Hmongic languages

{{Short description|Language family of China and Southeast Asia}} {{Infobox language family |name=Hmongic |altname='''Miao''' |ethnicity=[[Miao people]] |familycolor=Hmong-Mien |protoname=[[Proto-Hmongic language|Proto-Hmongic]] |region=[[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]] |child1=[[Bahengic languages|Bahengic]] |child2=[[Sheic languages|Sheic]] |child3=[[West Hmongic]] (Chuanqiandian Miao) |child4=[[Xong language|Xong]] (Western Hunan) |child5=[[Hmu language|Hmu]] (Eastern Guizhou) |child6=possibly other, unclassified branches |iso2=hmn |iso3=hmn |glotto=hmon1337 |glottorefname=Hmongic |map=Hmong Mien lang.png |mapcaption=Hmongic languages: {{legend|A349A4|West Hmongic}} : {{legend|D8BFD8|A-Hmao}} : {{legend|FF3C00|Central (Gejia, A-Hmyo, Mashan, Huishui)}} {{legend|FF7F27|Hmu / East Hmongic}} {{legend|FC89B1|Xong / North Hmongic}} {{legend|800000|Divergent groups: Pa Hng, Bunu, Aoka, etc.}} }}

The '''Hmongic languages''', also known as '''Miao languages''' ({{lang-zh|s=苗语|p=Miáoyǔ|t=苗語}}), include the various languages spoken by the [[Miao people]] (such as [[Hmong language|Hmong]], [[Hmu language|Hmu]], and [[Xong language|Xong]]). Hmongic languages also include various languages spoken by non-[[Mienic languages|Mienic]]-speaking [[Yao people (Asia)|Yao people]], such as [[Pa-Hng language|Pa-Hng]], [[Bu–Nao languages|Bunu]], [[Jiongnai language|Jiongnai]], [[Younuo language|Younuo]], and others, while [[She language|She]] is spoken by ethnic [[She people]].

==Names== ''Miao'' ({{lang|zh|苗}}) is the Chinese name and the one used by Miao in China. However, ''Hmong'' is more familiar in the West, due to [[Hmong people|Hmong]] emigration. Hmong is the biggest subgroup within the Hmongic peoples. Many overseas Hmong prefer the name ''Hmong'', and claim that ''Meo'' (a Southeast Asian language change from Miao) is both inaccurate and pejorative, though it is generally considered neutral by the Miao community in China.

Of the core Hmongic languages spoken by ethnic Miao, there are a number of overlapping names. The three branches are as follows,<ref>{{cite book|title=Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China's Cultural Politics|first=Louisa|last=Schein|edition=illustrated, reprint|year=2000|publisher=Duke University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GomyOthrHjUC&q=Miao+++colloquial&pg=PA85|page=85|isbn=082232444X|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> as named by Purnell (in English and Chinese), Ratliff, and scholars in China, as well as the descriptive names based on the patterns and colors of traditional dress:

{|class=wikitable !Glottolog!!Native name!!Endonym!!Purnell!!Chinese name (geographical)!!Chinese name (general)!!Ratliff!!Dress-color name |- |<code>{{Glottolink|chua1248}}</code> ||Hmong ||lol Hmongb ||Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan Miao ||{{lang|zh|川黔滇苗}} {{Transliteration|zh|Chuanqiandian Miao}} ||Western Miao {{lang|zh|苗语西部方言 / 苗語西部方言}}||West Hmongic||White, Blue/Green, etc. |- |<code>{{Glottolink|larg1235}}</code> ||Ahmao{{efn|name=core}} ||ad Hmaob lul ||Northeast Yunnan Miao ||{{lang|zh|滇东北次苗 / 滇東北次苗}} {{Transliteration|zh|Diandongbeici Miao}} ||Western Miao {{lang|zh|苗语西部方言 / 苗語西部方言}}||West Hmongic ||Flowery Miao (大花苗) |- |<code>{{Glottolink|nort2748}}</code> ||Xong ||dut Xongb ||Western Hunan Miao ||{{lang|zh|湘西苗}} {{Transliteration|zh|Xiangxi Miao}} || Eastern Miao {{lang|zh|苗语东部方言 / 苗語東部方言}}||North Hmongic ||Red Miao |- |<code>{{Glottolink|east2369}}</code> ||Hmu ||hveb Hmub ||Eastern Guizhou Miao ||{{lang|zh|黔东苗}} {{Transliteration|zh|Qiandong Miao}} ||Central Miao {{lang|zh|苗语中部方言 / 苗語中部方言}}||East Hmongic ||Black Miao |}

{{notelist|refs= {{efn|name=core|Local Chinese for [[A-Hmao|Flowery Miao]]. No common name. Miao speakers use forms like ''Hmong'' (''Mong''), ''Hmang'' (''Mang''), ''Hmao'', ''Hmyo''. Yao speakers use names based on ''Nu''.}} }}

The ''Hunan Province Gazetteer'' (1997) gives the following autonyms for various peoples in [[Hunan]] classified by the Chinese government as [[Miao people|Miao]]. *[[Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Xiangxi Prefecture]]: {{lang|mmr|gho Xong}} ({{lang|zh|果雄}}), {{lang|mmr|ghe Xong}} ({{lang|zh|仡熊}}), ({{Transliteration|zh|guo Chu}} {{lang|zh|果楚}}) [ceremonial] **[[Luxi County, Hunan|Luxi County]] and [[Guzhang County]]: {{lang|muq|ghao So}} ({{lang|zh|缩}}), {{lang|muq|te Suang}} ({{lang|zh|爽}}) *[[Jingzhou Miao and Dong Autonomous County|Jingzhou County]], [[Huaihua]]: {{lang|hmq|Hmu}} ({{lang|zh|目}}), ({{Transliteration|zh|Nai Mu}} {{lang|zh|乃目}}) *[[Chengbu Miao Autonomous County|Chengbu County]], [[Shaoyang]]: Hmao ({{lang|zh|髳}})

==Classification== Hmongic is one of the primary branches of the [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien language family]], with the other being [[Mienic languages|Mienic]]. Hmongic is a diverse group of perhaps twenty languages, based on mutual intelligibility, but several of these are dialectically quite diverse in phonology and vocabulary, and are not considered to be single languages by their speakers. There are probably over thirty languages taking this into account.<ref name="Strecker"/> Four classifications are outlined below, though the details of the [[West Hmongic]] branch are left for that article.

[[Mo Piu language|Mo Piu]], first documented in 2009, was reported by Geneviève Caelen-Haumont (2011) to be a divergent Hmongic language, and was later determined to be a dialect of [[Guiyang Miao]]. Similarly, [[Ná-Meo language|Ná-Meo]] is not addressed in the classifications below, but is believed by Nguyễn (2007) to be closest to [[Hmu language|Hmu]] (Qiandong Miao).

===Purnell (1970)=== Purnell (1970) divided the ''Miao'' languages into Eastern, Northern, Central, and Western subgroups.<ref name="Purnell1970">Purnell, Herbert C., Jr. 1970. ''Toward a reconstruction of Proto-Miao-Yao''. PhD dissertation, Cornell University.</ref>

{{tree list}} *'''Miao''' **[[Hmu language|Eastern]] ***Jung-chiang ([[Rongjiang County|Rongjiang]], in Gaotongzhai) ***East A ****Cheng-feng ([[Zhenfeng County|Zhenfeng]]) ****Tʻai-chiang ([[Taijiang County|Taijiang]], in Taigongzhai) ****Lu-shan (Lushan, in Kaitang) ****Kʻai-li ([[Kaili City|Kaili]], in Yanghao 养蒿 / 養蒿) ****Tai-kung (Daigong, in Shidongkou 石洞口) **[[Xong language|Northern]] ***Hua-yuan ([[Huayuan County|Huayuan]], in Jiwei 吉卫 / 吉衛) **Central ***Kwei-chu ***Lung-li ([[Longli County|Longli]], in Shuiwei) **Western ***Wei-ning ([[Weining County|Weining]], in Shimenkan) = [[A Hmao language|A Hmao]] ***Kwang-shun (Guangshun, in Ke-cheng-chai) ***West A ****Hua-chieh ([[Bijie]], in Dananshan 大南山) ****Su-yung ([[Xuyong County|Xuyong]]) ****[[Tak province|Tak]] ****[[Phetchabun province|Petchabun]] {{tree list/end}}

===Strecker (1987)=== Strecker's classification is as follows:<ref name="Strecker">{{cite journal |surname=Strecker |given=David |year=1987 |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/strecker1987hmong.pdf |title=The Hmong-Mien Languages |journal=Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area |volume=10 |number=2 |pages=1–11}}</ref>

* '''Hmongic (Miao)''' **West Hunan = Xong = [[Xiangxi Miao|Xiangxi]] (Northern Hmongic) **East Guizhou = Mhu = [[Qiandong Miao|Qiandong]] (Eastern Hmongic) **[[Pa Hng language|Pa Hng]] **Hm Nai = [[Wunai language|Wunai]] **Kiong Nai = [[Jiongnai language|Jiongnai]] **Yu Nuo = [[Younuo language|Younuo]] **Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan = [[Chuanqiangdian]] (Western Hmongic, including Bu–Nao) (See)

In a follow-up to that paper in the same publication, Strecker tentatively removed Pa-Hng, Wunai, Jiongnai, and Yunuo, positing that they may be independent branches of Miao–Yao, with the possibility that Yao was the first of these to branch off. Effectively, this means that Miao/Hmongic would consist of six branches: [[She language|She]] (Ho-Nte), Pa-Hng, Wunai, Jiongnai, Yunuo, and everything else.<ref>{{cite journal |surname=Strecker |given=David. |year=1987 |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/strecker1987some.pdf |title=Some comments on Benedict's 'Miao-Yao enigma: the Na-e language' |journal=Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area |volume=10 |number=2 |pages=22–42}}</ref> In addition, the 'everything else' would include nine distinct but unclassified branches, which were not addressed by either Matisoff or Ratliff (see [[West Hmongic#Strecker]]).

===Matisoff (2001)=== Matisoff followed the basic outline of Strecker (1987), apart from consolidating the [[Bunu languages]] and leaving [[She language|She]] unclassified:

===Wang & Deng (2003)=== Wang & Deng (2003) is one of the few Chinese sources which integrate the [[Bunu languages]] into Hmongic on purely linguistic grounds. They find the following pattern in the statistics of core [[Swadesh list|Swadesh]] vocabulary:<ref>王士元、邓晓华，《苗瑶语族语言亲缘关系的计量研究——词源统计分析方法》，《中国语文》，2003（294）。</ref>

*[[She language|She]] * (main branch) ** (Hunan–Guangxi) ***[[Jiongnai language|Jiongnai]] *** (other) ****[[Xong language|Western Hunan]] (Northern Hmongic / Xong) ****[[Younuo language|Younuo]]–[[Pa-Hng language|Pa-Hng]] ** (Guizhou–Yunnan) ***[[Hmu language|Eastern Guizhou]] (Eastern Hmongic / Hmu) ***(Western) ****[[Bu–Nao languages|Bu–Nao]] ****[[Western Hmongic]] *****[[A-Hmao language|A-Hmao]] *****[[Hmong language|Hmong]]

===Matisoff (2006)=== [[James Matisoff|Matisoff]] (2006) outlined the following. Not all varieties are listed.<ref>Matisoff, 2006. "Genetic versus Contact Relationship". In Aikhenvald & Dixon, ''Areal diffusion and genetic inheritance''.</ref>

Matisoff also indicates Hmongic influence on [[Gelao language|Gelao]] in his outline.

===Ratliff (2010)=== The Hmongic classification below is from [[Martha Ratliff]] (2010:3).<ref name="Ratliff2010">Ratliff, Martha. 2010. ''Hmong–Mien language history''. Canberra, Australia: Pacific Linguistics.</ref>

{{tree list}} *'''Hmongic (Miao)''' **[[Pa-Hng language|Pa-Hng]] – 32,000 speakers **Main branch ***[[Kiong Nai language|Kiong Nai]] – 1,100 speakers ***[[She language|She]] – 910 speakers ***Core Hmongic ****[[West Hmongic]] (Chuanqiandian) *****[[Hmong language|Hmong]] – 3,712,000 speakers *****[[Small Flowery Miao|Gha-Mu]] - 84,000 speakers *****[[A-Hmao language|A-Hmao]] – 300,000 speakers in Guizhou and [[Yunnan]] *****[[Bu–Nao languages|Bu–Nao]] – 390,000 speakers in [[Guangxi]] *****[[Gejia language|Gejia]] - 60,000 speakers *****[[Luobohe Miao|A-Hmyo]] - 61,000 speakers *****[[Mashan Miao|Mashan]] - 140,000 speakers *****[[Guiyang Miao|Guiyang]] - 190,000 speakers *****[[Huishui Miao|Huishui]] - 180,000 speakers *****[[Pingtang Miao|Pingtang]] - 24,000 speakers ****[[Xong language|Xong]] – 900,000 speakers mostly in [[Hunan]] ****[[Hmu language|Hmu]] – 2,100,000 speakers mostly in [[Guizhou]] {{tree list/end}}

Ratliff (2010) notes that [[Pa-Hng language|Pa-Hng]], [[Jiongnai language|Jiongnai]], and [[Xong language|Xong]] ([[North Hmongic]]) are phonologically conservative, as they retain many Proto-Hmongic features that have been lost in most other daughter languages. For instance, both Pa-Hng and Xong have vowel quality distinctions (and also tone distinctions in Xong) depending on whether or not the Proto-Hmong-Mien rime was open or closed. Both also retain the second part of Proto-Hmong-Mien diphthongs, which is lost in most other Hmongic languages, since they tend to preserve only the first part of Proto-Hmong-Mien diphthongs. Ratliff notes that the position of Xong ([[North Hmongic]]) is still quite uncertain. Since Xong preserves many archaic features not found in most other Hmongic languages, any future attempts at classifying the Hmong-Mien languages must also address the position of Xong.

===Taguchi (2012)=== Yoshihisa Taguchi's (2012, 2013) computational phylogenetic study classifies the Hmongic languages as follows.<ref name="Taguchi2012">Yoshihisa Taguchi [田口善久] (2012). [http://ccl.pku.edu.cn/event/ciel/田口善久--taguchi_phylogeny.pptx ''On the Phylogeny of the Hmong-Mien languages''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221610/http://ccl.pku.edu.cn/event/ciel/%E7%94%B0%E5%8F%A3%E5%96%84%E4%B9%85--taguchi_phylogeny.pptx# |date=2016-03-03 }}. Conference in Evolutionary Linguistics 2012.</ref><ref>Yoshihisa, Taguchi [田口善久] (2013). ''[http://www.jseals.org/seals23/taguchi2013phylogenyp.pdf On the phylogeny of Hmongic languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190127152920/http://www.jseals.org/seals23/taguchi2013phylogenyp.pdf |date=2019-01-27 }}''. Presented at the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS 23), Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.</ref>

{{tree list}} *'''Hmongic''' **[[Pahngic languages|Pahngic]] ***[[Pa Hng language|Pa Hng]] **Northern ***[[Xong language|Xong]] **Core Hmongic ***Central ****[[Hmu language|Hmu]] ***Western ****Hmong–Hmyo *****[[Hmong language|Hmong]] *****[[Luobohe Miao|Hmyo]] ****[[Bu–Nao languages|Pu Nu – Nao Klao]] *****[[Bunu language|Pu Nu]] *****[[Nao Klao language|Nao Klao]] ***Eastern ****[[Kiong Nai language|Kiong Nai]] ****Ho Ne – Pana *****[[She language|Ho Ne]] *****[[Pa Na language|Pana]] {{tree list/end}}

===Hsiu (2015, 2018)=== Hsiu's (2015, 2018)<ref>Hsiu, Andrew. 2015. [https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.1127804 ''The classification of Na Meo, a Hmong-Mien language of Vietnam'']. Paper presented at SEALS 25, Chiang Mai, Thailand.</ref><ref>Hsiu, Andrew. 2018. [https://sites.google.com/site/eastasianphyla/hm/hmongic ''Preliminary classification of Hmongic languages''].</ref> computational phylogenetic study classifies the Hmongic languages as follows, based primarily on lexical data from Chen (2013).<ref>Chen Qiguang [陈其光] (2013). ''Miao and Yao language'' [苗瑶语文]. Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House [民族出版社]. {{ISBN|9787566003263}}</ref>

{{tree list}} *'''Hmongic''' **[[Pahengic languages|Pahengic]] ***[[Pa Hng language|Pa Hng]] ***[[Hm Nai language|Hm Nai]] **[[Xong language|Xiongic]] ***Western (Xiong) ***Eastern (Suang) **[[Sheic languages|Sheic]] ***[[She language|She]]–[[Jiongnai language|Jiongnai]] ***[[Younuo language|Younuo]] ***[[Pa Na language|Pana]] **[[Hmu language|Hmuic]] ***North-East ***West ([[Raojia language|Raojia]]) ***South **[[West Hmongic languages|West Hmongic]] ***[[Bu–Nao languages|Bu–Nao]] ****[[Bunu language|Bunu]] ****[[Nao Klao language|Nao Klao]] ****[[Numao language|Numao]] ***[[Hmong language|Hmong]] (Chuanqiandian) ***(various) {{tree list/end}}

==Comparison== {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto:" align="center" style="text-align:center" |+caption | '''Numerals in Hmongic Languages'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/numeral/Miao-Yao.htm |title=Miao-Yao |accessdate=2012-09-29 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121014024/http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/numeral/Miao-Yao.htm |archivedate=2011-11-21 }}</ref> |- ! Language ! One ! Two ! Three ! Four ! Five ! Six ! Seven ! Eight ! Nine ! Ten |- ! Proto-Hmong-Mien | {{IPA|*ʔɨ}} | {{IPA|*ʔu̯i}} | {{IPA|*pjɔu}} | {{IPA|*plei}} | {{IPA|*prja}} | {{IPA|*kruk}} | {{IPA|*dzjuŋH}} | {{IPA|*jat}} | {{IPA|*N-ɟuə}} | {{IPA|*ɡju̯əp}} |- ! Pa-Hng (Gundong) | {{IPA|ji˩}} | {{IPA|wa˧˥}} | {{IPA|po˧˥}} | {{IPA|ti˧˥}} | {{IPA|tja˧˥}} | {{IPA|tɕu˥}} | {{IPA|tɕaŋ˦}} | {{IPA|ji˦˨}} | {{IPA|ko˧}} | {{IPA|ku˦˨}} |- ! Wunai (Longhui) | {{IPA|i˧˥}} | {{IPA|ua˧˥}} | {{IPA|po˧˥}} | {{IPA|tsi˧˥}} | {{IPA|pia˧˥}} | {{IPA|tju˥}} | {{IPA|tɕa˨˩}} | {{IPA|ɕi˧˩}} | {{IPA|ko˧}} | {{IPA|kʰu˧˩}} |- ! Younuo | {{IPA|je˨}} | {{IPA|u˧}} | {{IPA|pje˧}} | {{IPA|pwɔ˧}} | {{IPA|pi˧}} | {{IPA|tjo˧˥}} | {{IPA|sɔŋ˧˩}} | {{IPA|ja˨˩}} | {{IPA|kiu˩˧}} | {{IPA|kwə˨˩}} |- ! Jiongnai | {{IPA|ʔi˥˧}} | {{IPA|u˦}} | {{IPA|pa˦}} | {{IPA|ple˦}} | {{IPA|pui˦}} | {{IPA|tʃɔ˧˥}} | {{IPA|ʃaŋ˨}} | {{IPA|ʑe˧˨}} | {{IPA|tʃu˧}} | {{IPA|tʃɔ˧˥}} |- ! She (Chenhu) | {{IPA|i˧˥}} | {{IPA|u˨}} | {{IPA|pa˨}} | {{IPA|pi˧˥}} | {{IPA|pi˨}} | {{IPA|kɔ˧˩}} | {{IPA|tsʰuŋ˦˨}} | {{IPA|zi˧˥}} | {{IPA|kjʰu˥˧}} | {{IPA|kjʰɔ˧˥}} |- ! Western Xong (Layiping) | {{IPA|ɑ˦}} | {{IPA|ɯ˧˥}} | {{IPA|pu˧˥}} | {{IPA|pʐei˧˥}} | {{IPA|pʐɑ˧˥}} | {{IPA|ʈɔ˥˧}} | {{IPA|tɕoŋ˦˨}} | {{IPA|ʑi˧}} | {{IPA|tɕo˧˩}} | {{IPA|ku˧}} |- ! Eastern Xong (Xiaozhang) | {{IPA|a˧}} | {{IPA|u˥˧}} | {{IPA|pu˥˧}} | {{IPA|ɬei˥˧}} | {{IPA|pja˥˧}} | {{IPA|to˧}} | {{IPA|zaŋ˩˧}} | {{IPA|ʑi˧˥}} | {{IPA|ɡɯ˧˨}} | {{IPA|ɡu˧˥}} |- ! Northern Qiandong Miao (Yanghao) | {{IPA|i˧}} | {{IPA|o˧}} | {{IPA|pi˧}} | {{IPA|l̥u˧}} | {{IPA|tsa˧}} | {{IPA|tʲu˦}} | {{IPA|ɕoŋ˩˧}} | {{IPA|ʑa˧˩}} | {{IPA|tɕə˥}} | {{IPA|tɕu˧˩}} |- ! Southern Qiandong Miao (Yaogao) | {{IPA|tiŋ˨˦}} | {{IPA|v˩˧}} | {{IPA|pai˩˧}} | {{IPA|tl̥ɔ˩˧}} | {{IPA|tɕi˩˧}} | {{IPA|tju˦}} | {{IPA|tsam˨}} | {{IPA|ʑi˨˦}} | {{IPA|tɕu˧˩}} | {{IPA|tɕu˨˦}} |- ! Pu No (Du'an) | {{IPA|i˦˥˦}} | {{IPA|aːɤ˦˥˦}} | {{IPA|pe˦˥˦}} | {{IPA|pla˦˥˦}} | {{IPA|pu˦˥˦}} | {{IPA|tɕu˦˨˧}} | {{IPA|saŋ˨˩˨}} | {{IPA|jo˦˨}} | {{IPA|tɕu˨}} | {{IPA|tɕu˦˨}} |- ! Nao Klao (Nandan) | {{IPA|i˦˨}} | {{IPA|uɔ˦˨}} | {{IPA|pei˦˨}} | {{IPA|tlja˦˨}} | {{IPA|ptsiu˧}} | {{IPA|tɕau˧˨}} | {{IPA|sɒ˧˩}} | {{IPA|jou˥˦}} | {{IPA|tɕau˨˦}} | {{IPA|tɕau˥˦}} |- ! Nu Mhou (Libo) | {{IPA|tɕy˧}} | {{IPA|yi˧}} | {{IPA|pa˧}} | {{IPA|tləu˧}} | {{IPA|pja˧}} | {{IPA|tjɤ˦}} | {{IPA|ɕoŋ˧˩}} | {{IPA|ja˧˨}} | {{IPA|tɕɤ˥}} | {{IPA|tɕɤ˧˨}} |- ! Nunu (Linyun) | {{IPA|i˥˧}} | {{IPA|əu˥˧}} | {{IPA|pe˥˧}} | {{IPA|tɕa˥˧}} | {{IPA|pɤ˥˧}} | {{IPA|tɕu˨˧}} | {{IPA|ʂɔŋ˨}} | {{IPA|jo˨}} | {{IPA|tɕu˧˨}} | {{IPA|tɕu˨}} |- ! Tung Nu (Qibainong) | {{IPA|i˥}} | {{IPA|au˧}} | {{IPA|pe˧}} | {{IPA|tɬa˧}} | {{IPA|pjo˧}} | {{IPA|ʈu˦˩}} | {{IPA|sɔŋ˨˩}} | {{IPA|ʑo˨˩}} | {{IPA|tɕu˩˧}} | {{IPA|tɕu˨˩}} |- ! Pa Na | {{IPA|ʔa˧˩}} | {{IPA|ʔu˩˧}} | {{IPA|pa˩˧}} | {{IPA|tɬo˩˧}} | {{IPA|pei˩˧}} | {{IPA|kjo˧˥}} | {{IPA|ɕuŋ˨}} | {{IPA|ʑa˥˧}} | {{IPA|tɕʰu˧˩˧}} | {{IPA|tɕo˥˧}} |- ! Hmong Shuat (Funing) | {{IPA|ʔi˥}} | {{IPA|ʔau˥}} | {{IPA|pʲei˥}} | {{IPA|plɔu˥}} | {{IPA|pʒ̩˥}} | {{IPA|tʃɔu˦}} | {{IPA|ɕaŋ˦}} | {{IPA|ʑi˨˩}} | {{IPA|tɕa˦˨}} | {{IPA|kɔu˨˩}} |- ! Hmong Dleub (Guangnan) | {{IPA|ʔi˥}} | {{IPA|ʔɑu˥}} | {{IPA|pei˥}} | {{IPA|plou˥}} | {{IPA|tʃɹ̩˥}} | {{IPA|ʈɻou˦}} | {{IPA|ɕã˦}} | {{IPA|ʑi˨˩}} | {{IPA|tɕuɑ˦˨}} | {{IPA|kou˨˩}} |- ! Hmong Nzhuab (Maguan) | {{IPA|ʔi˥˦}} | {{IPA|ʔau˦˧}} | {{IPA|pei˥˦}} | {{IPA|plou˥˦}} | {{IPA|tʃɹ̩˥˦}} | {{IPA|ʈou˦}} | {{IPA|ɕaŋ˦}} | {{IPA|ʑi˨}} | {{IPA|tɕuɑ˦˨}} | {{IPA|kou˨}} |- ! Northeastern Dian Miao (Shimenkan) | {{IPA|i˥}} | {{IPA|a˥}} | {{IPA|tsɿ˥}}<ref name="i">ɿ is commonly used by Sinologists to mean {{IPA|[ɨ]}}.</ref> | {{IPA|tl̥au˥}} | {{IPA|pɯ˥}} | {{IPA|tl̥au˧}} | {{IPA|ɕaɯ˧}} | {{IPA|ʑʱi˧˩}} | {{IPA|dʑʱa˧˥}} | {{IPA|ɡʱau˧˩}} |- ! Raojia | {{IPA|i˦}} | {{IPA|ɔ˦}} | {{IPA|poi˦}} | {{IPA|ɬɔ˦}} | {{IPA|pja˦}} | {{IPA|tju˧}} | {{IPA|ɕuŋ˨}} | {{IPA|ʑa˥˧}} | {{IPA|tɕa˥}} | {{IPA|tɕu˥˧}} |- ! Xijia Miao (Shibanzhai) | {{IPA|i˥}} | {{IPA|u˧˩}} | {{IPA|pzɿ˧˩}}<ref name="i"/> | {{IPA|pləu˧˩}} | {{IPA|pja˧˩}} | {{IPA|ʈo˨˦}} | {{IPA|zuŋ˨˦}} | {{IPA|ja˧}} | {{IPA|ja˧˩}} | {{IPA|ʁo˧˩}} |- ! Gejia | {{IPA|i˧}} | {{IPA|a˧}} | {{IPA|tsɪ˧˩}} | {{IPA|plu˧}} | {{IPA|tsia˧}} | {{IPA|tɕu˥}} | {{IPA|saŋ˧˩}} | {{IPA|ʑa˩˧}} | {{IPA|tɕa˨˦}} | {{IPA|ku˩˧}} |}

==Writing== {{main|Hmong writing}} The Hmongic languages have been written with at least a dozen different scripts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hmongarchives.org/|title=Hmong Archives – preserving the Hmong heritage|website=www.hmongarchives.org}}</ref> none of which has been universally accepted among Hmong people as standard. Tradition has it that the ancestors of the Hmong, the [[Nanman]], had a written language with a few pieces of significant literature. When the Han-era Chinese began to expand southward into the land of the Hmong, whom they considered barbarians, the script of the Hmong was lost, according to many stories. Allegedly, the script was preserved in the clothing. Attempts at revival were made by the creation of a script in the Qing Dynasty, but this was also brutally suppressed and no remnant literature has been found. Adaptations of Chinese characters have been found in Hunan, recently.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.3us.com/viewthread.php?tid=55204 |title=Hunan Shaoyang Relics Indicate Written Language of Miao Ethnic Group 湖南首次发现古苗文实物：苗族有语言也有文字 - News Today 今日新闻 - 3Us Community :Hunan Bilingual Forum——尚友国际社区：湖南最大双语论坛 |access-date=2014-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728105911/http://www.3us.com/viewthread.php?tid=55204 |archive-date=2014-07-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, this evidence and mythological understanding is disputed. For example, according to linguist [[S. Robert Ramsey]], there was no writing system among the Miao until the missionaries created them.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Languages of China|first=S. Robert|last=Ramsey|author-link=S. Robert Ramsey|edition=illustrated, reprint|year=1987|publisher=Princeton University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2E_5nR0SoXoC&q=Miao+++colloquial&pg=PA284|page=284|isbn=069101468X|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> It is currently unknown for certain whether or not the Hmong had a script historically.

Around 1905, [[Sam Pollard (missionary)|Samuel Pollard]] introduced the [[Pollard script]], for the [[A-Hmao language]], an abugida inspired by [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]], by his own admission.<ref>Tanya Storch ''Religions and missionaries around the Pacific, 1500-1900'' 2006 p293</ref> Several other syllabic alphabets were designed as well, the most notable being [[Shong Lue Yang]]'s [[Pahawh Hmong]] script, which originated in [[Laos]] for the purpose of writing [[Hmong Daw]], [[Hmong Njua]], and other dialects of the standard [[Hmong language]].

In the 1950s, pinyin-based Latin alphabets were devised by the Chinese government for three varieties of Miao: [[Xong language|Xong]], [[Hmu language|Hmu]], and [[Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao|Chuangqiandian (Hmong)]], as well as a Latin alphabet for A-Hmao to replace the Pollard script (now known as "Old Miao"), though Pollard remains popular. This meant that each of the branches of Miao in the classification of the time had a separate written standard.<ref>[http://www.hmongbs.com/mwjx/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=464 苗文创制与苗语方言划分的历史回顾] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104115453/http://www.hmongbs.com/mwjx/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=464# |date=2011-11-04 }} Other branches had been left unclassified.</ref> Wu and Yang (2010) believe that standards should be developed for each of the six other primary varieties of Chuangqiandian as well, although the position of romanization in the scope of Hmong language preservation remains a debate. Romanization remains common in China and the United States, while versions of the Lao and Thai scripts remain common in Thailand and Laos.

[[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong]] script was created by Reverend Chervang Kong Vang to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. This was created in the 1980s and was mainly used by [[United Christians Liberty Evangelical]] Church, a church also founded by Vang. The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17002r3-n4780r3-nyiakeng-puachue-hmong.pdf|title=L2/17-002R3: Proposal to encode the Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script in the UCS|last=Everson|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Everson|date=2017-02-15}}</ref>

==Mixed languages== Due to intensive [[language contact]], there are several language varieties in China which are thought to be [[mixed language|mixed]] Miao–Chinese languages or Sinicized Miao. These include:

*'''[[Lingling dialect|Lingling]]''' (Linghua) of northern Guangxi *The '''[[Maojia dialect]]''' (also called Aoka or Qingyi Miao) of [[Chengbu Miao Autonomous County]], Hunan (located near [[Pa Na language|Pana]]-speaking villages), and [[Ziyuan County]] and [[Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County]], Guangxi. *'''[[Badong Yao language|Badong Yao]]''' (八峒瑶 / 八峒瑤) of [[Xinning County, Hunan]] *'''[[:zh:喇叭苗话|Laba]]''' (喇叭) more than 200,000 in Qinglong, Shuicheng, Pu'an, and Panxian in Guizhou; a variety of [[Old Xiang]] (also called Lou-Shao 娄邵片 / 婁邵片).<ref>{{cite book |last=Wu |first=Weijun 吴伟军 |date=2019 |title=Guizhou Qinglong Changliu Laba Miaorenhua 贵州晴隆长流喇叭苗人话 |location=Beijing |publisher=[[The Commercial Press]] |oclc=1137079712}}</ref> The people are also called ''Huguangren'' 湖广人 / 湖廣人, because they claim their ancestors had migrated from [[Huguang]] (modern-day [[Hunan]] and [[Hubei]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://asiaharvest.org/wp-content/themes/asia/docs/people-groups/China/chinaPeoples/L/Laba.pdf |title=Operation China |access-date=2018-09-30}}</ref> *'''Baishi Miao''' (白市苗) of Baishi District, [[Tianzhu County, Guizhou|Tianzhu County]], eastern Guizhou, possibly a mixed Chinese and Miao ([[Hmu language|Hmu]]) language<ref>{{cite web|url=http://asiaharvest.org/wp-content/themes/asia/docs/people-groups/China/chinaPeoples/M/MiaoBaishi.pdf |title=Chinese peoples info |website=asiaharvest.org }}</ref>

In southwestern [[Hunan]], divergent Sinitic language varieties spoken by Miao and Yao peoples include:<ref name="Hu2018">{{cite book|last=Hu|first=Ping 胡萍|title=Yuyan jiechu yu Xiangxinan Miao Yao Pinghua diaocha yanjiu 语言接触与湘西南苗瑤平话调查研究|date=2018|location=Changsha|publisher=Yuelu shushe 岳麓书社|oclc=1073112896|isbn=9787553808710}}</ref>

*'''Guanxia Pinghua ('''关峡平话 / 關峽平話), spoken by ethnic Miao in [[Suining County, Hunan]]. Non-Sinitic substrate words include ''kəu213'' 'egg'.<ref name="Hu 2018:98">Hu (2018):98)</ref> *'''Yangshi Pinghua''' (羊石平话 / 羊石平話), spoken by ethnic Miao in [[Chengbu County]], Hunan. Non-Sinitic substrate words include ''ko11'' 'egg'.<ref name="Hu 2018:98"/> *'''[[Lanrong Township|Lanrong]]''' (兰蓉人话 / 蘭蓉人話), spoken by ethnic Miao in [[Chengbu County]], Hunan *'''[[Wutuan]]''' (五团人话 / 五團人話), spoken by ethnic Miao in [[Chengbu County]], Hunan *'''[[Badong Yao language|Malin]]''' (麻林人话 / 麻林人話), spoken by ethnic Yao in [[Xinning County]], Hunan *'''Niutou''' (牛头人话 / 牛頭人話), spoken by ethnic Miao in [[Longsheng County]], Guangxi

==See also== * [[Wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Hmong-Mien reconstructions|Proto-Hmong-Mien reconstructions]] (Wiktionary) * [[Wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Hmongic reconstructions|Proto-Hmongic reconstructions]] (Wiktionary) * [[Wiktionary:Appendix:Hmong-Mien comparative vocabulary list|Hmong-Mien comparative vocabulary list]] (Wiktionary)

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== *Li Jinping, Li Tianyi [李锦平, 李天翼]. 2012. ''A comparative study of Miao dialects'' [苗语方言比较研究]. Chengdu: Southwest Jiaotong University Press.

== External links == *[[hdl:10125/33458|283-word wordlist]] recording in Wuding Maojie Hmong (Dianxi Miao) dialect (F, 31), elicited in Standard Mandarin, archived with [[Kaipuleohone]].

[[Category:Hmongic languages| ]] [[Category:Languages of China]] [[Category:Languages of Laos]] [[Category:Languages of Thailand]]