Alabama, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (or Creek), Koasati, Apalachee, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki.<ref>Jack B. Martin. "Muskogean" ''The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America'' Vol. 13.2 (2023) p. 1577–1600</ref> Hitchiti is generally considered a dialect of Mikasuki.<ref>Hardy 2005, p. 69</ref> "Seminole" is sometimes used for either a dialect of Muscogee spoken in Oklahoma,<ref>(Hardy 2005: 70; see also Mithun 2005: 462, Martin 2023)</ref> or to refer to the Mikasuki which is the ancestral language of most Florida Seminoles<ref>{{cite web |last1=University of Florida |title=Florida's INDIANS: Past and Present |url=https://research.ufl.edu/publications/explore/v03n2/indians.html |website=RGP-Explore |publisher=Explore Magazine Volume 3 Issue 2 |access-date=1 May 2026}}</ref>, while "Cow Creek Seminole" more specifically refers to a dialect of Muscogee spoken by a minority of Seminoles in Florida.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spoehr |first=Alexander |url=http://archive.org/details/campclankinamong331spoe |title=Camp, clan, and kin among the Cow Creek Seminole of Florida |date=1941 |publisher=Chicago: Field Museum Press |others=University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign |pages=9–10. |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

The major subdivisions of the family have long been controversial, but the following lower-level groups are universally accepted: Choctaw–Chickasaw, Alabama–Koasati, Hitchiti–Mikasuki, and Muscogee.<ref>Broadwell 1992, p. 1</ref><ref>Hardy 2005, p. 70</ref><ref>Martin & Munro 2005, p. 299</ref> Apalachee is no longer spoken; its precise relationship to the other languages is uncertain, but Mary Haas and Pamela Munro both classify it with the Alabama–Koasati group.<ref>Broadwell 1992, pp. 3; 41–42, footnote 2</ref>

====Haas's classification==== For connections among these groupings, one influential classification is that of Mary Haas and Karen Booker, in which "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw) is seen as one major branch, and "Eastern Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, and Muscogee) as another. Within Eastern Muskogean, Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki are generally thought to be more closely related to each other than to Muscogee.<ref name="H2005classification">Hardy 2005, pp. 70-71</ref> That classification is reflected in the list below:<ref>Mithun 2005, p. 461</ref><ref>Campbell 1997, p. 147</ref><ref>Martin, Jack B. 2004. ''Languages. Handbook of North American Indians''. "The Southeast". Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian.</ref>

{{tree list}} * '''Muskogean''' ** Western Muskogean *** '''Chickasaw''' *** '''Choctaw''' (also called Chahta, Chacato) ** Eastern Muskogean *** '''Muscogee''' (also called Muskogee, Maskoke, Mvskoke, Seminole, and Creek) *** '''Hitchiti-Mikasuki''' (also called Miccosukee or Seminole) *** Apalachee–Alabama–Koasati **** '''Apalachee''' {{extinct}} **** '''Alabama''' (also called Alibamu) **** '''Koasati''' (also called Coushatta) {{tree list/end}}

====Munro's classification==== A different classification has been proposed by Pamela Munro. In her classification, the languages are divided into a "Southern Muskogean" branch (Choctaw-Chickasaw, Alabama-Koasati, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki) and a "Northern Muskogean" one (Muscogee). Southern Muskogean is then subdivided into Hitchiti-Mikasuki and a "Southwestern Muskogean" branch containing Alabama-Koasati and "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw).<ref name="H2005classification" /> The classification is reflected in the list below:<ref name="C1997pg148">Campbell 1997, p. 148</ref>

{{tree list}} * '''Muskogean''' ** Northern Muskogean *** '''Muscogee''' ** Southern Muskogean *** '''Hitchiti-Mikasuki''' *** Southwestern Muskogean **** '''Apalachee''' {{extinct}} **** ''Alabama–Koasati'' ***** '''Alabama''' ***** '''Koasati''' **** ''Western Muskogean'' ***** '''Chickasaw''' ***** '''Choctaw''' {{tree list/end}}

===Broader relationships=== ====Possible Muskogean languages==== Several sparsely attested languages have been claimed to be Muskogean languages. George Broadwell suggested that the languages of the Yamasee and Guale were Muskogean.<ref name="Campbell149">Campbell 1997, p. 149</ref><ref>Broadwell 1992, pp. 41–42, fn. 2</ref> However, William Sturtevant argued that the "Yamasee" and "Guale" data were Muscogee and that the language(s) spoken by the Yamasee and Guale people remain unknown.<ref>Sturtevant 1994, referenced in Campbell 1997, p. 149</ref> It is possible that the Yamasee were an amalgamation of several different ethnic groups and did not speak a single language. Chester B. DePratter describes the Yamasee as consisting mainly of speakers of Hitchiti and Guale.<ref>{{NRHP url|id=64500575|title=Dr. Chester B. DePratter, "The Foundation, Occupation, and Abandonment of Yamasee Indian Towns in the South Carolina Lowcountry, 1684–1715"}}, National Register Multiple Property Submission</ref> The historian Steven Oatis also describes the Yamasee as an ethnically mixed group that included people from Muskogean-speaking regions, such as the early colonial-era native towns of ''Hitchiti'', ''Coweta'', and ''Cussita''.<ref>{{cite book |last= Oatis |first= Steven J. |title= A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, 1680–1730 |year= 2004 |publisher= University of Nebraska Press |isbn= 0-8032-3575-5}}</ref>

The Amacano, Chacato, Chine, Pacara, and Pensacola people, who lived along the Gulf Coast of Florida from the Big Bend Coast to Pensacola Bay, are reported to have spoken the same Muskogean language, which may have been closely related to Choctaw.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hann |first=John H. |title=The Native American World Beyond Apalachee |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=2006 |isbn=9-780-8130-2982-5 |pages=11, 20–21, 24, 43}}</ref><ref>Milanich:95, 96</ref><ref>Coker:6</ref><ref>Swanton:136</ref>

Sparse evidence indicates that a Muskogean language was spoken by at least some of the people of the paramount chiefdom of Cofitachequi in northeastern South Carolina. If so, that would be the most eastern outpost of Muskogean. The people of Cofitichequi were probably absorbed by nearby Siouan and Iroquoian speakers in the late 17th century.<ref>Hudson, Charles ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions'' Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990, pp. 68–73, 75</ref>

A vocabulary of the Houma may be another underdocumented Western Muskogean language or a version of Mobilian Jargon, a pidgin based on Western Muskogean.

====Gulf==== {{main|Gulf languages}} The best-known connection proposed between Muskogean and other languages is Mary Haas' Gulf hypothesis, in which she conceived of a macrofamily comprising Muskogean and a number of language isolates of the southeastern US: Atakapa, Chitimacha, Tunica, and Natchez. While well-known, the Gulf grouping is now generally rejected by historical linguists.<ref name="Campbell149" /><ref>Campbell 1997, pp. 305–09</ref> Some Muskogean scholars continue to assert that Muskogean is related to Natchez.<ref>Campbell 1997, p. 305</ref>

==Features== ===Nouns=== Nouns in Muskogean languages may take prefixes indicating the person and number of a possessor. Noun phrases may be marked for grammatical case, with a distinction between subjects (nominative case) and nonsubjects (oblique case). Some Muskogean languages have affixes indicating plural nouns (generally human nouns) or groups.

===Verbs=== Muskogean verbs are highly synthetic, with affixes for tense, aspect, person, number, direction, and mood. While case marking is nominative–accusative, person marking is active–stative, with separate series of agent, patient, and indirect object person markers.

Verbs have a complex system of ablaut indicating aspect. In Muskogean linguistics, the different forms are known as "grades" or "themes".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haas |first=Mary R. |date=1940 |title=Ablaut and Its Function in Muskogee |journal=Language |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=141–50 |JSTOR=}}</ref>

All the languages make use of suppletive verbs indicating the number of the subject in an intransitive verb or the number of the direct object in a transitive verb.

Innately-numbered verbal stems, Mikasuki:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=West |first=David |date=1974 |title=Number in the Mikasuki verb stem. |url=https://commons.und.edu/sil-work-papers/vol18/iss1/15/ |journal=Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session |volume=18 |issue=15 |page=135}}</ref>

{{interlinear | indent = 2|haca:l-om|stand.SG.SBJ|"(one) is standing" }}

{{interlinear | indent = 2|loko:ka:c-om|stand.PL|"(three or more) stand" }}

==Vocabulary== Below is a list of basic vocabulary in five Muskogean languages from Broadwell (1992):<ref>{{cite conference |last=Broadwell |first=George Aaron |date=1992 |title=Reconstructing Proto-Muskogean Language and Prehistory: Preliminary Results |url=http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060107085838/http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2006 |conference=Southern Anthropological Society |location=St. Augustine, Florida |publisher=State University of New York at Albany}}</ref>

{{collapse top|Muskogean basic vocabulary from by Broadwell (1992)}} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Chickasaw !! Choctaw !! Alabama !! Mikasuki !! Muscogee |- | all || mõma || mõma || óyha || maamos- || omalka |- | ashes || hottok || hitokchobi || histo || tolhambi || iisso |- | belly || ittakoba' || iffoka || ikfi || lampi || nalhki |- | big || ishto || chito || coba || coob- || lhakkii |- | bird || foshi' || hoshi || foosi || foosi || foswa |- | bite || kisili || kopooli || kachalhlhi || kabalikci || akkita |- | black || losa || losa || loca || looci || lasti |- | blood || issish || issish || lhakhani || picikci || caati |- | bone || foni' || foni || cokfoni || -fooni || iffoni |- | breast || ip shik || ip shik || pisi || owaaci || hokpi |- | burn || lowa || lowah || libatli || yill- || noklhita |- | claw || iyyakchosh || iyyakchosh || iyyaksi || iiyakoosi || ilinkososwa |- | cloud || hoshonti || hoshõti || onoolici || hosoti || aholocii |- | cold || kapassa || kapassa || kasatka || kapaali || kasappi |- | come || minti || m ti || ila || ont- || atita |- | die || illi || illi || illi || il- || ilita |- | dog || ofi' || ofi || ifa || iifi || ifa |- | drink || ishko || ishko || isko || isk- || iskita |- | dry || shila || shila || solotka || sokook- || kalhpii |- | ear || haksibis || haksobish || hakco || hacoobi || hakco |- | earth || yakni' || yakni || ihaani || yakni || iikana |- | eat || impa || pa || ipa || imp- || hompita |- | egg || akankoshi' || akãkoshi || akaakocóòsi || onaasi || costaki |- | eye || ishkin || nishkin || ittilhi || iti || tolhwa |- | fat (grease) || niha || bila || nitokci || niihi || nihaa |- | fire || lowak || lowak || tikba || iiti || tootka |- | fish || nani' || nani || lhalho || lhaalhi || lhalho |- | fly, to || wakaa || hika || wakayka || yakaal- || tamkita |- | foot || iyyi' || iyyi || iyyi || iyi || ili |- | full || kayya || kayya || kayya || labakni || fackita |- | give || ima || ima || inka || iik- || imita |- | good || chokma || achokma || kano || hiilhi || h lhi |- | green || okchamali || okchamaali || okcakko || honotbitalakci || laani |- | hair || pãshi'/hishi' || pãshi/hishi || hissi || tokisi || issi |- | hand || ilbak || ibbak || ilbi || ilbi || inki |- | head || ishkobo' || noshkobo || isbakko || yoosi || ika |- | hear || hánglo || haklo || haalo || hakl- || pohita |- | heart || chõkash || chõkash || conoska || conosbi || fiiki |- | horn || lapish || lapish || lapihci || lap-i || yapi |- | I || ano' || ano || ana || aani || ani |- | kill || abi || abi || ibi || ill c || iliicita |- | knee || iyyinto'lhka' || iyyi kalaaha || ittôlhpa || tolhpi || tolhkowa |- | know || ithána || ikhana || sobayli || ataalh || kilhlhita |- | lie down, to || tí'wa || talaaya || baláàli || talaal || wakkita |- | liver || salakha || salakha || illopi || lopi || lopi |- | long || falaa || falaaya || baski || backi || capki |- | louse || issap || issap || icha || hicahci || icka |- | man || hattak nakni' || hattak nakni || naani || nakni || honanwa |- | many || lawa || lawa || lawa || aconki || solkii |- | meat (flesh) || nipi' || nipi || nipo || akni || apiswa |- | mountain || onchaba || habik || bokkoscaaha || || iikanhalwii |- | mouth || iti || itialbi || icokhalbi || ici || cokwa |- | name || holhchifo || hohchifo || holcifa || hocilki || hocifka |- | neck || nokhistap || ikkõla || nokbi || nokbi || nokwa |- | new || himitta || himmona || hahpa || himaci || mocasi |- | night || oklhili' || ninak || tanka || niilhaki || nilhii |- | nose || ibichchala' || ibishakni || ibisaani || ibi || yopoo |- | not || ki'yo || kiiyo || mánko || maati || monks |- | one || chaffa || achaffa || caffaaka || lhaamin || hamkin |- | person (human) || hattak || hattak || aati || yaati || isti |- | rain || omba || õba || oyba || okoob- || oskita |- | red || homma || homma || homma || kitisci || caati |- | road (path) || hina' || hina || hini || hini || nini |- | root || haksish || hakshish || assikci || aski || yalomka |- | round || lhibokta || kalaaha || bonotka || polocki || polooki |- | say || aachi || aachi || manka || kaac || maakita |- | sand || shinok || shinok || sanco || samooci || oktaaha |- | see || p sa || p sa || hicha || hica || hicita |- | seed || nihi' || nihi || hilhikci || yiilhi || nilhka |- | sit || bínni'li || biniili || cokóòli || cokool- || leykita |- | skin || hakshop || hakshop || affakci || halbi || halhpi |- | sleep || nosi || nosi || noci || nooc- || nocita |- | small || iskanno'si || osi || cinoofa || wink- || cotki |- | smoke || shobohli || shobohli || sobotli || ockoci || ikkoci |- | stand || híkki'ya || hikiiya || lokóòli || lokooka || hoylhita |- | star || foshik || fichik || hociilhi || owaaciki || kocacampa |- | stone || tali' || tali || tali || tali || cato |- | sun || hashi' || hashi || hasi || haasi || hasi |- | swim || yopi || okshiniili || oohapka || opahk- || omeyyita |- | tail || hasimbish || has bis || haci || haaci || haci |- | that || yamma || ma || akki || ma || ma |- | this || yappa || pa || ya || ya || ya |- | thou || ishno' || chishno || isna || cihn- || ciimi |- | tongue || isõlash || ittõlas || icoolaksi || cokolaasi || tolaaswa |- | tooth || noti' || noti || innati || -nooti || noti |- | tree || itti' || itti || itto || ahi || ito |- | two || toklo || toklo || tôklo || toklan || hokkoolin |- | walk || nõwa || nowa || ciyahli || cayahl || yakapita |- | warm (hot) || lashpa || lashpa || ikba || hãyyi || hayyita |- | water || oka' || oka || oki || ooki || oywa |- | we || poshno' || pishno || posna || pohni || poomi |- | what || nanta || natah || náàsi || naaki || naaki |- | white || tohbi || tohbi || hatka || hatki || hatki |- | who || kata || katah || náksi || noolh- || isteyma |- | woman || ihoo || ohooyo || tayyi || tayki || hoktii |- | yellow || lakna || lakna || laana || lakni || laanii |} {{collapse bottom}}

==Proto-language== {{Infobox proto-language | name = Proto-Muskogean | familycolor = American | ancestor = | target = Muskogean languages }} ===Phonology=== Proto-Muskogean is reconstructed as having the consonants (given in IPA transcription):<ref>Booker 2005</ref>

{| class="wikitable" |- ! rowspan="2"| ! rowspan="2"| Labial ! colspan="2"| Alveolar ! rowspan="2"| Palatal ! colspan="2"| Velar |- ! Median ! Lateral ! Plain ! Labialized |- align="center" ! Stops | {{IPA|*p}} | {{IPA|*t}} | | | {{IPA|*k}} | {{IPA|*kʷ}} |- align="center" ! Affricates | | {{IPA|*ts}} | | {{IPA|*tʃ}} | | |- align="center" ! Fricatives | | {{IPA|*s}} | {{IPA|*ɬ}} | {{IPA|*ʃ}} | {{IPA|*x}} | {{IPA|*xʷ}} |- align="center" ! Nasals | {{IPA|*m}} | {{IPA|*n}} | | | | |- align="center" ! Approximants | | | {{IPA|*l}} | {{IPA|*j}} | | {{IPA|*w}} |- ! Other | | colspan="2" align="center"| *θ [n̥] | | | |}

The phonemes reconstructed by Haas as {{IPA|*/x/}} and {{IPA|*/xʷ/}} show up as {{IPA|/h/}} and {{IPA|/f/}} (or {{IPA|/ɸ/}}<ref>Booker 2005, pg. 254</ref>), respectively, in all Muskogean languages;<ref>Booker 2005, pp. 248, 252, 254</ref> they are therefore reconstructed by some as {{IPA|*/h/}} and {{IPA|*/ɸ/}}.<ref name="C1997pg148" /><ref>Martin & Munro 2005, p. 318, fn. 2</ref> {{IPA|*/kʷ/}} appears as {{IPA|/b/}} in all the daughter languages except Muscogee for which it is {{IPA|/k/}} initially and {{IPA|/p/}} medially. The value of the proto-phoneme conventionally written {{angle bracket|θ}} (or {{angle bracket|N}}) is unknown;<ref>Booker 2005, p. 286, footnote 7</ref> it appears as {{IPA|/n/}} in Western Muskogean languages and as {{IPA|/ɬ/}} in Eastern Muskogean languages. Haas reconstructed it as a voiceless {{IPA|/n/}} (that is, {{IPA|*/n̥/}}), based partly on presumed cognates in Natchez.<ref name="C1997pg148" /><ref>Booker 2005, pp. 251–52</ref>

==References== {{reflist|2}}

==Further reading== * Booker, Karen. (2005). "Muskogean Historical Phonology." In Hardy, Heather Kay and Scancarelli, Janine (eds.), ''Native languages of the Southeastern United States'', 246–298. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. * {{cite conference |last=Broadwell |first=George Aaron |date=1992 |title=Reconstructing Proto-Muskogean Language and Prehistory: Preliminary Results |url=http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060107085838/http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2006 |conference=Southern Anthropological Society |location=St. Augustine, Florida |publisher=State University of New York at Albany}} * Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509427-1}}. *Coker, William S. (1999) "Pensacola, 1686–1821." in Judith Anne Bense. (1999) Editor. ''Archaeology of colonial Pensacola.'' University Press of Florida. {{ISBN|0-8130-1661-4}} Found at [https://books.google.com/books?id=_WnLuhfm7vAC&q=archaeology+of+colonial+pensacola Google Books] * Crawford, James M. (Ed.). (1975a). ''Studies in Southeastern Indian Languages''. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. * Crawford, James M. (1975b). "Southeastern Indian Languages". In Crawford (ed.) 1975, pp. 1–120. * Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). ''Languages''. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. {{ISBN|0-16-048774-9}}. * Haas, Mary (1951). "The Proto-Gulf word for water (with notes on Siouan–Yuchi)". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' '''17''': 71–79. * Haas, Mary. (1952). "The Proto-Gulf word for 'land' (with notes on Proto-Siouan)". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' '''18''':238–240. * Haas, Mary. (1973). "The Southeast". In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), ''Linguistics in North America'' (part 2, pp. 1210–1249). The Hague: Mouton. * Hardy, Heather. (2005). "Introduction". In Hardy & Scancarelli 2005, pp. 69–74. * Hardy, Heather & Janine Scancarelli. (2005). ''Native Languages of the Southeastern United States''. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. *Hopkins, Nicholas A. ''[http://www.famsi.org/research/hopkins/SouthEastUSLanguages.pdf The Native Languages of the Southeastern United States]'' (PDF). Report for the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved on 2009-05-03. *Martin, Jack B. (2004). "Languages." In Raymond D. Fogelson ed., Handbook of North American Indians. The Southeast, 68–86. * Martin, Jack B. (2023) "Muskogean." ''The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America'' Vol. 13.2, pp. 1577–1600 Available at: <nowiki>http://works.bepress.com/jackb-martin/11/</nowiki> * Martin, Jack B. & Pamela Munro. (2005). "Proto-Muskogean Morphology". in Hardy & Scancarelli eds., pp. 299–320 *Milanich, Jerald T. (1995). ''Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe''. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. {{ISBN|0-8130-1360-7}} * Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-23228-7}} (hbk); {{ISBN|0-521-29875-X}}. * Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). ''Linguistics in North America'' (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976). * Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). ''Handbook of North American Indians'' (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published). * Sturtevant, William C. (1994). "The Misconnection of Guale and Yamasee with Muskogean". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' '''60''':139–148. *Swanton, John Reed. (1952) ''The Indian Tribes of North America.'' Found at [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpx6WoPz7xIC&q=pensacola+indians Google Books] *West, David (1974). "Number in the Mikasuki verb stem". ''Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session''. '''18''' (15).

==External links== {{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at '''''Appendix:Proto-Muskogean reconstructions'''''}} *[http://www.native-languages.org/fammus.htm Muskogean Language Family] page at native-languages.org *[http://www.chickasaw.tv/culture-keepers/video/the-origin-of-the-chickasaw-language/list/language Chickasaw Language Information & Videos] - Chickasaw.TV

{{Mississippian and related cultures}} {{Pre-Columbian North America}} {{Language families}} {{North American languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muskogean Language}} Category:Muskogean languages Category:Agglutinative languages Category:Language families Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast Category:South Appalachian Mississippian culture Category:Gulf languages