{{Short description|Family of Papuan languages}} {{Infobox language family | name = Yam | altname = Morehead River | region = Morehead River watershed, New Guinea | familycolor = Papuan | fam1 = A primary language family | glotto = more1255 | glottorefname = Yam | child1 = Yey | child2 = Nambu | child3 = Tonda | map = Morehead and Upper Maro River languages.svg | mapcaption = Map: The Yam languages of New Guinea {{legend|#FF5E5F|Yam languages}} {{legend|#7BB5B6|Trans–New Guinea languages}} {{legend|#D9D9D9|Other Papuan languages}} {{legend|#E09D00|Austronesian languages}} {{legend|#f4f861|Australian languages}} {{legend|white|Uninhabited}} | ancestor = | glottoname = | notes = }} {{GeoGroup}}
The '''Yam''' languages, also known as the '''Morehead River''' languages, are a family of Papuan languages. They include many of the languages south and west of the Fly River in Papua New Guinea and Indonesian Western New Guinea (South Papua).
==Name== The name ''Morehead and Upper Maro River'', or ''Morehead–Maro'', refers to the area around the Morehead and Maro rivers. Most of the languages are found between these rivers, but the Nambu subgroup are spoken east of the Morehead. Evans (2012) refers to the family instead with the more compact name ''Yam''. This name is motivated by a number of linguistic and cultural items of significance: ''yam'' (and cognates) means "custom, tradition"; ''yəm'' (and cognates) means "is"; and yam tubers are the local staple and of central cultural importance.
==External relationships== Ross (2005) tentatively includes the Yam languages in the proposed Trans-Fly – Bulaka River family. More recently (Evans 2012) has argued that this is not justified and more data has to be gathered. Evans (2018) classifies the Pahoturi River languages as an independent language family.<ref name="Evans-Southern"/>
Yam languages have also been in intensive contact with Marind and Suki speakers, who had historically expanded into Yam-speaking territories via headhunting raids and other expansionary migrations.<ref name="Evans-Southern"/>
==Classification== Internal classification of the Yam languages:<ref>Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, [https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/morehead-river Morehead River]{{Dead link|date=December 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> *Yei *Tonda languages (a dialect chain) *Nambu languages (a dialect chain)
Wichmann (2013) did not find a connection between the branches in his automated comparison.<ref name="Wichmann2013">Wichmann, Søren. 2013. [http://www.langlxmelanesia.com/wichmann313-386.pdf A classification of Papuan languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125143227/https://www.langlxmelanesia.com/wichmann313-386.pdf |date=2020-11-25 }}. In: Hammarström, Harald and Wilco van den Heuvel (eds.), History, contact and classification of Papuan languages (Language and Linguistics in Melanesia, Special Issue 2012), 313-386. Port Moresby: Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea.</ref>
==Languages== Yam languages are spoken by up to 3,000 people on both sides of the border in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. In Papua New Guinea, Yam languages are spoken in Morehead Rural LLG, Western Province. In Papua, Indonesia, Yam languages are spoken in Merauke Regency.<ref name="Evans-Southern"/>
Yam languages and respective demographic information listed by Evans (2018) are provided below.<ref name="Evans-Southern">{{cite book |last=Evans |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Evans (linguist) |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The languages of Southern New Guinea |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=641–774 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref> Geographical coordinates are also provided for some villages.<ref name="UN-PNG">{{cite web |url=https://data.humdata.org/dataset/village-coordinates-lookup |title=Papua New Guinea Village Coordinates Lookup |author=United Nations in Papua New Guinea |work=Humanitarian Data Exchange |version=1.31.9 |date=2018}}</ref>
:{| class="wikitable sortable" |+ List of Yam languages ! Language !! Alternative names !! Subgroup !! Speakers !! Villages or hamlets |- | Anta || Tokwe, Upper Morehead, Thamnga || Tonda || 150 || Ufarua ({{coord|-8.635484|141.633236|type:city_region:PG|name=Uparua}}), Forzitho, Thamgakar ({{coord|-8.626232|141.611057|type:city_region:PG|name=Damgar}}) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Komnzo || Kamundjo, Upper Morehead, (Mema, Ranzér), Zókwasi, Farem || Tonda || 200 || Rouku ({{coord|-8.701793|141.598485|type:city_region:PG|name=Rouku}}), Gunana, Morehead ({{coord|-8.708915|141.634593|type:city_region:PG|name=Morehead Station}}), Firra, Masu, Kanathér in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Wára || Tjokwe, Upper Morehead, Wära, Mät || Tonda || 350 || Yokwa ({{coord|-8.700472|141.523053|type:city_region:PG|name=Iokwa}}), (Mäwsa, Kwaikér, Zäzér Ménz) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Wérè || Tokwe, Upper Morehead, Wórä || Tonda || 100 || Tokwa ({{coord|-8.643291|141.436129|type:city_region:PG|name=Tokwa}}), Kanfok in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Kémä || Upper Morehead || Tonda || 130 || Wämnefér ({{coord|-8.74137|141.415826|type:city_region:PG|name=Wemnevere}}) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Kánchá || Kunja, Lower Morehead, Peremka, Kénzä || Tonda || 350* || Bondobol ({{coord|-8.929521|141.338469|type:city_region:PG|name=Bondobol}}), Bula ({{coord|-9.128337|141.340513|type:city_region:PG|name=Bula}}), Jarai ({{coord|-9.196839|141.584426|type:city_region:PG|name=Jarai}}) in southeast Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Ránmo || Tonda, Renmo, Blafe || Tonda || 200* || Yéndorodoro ({{coord|-8.59196|141.29677|type:city_region:PG|name=Indorodoro}}), Mengete ({{coord|-8.657045|141.284029|type:city_region:PG|name=Mengete}}) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Mblafe || Blafe, Blafe Wonana, Tonda || Tonda || 350* || Weam ({{coord|-8.618919|141.134728|type:city_region:PG|name=Weam Village}}), Kandarisa ({{coord|-8.621418|141.2194|type:city_region:PG|name=Kandarisa}}), Wereaver ({{coord|-8.596603|141.123567|type:city_region:PG|name=Wereavere}}) (only recently in Wereaver) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Warta Thuntai || Guntai, Kan || Tonda || 430 || Wando ({{coord|-8.885893|141.258528|type:city_region:PG|name=Wando}}), Bensbach ({{coord|-8.8493|141.249855|type:city_region:PG|name=Bensbach Lodge}}), Balamuk, Korombo 1, Korombo 2 ({{coord|-8.754213|141.265672|type:city_region:PG|name=Korombo}}) in mid southwest Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Arammba || None || Tonda || 2000 || Fwasam, Gowi, Kiriwa ({{coord|-8.437511|141.515843|type:city_region:PG|name=Kiriwo}}), Meru ({{coord|-8.471963|141.466349|type:city_region:PG|name=Merru}}), Sedefi ({{coord|-8.514592|141.610694|type:city_region:PG|name=Setavi}}), Serki ({{coord|-8.250688|141.766022|type:city_region:PG|name=Serki}}) in north central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Nggarna || Ngar, Kanum, Sota || Tonda || unknown || Vicinity of Sota in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Rema || || Tonda || 10? (moribund or extinct) || Wereaver ({{coord|-8.596603|141.123567|type:city_region:PG|name=Wereavere}}) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Smerki || Smärki, Kanum, Barkari || Tonda || 150 || Rawu Biru, Tomer, Tomerau, Yakiw in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia |- | Tamer || Smerki, Smärki, Kanum || Tonda || 120 || Yanggandur (recently moved there) in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia |- | Ngkontar || Ngkontar, Ngkolmpu || Tonda || 100 || Yanggandur in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG |- | Ngkolmpu || Kiki, Ngkntra Kiki, Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne || Tonda || || east Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG |- | Bedi Ngkolmpu || Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne || Tonda || 5 (moribund or extinct) || Onggaya in south central Merauke Regency, Indonesia |- | Yei || || Yei || 1278 || Po, Torai, Bupul, Tanas, Kwel in east Merauke Regency, Indonesia |- | Nen || || Nambu || 350 || Bimadeben ({{coord|-8.701793|141.598485|type:city_region:PG|name=Bimadeben Vill/ Comm. Sch}}) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Nama || || Nambu || 1200 || Daraia ({{coord|-8.61637|141.733576|type:city_region:PG|name=Darava}}), Mata ({{coord|-8.674546|141.743133|type:city_region:PG|name=Mata}}), Ngaraita ({{coord|-8.599511|141.714869|type:city_region:PG|name=Garaita}}) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Namat || Mibini || Nambu || 170* || Mibini ({{coord|-8.838849|141.637931|type:city_region:PG|name=Mibini}}) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Nambo || Nmbo, Keraki; Namna, Yarne || Nambu || 710 || ''Nambo variety'': Gubam ({{coord|-8.619428|141.922509|type:city_region:PG|name=Gubam}}), Bebdeben ({{coord|-8.667668|141.925772|type:city_region:PG|name=Bebdeben}}), Arufi ({{coord|-8.760576|141.913707|type:city_region:PG|name=Arufi}}) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG; ''Namna variety'': Pongarki ({{coord|-8.664295|141.827064|type:city_region:PG|name=Pongariki}}), Derideri ({{coord|-8.686837|141.85624|type:city_region:PG|name=Derideri}}) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Neme || || Nambu || 200 || Keru ({{coord|-8.483752|141.788348|type:city_region:PG|name=Keru}}), Mitere in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Dre || Ndre || Nambu || 1 || Ramar in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Namo || Nä || Nambu || 374* || Tais ({{coord|-9.167526|141.905733|type:city_region:PG|name=Tais}}), Mari ({{coord|-9.193532|141.70247|type:city_region:PG|name=Mari}}) in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |- | Len || Lä || Nambu || 8–10 || Now living in Tais ({{coord|-9.167526|141.905733|type:city_region:PG|name=Tais}}), original village was Yaoga in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG |}
See also: Districts of Papua (Indonesian Wikipedia)
==Pronouns== The pronouns Ross (2005) reconstructs for the family are,
;Proto-Yam (Proto–Morehead – Upper Maro) :{| class=wikitable |- | '''I/we'''||''*ni'' |- | '''you'''||''*bu'' |- | '''s/he/they'''||''*be'' |}
==Typology== Many Yam languages display vowel harmony, including in Nambu and Tonda languages.<ref name="Evans-Southern"/>
==Vocabulary comparison==
The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970)<ref>McElhanon, K.A. and Voorhoeve, C.L. ''The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in deep-level genetic relationships''. B-16, vi + 112 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. {{doi|10.15144/PL-B16}}</ref> and Voorhoeve (1975),<ref>Voorhoeve, C.L. ''Languages of Irian Jaya: Checklist. Preliminary classification, language maps, wordlists''. B-31, iv + 133 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. {{doi|10.15144/PL-B31}}</ref> as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://transnewguinea.org/family/scpapuan |title=TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea |last=Greenhill |first=Simon |date=2016 |access-date=2020-11-05}}</ref>
The words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g. ''tor'', ''ter'' for “tooth”) or not (e.g. ''sento'', ''yarmaker'' for “bird”).
:{| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Kanum !! Yei |- ! head | mel || kilpel |- ! hair | mel-kata || peab |- ! eye | si || cur |- ! tooth | tor || ter |- ! leg | tegu || cere |- ! louse | neːmpin || nim |- ! dog | krar || jeu |- ! pig | kwer || becek |- ! bird | sento || yarmaker |- ! egg | bel || mekur |- ! blood | mbel || gul |- ! bone | mbaːr || gor |- ! skin | keikei || paːr |- ! tree | per || per |- ! man | ire || el-lu |- ! sun | koŋko || mir |- ! water | ataka || kao |- ! fire | mens || benj |- ! stone | melle || mejer |- ! name | iu || ore |- ! eat | anaŋ || cenye |- ! one | namper || nampei |- ! two | yempoka || yetapae |}
==Further reading== *Carroll, Matthew J., Nicholas Evans, I Wayan Arka, Christian Döhler, Eri Kashima, Volker Gast, Tina Gregor, Julia Miller, Emil Mittag, Bruno Olsson, Dineke Schokkin, Jeff Siegel, Charlotte van Tongeren & Kyla Quinn. 2016. ''[http://yamfinder.com/ Yamfinder: Southern New Guinea Lexical Database]''. *Döhler, Christian (2018) ''[http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/212 A grammar of Komnzo]''. (Studies in Diversity Linguistics 22). Berlin: Language Science Press. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.1477799}}. {{ISBN|978-3-96110-125-2}}. Accessed on 2019-11-12. *Evans, Nicholas, I Wayan Arka, Matthew Carroll, Christian Döhler, Eri Kashima, Emil Mittag, Kyla Quinn, Jeff Siegel, Philip Tama & Charlotte van Tongeren. 2017. ''The languages of Southern New Guinea''. In Bill Palmer (ed.), The languages and linguistics of the New Guinea area, 641–774. Berlin; Boston: Walter de Gruyter. {{ISBN|978-3-11-029525-2}}. Accessed on 2019-11-12. *Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14. *Greenhill et al., 2008. In: Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14.
==References== {{Reflist}} {{Refbegin}} *{{Malcolm Ross Pronouns}} *{{Nicholas Evans more diverse}} {{Refend}}
==External links== *[https://archive.codeplex.com/?p=yamfinder Yamfinder] *[http://dobes.mpi.nl/projects/morehead/ Morehead languages documentation project] (DOBES) * Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, [https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/morehead-river/east-morehead-river East Morehead River]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (under construction 2020) * (ibid.) [https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/morehead-river/west-morehead-river West Morehead River]{{Dead link|date=December 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }} (under construction 2020)
{{Yam languages}} {{Papuan languages}} {{language families}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Yam languages Category:Language families Category:Papuan languages Category:Languages of Western Province (Papua New Guinea)