{{short description|Demon in German folklore}} {{Other uses}} {{More citations needed|date=October 2025}} [[File:Paul Mathey (1844-1929) - Portrait of an Unidentified Man as Mephistopheles - PPHC000206 - Royal College of Music.jpg|thumb|''Mephistopheles'' by [[Paul Mathey]], 1888]] '''Mephistopheles'''{{efn|Variants of the name include: '''Mephistophilus''', '''Mephostopheles''', '''Mephistophilis''', '''Mephastophilis''', '''Mephastophiles''' and others}} ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɛ|f|ɪ|ˈ|s|t|ɒ|f|ɪ|l|iː|z}} {{respell|MEF|ist|OF|il|eez}}, {{IPA|de|mefɪˈstoːfəlɛs|lang|de-Mephistopheles.ogg}}), also known as '''Mephostophilis'''<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |title=A companion to Goethe's Faust: parts I and II |date=2006 |publisher=Camden House |isbn=978-1-57113-162-1 |editor-last=Bishop |editor-first=Paul |edition=Repr. in paperback |series=Studies in German literature, linguistics, and culture |location=Rochester, NY}}</ref> or '''Mephisto''',<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=20 July 1998|title=Mephistopheles|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mephistopheles|access-date=|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|language=en}}</ref> is a [[demon]] featured in [[German folklore]], originating as the chief devil in the [[Faust]] legend.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-17 |title=Definition of MEPHISTOPHELES |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Mephistopheles |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> He has since become a [[stock character]] appearing in [[Mephistopheles in the arts and popular culture|other works of arts and popular culture]]. Mephistopheles never became an integral part of traditional magic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mephistopheles {{!}} Faust, Demon, Devil {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mephistopheles |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
== Origins == [[File:Mephistopheles2.jpg|thumb|Mephistopheles flying over [[Wittenberg]], in a [[Lithography|lithograph]] by [[Eugène Delacroix]]]] Around the 15th to 17th centuries in [[Europe]], the age of witchcraft waned, and the [[Devil]] became more of a fixture in literature until the later 18th century. Once the idea of [[Satan]]'s "metaphysical existence" seemed less pressing, he became a symbol in literature representing evil characters, evil meanings, corruption, etc.<ref name="Easlea 105–106">{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=<scp>jeffrey burton russell</scp>. ''Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Sometimes, authors had a more sympathetic depiction of Satan, which would later be called the Romantic Devil. Those who believed in pantheistic mysticism<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Starr |first=Reginald H. |date=1901 |title=Christian Mysticism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27528139 |journal=The Sewanee Review |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=30–40 |jstor=27528139 |issn=0037-3052}}</ref>— the belief that an individual experiences a mystical union with the divine, believing that [[God]] and the universe are one—often held that the angels fell from [[Heaven]] because they loved beauty and wanted to have Heaven for themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Joseph, Mary, and baby Jesus in cage |url=https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.9956530.cmp.24 |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=doi.org|doi=10.3998/mpub.9956530.cmp.24 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This idea led to the work ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]'' by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] (1749–1832), in which Goethe created his version of the Devil, Mephistopheles. Goethe's Mephistopheles has been highly influential.<ref name="Easlea 105–106"/> [[Image:Mephistophiles Passau 1527.jpg|thumb|right|''MEPHISTO_PHILES'' in the 1527 ''Praxis Magia Faustiana'', attributed to Faust]]
=== Devil vs. Mephistopheles === The Enlightenment and Romantic eras in Europe increased the variety of views of the Devil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Jeffrey Burton |url=https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501703331 |title=The Prince of Darkness |date=2016-03-10 |publisher=Cornell University Press |doi=10.7591/9781501703331 |isbn=978-1-5017-0333-1}}</ref> The Devil, also known as Satan or [[Lucifer]], is understood to be the chief adversary of God. He is the leader of the fallen angels and the chief source of evil and temptation. The Devil is the ruler of [[Hell]] and is the prince of evil spirits. In the [[Christian]] tradition, the Devil is a creation who was subject to the divine will and who misused the divine nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=jeffrey burton russell . Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World . Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/94/1/105/147393 |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Mephistopheles is seen as Hell's messenger, making him the servant of the Devil. In the Faust legend, he plays the roles of trickster, liar, cheater, and negotiator, making deals for souls, although he can also be intelligent, ironic, and charming. Mephistopheles can [[shapeshift]] into any animal, person, knight, etc., through magic and illusion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Jeffrey Burton |title=The Prince of Darkness: Radical Evil and the Power of Good in History |date=2016 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-0333-1 |location=Ithaca}}</ref> He is the opponent of beauty and freedom, and he causes the death of the individuals and works to ruin lives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=jeffrey burton russell . Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World . Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/94/1/105/147393 |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
==== Etymology and name meaning ==== The name ''Mephistopheles'' is a corrupted [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]].<ref name=":0"> {{cite book |last=Snider |first=Denton Jaques |year=1886 |title=Goethe's Faust: A commentary |publisher=Sigma |pages=132–133 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=um8oAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA132 |language=en }} </ref> The Greek [[particle (linguistics)|particle]] of [[Affirmation and negation#Negation|negation]] (μή, ''mē'') and the Greek word for "[[philia|love]]" or "loving" (φίλος, ''philos'') are the first and last terms of the compound, but the middle term is more doubtful.
Three possible meanings have been proposed, and three different etymologies have been offered: *"not loving light" or "not a friend of light"<ref name=":3" />(φῶς, ''phōs''; the old form of the name being ''Mephostopheles'') *"not loving Faust" or "not a friend of Faust"<ref name=":3" /> *''[[wikt:mephitic|mephitic]],'' pertaining to poisonous vapors arising from pools, caverns, and springs.<ref name=":0" /> Mephistopheles' name was possibly taken from the [[Hebrew]] words "mephiz", or destroyer, and "tophel", or slander. The name was invented for the historical [[alchemist]] [[Johann Georg Faust]] by the anonymous author of the first ''[[Faustbuch]]'' (published 1587).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">Russell, J. B. (1986). ''Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world'' (1. publ.). Cornell Univ. Pr. p. 61. </ref> However, in the Faustbuch he was called ''Mephostophiles'', the name Mephistopheles was coined and popularised by Goethe.<ref name=":4" /> [[Shakespeare]] used the name in the form of ''Mephistophilus'', using the [[Latin language|Latin]] version ''philus'' instead of the Greek ''philês''.<ref name=":4" /> Mephistopheles was not previously part of the traditional magical or demonological lore, but is a new coinage by a Rennaissance humanist drawing upon Greek and Latin.<ref name=":4" /> In the play, ''[[Doctor Faustus (play)|Doctor Faustus]]'' (1604), created by Christopher Marlowe, Mephistopheles was written more as a fallen angel than as familiar demon. In the drama [[Faust]], written in two parts by J.W. von Goethe, Mephistopheles appears as cold-hearted, humorous, and ironic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lackland |first=Caroline Eliot |date=1882 |title=Mephistopheles |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25667926 |journal=The Journal of Speculative Philosophy |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=320–329 |jstor=25667926 |issn=0891-625X}}</ref>
==In the Faust legend== {{Further|Faust}} [[File:Teufelspakt Faust-Mephisto, Julius Nisle.jpg|thumb|Engraving of [[Faust]]'s pact with Mephisto, by Adolf Gnauth (circa 1840)]]Mephistopheles is associated with the Faust legend, based on the historical [[Johann Georg Faust]]. In the legend, Faust, an ambitious scholar, makes a [[deal with the Devil]] at the price of his soul, with Mephistopheles acting as the devil's agent. The legend has come to symbolize the consequences of what happens when the quest for empowerment and realization escape the "intellectual and moral restrictions of the Christian medieval order."<ref name=zapf>{{Cite journal |last=Zapf |first=Hubert |date=2012 |title=The Rewriting of the Faust Myth in Nathaniel Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/nathhawtrevi.38.1.0019 |journal=Nathaniel Hawthorne Review |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=19–40 |jstor=10.5325/nathhawtrevi.38.1.0019 |issn=0890-4197}}</ref><ref>Russell, J. B. (1986). ''Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world'' (1. publ.). Cornell Univ. Pr. p. 65. </ref>
In the Faust legend written by [[Christopher Marlowe]] a psychological depth to the traditional view of the devil is added. Mephisto is not completely evil, because he laments the loss of his happiness, being shunned from God. He is introspective and clever and in this depiction very different from the comical ones in medieval times. He is aware of his role and regrets it, because he only perceives illusions instead of God.<ref>Russell, J. B. (1986). ''Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world'' (1. publ.). Cornell Univ. Pr. p. 65-66. </ref>
The name appears in the late-sixteenth-century [[Faust chapbooks]] – stories concerning the life of Johann Georg Faust, written by an anonymous German author. The first of these chapbooks, ''Historia von D. Johann Fausten'' (1587) is believed to be the first literary appearance of the Faust and Mephistopheles character.<ref name="zapf" /> In the 1725 version, which [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] read, ''Mephostophiles'' is a [[devil]] in the form of a [[Franciscans|greyfriar]] summoned by Faust in a wood outside [[Wittenberg]].
From the chapbooks, the name Mephistophilis entered Faustian literature. Many authors have used it, from Goethe to [[Christopher Marlowe]]. In the 1616 edition of Marlowe's ''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus]]'', ''Mephostophiles'' became ''Mephistophilis''.
In later adaptations of the Faust material, Mephistopheles frequently figures as a title character: in [[Meyer Lutz]]'s ''[[Faust and Marguerite (opera)|Mephistopheles, or Faust and Marguerite]]'' (1855), [[Arrigo Boito]]'s ''[[Mefistofele]]'' (1868), [[Klaus Mann]]'s ''[[Mephisto (novel)|Mephisto]]'', and [[Franz Liszt]]'s ''[[Mephisto Waltzes]]''. There are also many parallels with the character of Mephistopheles and the character Lord Henry Wotton in ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' by [[Oscar Wilde]].<ref><nowiki>{{Cite He is also interpreted as a mysterious figure in the movie Ghostrider. web|url=</nowiki>https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/english/currentstudents/undergraduate/modules/fulllist/special/interdisciplinaryandcreativecollaboration/faustbooks/doriangray/|title<nowiki> = The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde (1891)}}</nowiki></ref>
== Mephistopheles in performance ==
=== Goethe's ''Faust'' === [[File:Lewis-Morrison-Mephistopheles.jpg|thumb|[[Lewis Morrison]] as Mephistopheles in his own production of Goethe's ''Faust'']] In [[Goethe's Faust]], the role of Mephistopheles is quite complex, and [[Josef Kainz]] describes the role as one of the most significant challenges for an actor in world theater. The character constantly changes in tone throughout the play, giving the character a feeling of minor to no consistency in performance on stage. When Mephisto first meets Faust, he describes how his spirit being “Nothing” conflicts with the world’s spirit of “Something” (Part I Scene III, 1362–1366). The devil is in constant conflict with the world he is placed into, which explains the fluctuation of roles Mephisto portrays on the stage or screen. For an actor to play Goethe's Mephisto, they are called upon to embody this “Nothing” and disconnect themselves from the “Something” that makes them earthly. To achieve this characterization, actors are encouraged to be dramatic and rough in tone and gestures, contradicting traditional elements of [[Classicism|classical theater]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Interpreting Goethe's "Faust" today |date=1994 |publisher=Camden House |isbn=978-1-879751-49-1 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Jane K. |location=Columbia, SC |editor-last2=Lee |editor-first2=Meredith |editor-last3=Saine |editor-first3=Thomas P.}}</ref>
=== Marlowe's Dr. Faustus === In [[Christopher Marlowe|Marlowe's]] [[Doctor Faustus (play)|Doctor Faustus]], the roles of Dr. Faustus and Mephistopheles alternate between the two actors, Sandy Grierson and Oliver Ryan, in 2016. While playing both roles, the Scottish actor, Sandy Grierson, expressed that Mephistopheles is more humane than what is portrayed in other plays and novels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sandy Grierson {{!}} Blog {{!}} Royal Shakespeare Company |url=https://www.rsc.org.uk/blogs/pathways-to-shakespeare/sandy-grierson |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=www.rsc.org.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> The character correlates to the idea of humanity when Mephistopheles pleads with Faustus to reconsider his deal. "O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands" (Act II, Scene 1). Mephistopheles portrays a sense of feeling to prevent Dr. Faustus from making the incorrect decision. Concluding that Mephistopheles is portrayed as less condescending and cold-hearted. [[Arthur Darvill]], while playing as Mephistopheles in the 2011 Shakespeare's Globe Theatre's production of Doctor Faustus, expressed how thrilling his experience was on Shakespeare's Globe Youtube Channel.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?si=F0HVnjFHvO5Xvfg-&v=29FyeKooCZY&feature=youtu.be |title=Shakespeare's Globe Theatre: Doctor Faustus interview with Arthur Darvill |date=2011-06-14 |last=Shakespeare's Globe |access-date=2025-04-29 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
== Interpretations == === Devil, damnation, and Hell === [[File:Mephisto by Mark Antokolski, marble (GTG, after 1883) by shakko 09.jpg|thumb|''Mephistopheles'' by [[Mark Antokolsky]], 1884]] Although Mephistopheles appears to Faustus as a [[demon]] – a worker for [[Lucifer]] – critics claim that he does not search for men to corrupt, but comes to serve and ultimately collect the souls of those who are already damned. Willard Farnham explains, "Nor does Mephistophiles first appear to Faustus as a devil who walks up and down on earth to tempt and corrupt any man encountered. He appears because he senses in Faustus' magical summons that Faustus is already corrupt, that indeed he is already 'in danger to be damned'."<ref>{{cite book|first=Willard|last=Farnham|title=Twentieth Century Interpretations of Doctor Faustus|publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]]|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|date=1969|isbn=978-0132163095}}</ref>
Mephistopheles is already trapped in his own Hell by serving the Devil. He warns Faustus of the choice he is making by "selling his soul" to the devil: "Mephistophilis, an agent of Lucifer, appears and at first advises Faust not to forego the promise of [[heaven]] to pursue his goals".<ref>{{cite journal|editor1-first=Jelena|editor1-last=Krstovic|editor2-first=Marie|editor2-last=Lazzardi|title=Plot and Major Themes|journal=Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800|volume=47|publisher=[[The Gale Group]]|location=Detroit, Michigan|date=1999|page=202}}</ref> Farnham adds to his theory, "...[Faustus] enters an ever-present private hell like that of Mephistophiles".<ref>Krstovic & Lazzardi 1999, p. 8</ref> [[Image:Scuola francese, mefistofele e margaretta, dal faust, 1890 ca. 01.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Mephistopheles and Margaretta]]'', wooden double sculpture, c. 1876]]
Though Mephistopheles can be interpreted as vile through his actions, he profoundly warns Faustus of God’s wrath if he does not repent. Osman Durrani describes the character as “simultaneously, an example of gross depravity and a morally aware theologian.” <ref name=":3" />
Dorothy L. Sayers' play, ''The Devil to Pay'', published in 1939, portrays Mephistopheles as a familiar of the devil as well. Sayers created Mephistopheles to seem mischievous and daunting, while doing the devil's bidding. In this play, it appears as if Mephistopheles' actions were done willingly. Mephistopheles did not necessarily warn Dr. Faustus; rather, he persuaded him to believe that he was to be his servant instead. Once Dr. Faustus was gone, Mephistopheles called into the Hell-Mouth, "Lucifer, Lucifer! The bird is caught..."[Mephistopheles].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2001 |title=Villainy and the Life of the Mind in A.S. Byatt and Dorothy L. Sayers |url=https://doi.org/10.5040/9798400639760.0015 |journal=The Devil Himself |pages=147–158 |doi=10.5040/9798400639760.0015 |isbn=979-8-4006-3976-0 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
This interpretation of Mephistopheles falls in line with the Protestant revisioning of magic, specifically conjuring. In the late 1580s, popular Protestant writers argued that conjurations were "theatrical spectacles", in which Satan allowed demons to appear as if they had been summoned and controlled by humans. This performance further damns the soul of the magician and allows for the demon to collect his soul for Lucifer. These revisions were widely circulated before Marlowe's ''Dr. Faustus'' premiered and were integrated into his work.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guenther |first=Genevieve |date=August 2011 |title=Why Devils Came When Faustus Called Them |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/662147 |journal=Modern Philology |volume=109 |issue=1 |pages=46–70 |doi=10.1086/662147 |issn=0026-8232|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Nature vs. evil === The nature between God and evil is complex amongst the theological issues. In Abrahamic religions, God is inherently deemed as good and not capable of being evil, though those religions also have to acknowledge the existence of evil in the world. Through the ideals of the Society of Jesuits, the Roman Catholic religious order expressed that nature is undistorted by original sin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Jeffery |title=Mephistopheles |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1986 |isbn=9780801418082 |edition=4th |language=English}}</ref> Mephistopheles also appears as a nature spirit, a Naturgeist.,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Jane K. |date=1985 |title=Mephistopheles the Nature Spirit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25600562 |journal=Studies in Romanticism |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=475–490 |doi=10.2307/25600562 |jstor=25600562|url-access=subscription }}</ref> though he is still deemed as evil or rather destructive amongst many scholars. However, Jane K. Brown suggests that Mephistopheles is Faust's "mediator to the world," that he is neither evil or destructive.<ref name="Brown 1985 475–490">{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Jane K. |date=1985 |title=Mephistopheles the Nature Spirit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25600562 |journal=Studies in Romanticism |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=475–490 |doi=10.2307/25600562 |jstor=25600562 |issn=0039-3762|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Brown suggests that nature is where God and the devil meet and this is where humans live. Mephistopheles, then, represents one of the two souls that humans naturally possess, Faust's struggle between the "divine principle (mind or spirit) and the world (physical nature)."<ref name="Brown 1985 475–490"/> Mephistopheles is a nature spirit representing the unsegmented world through the human experience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=jeffrey burton russell . Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/94/1/105/147393 |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Sexuality === One interpretation of the character is that Mephistopheles presents himself as a [[Voyeurism|sexual voyeur]]. This voyeurism can represent Faust’s sexual confusion and temptation. An example would be Faust’s interactions with Helen of Troy, in which, given temptation, Mephistopheles loosens his grip on Faust as he falls further from God and Heaven.<ref name=":2" />
Mephistopheles can also be perceived as a homoerotic character. When observing male angels during the burial scene in Goethe's ''Faust,'' he can be seen as becoming physically aroused. Later on, he becomes consumed by his feelings as he is engulfed in flames. This is believed to be the Lord's plan since the beginning in order to save Faust from damnation. By tempting Mephistopheles's homoerotic nature he is unable to focus on corrupting Faust, subsequently saving him.<ref name=":3" />
==See also== {{Main|Mephistopheles in the arts and popular culture}} <!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦---> *[[Beelzebub]] * In [[Blue Exorcist]], the character Mephistopheles (also named [[Samael]]) is the headmaster of True Cross Academy, is also the legal guardian of the Okumura twins. *[[Devil in Christianity]] *[[Mephiskapheles]], Ska band whose name is a play on Mephistopheles *[[Mephisto (Marvel Comics)|Mephisto]] a character from Marvel Comics based on the Demon. *[[Mephisto (tank)|Mephisto]], the sole surviving [[World War I|WW1]] German [[A7V]] tank *[[Mr. Mistoffelees]], a character from the musical Cats *[[Prince of Darkness (Satan)|Prince of Darkness]] *[[Satan]] *[[Servant (TV series)|''Servant'']], television series *[[William Shakespeare]] mentions "Mephistophilus" in ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'' (Act I, Scene I, line 128), and by the 17th century the name became independent of the Faust legend.<ref name="Russell 1992, p. 61">Burton Russell 1992, p. 61 8. "Call Me Little Sunshine" by heavy-metal band Ghost 2022</ref>
==Notes== {{notelist}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Bibliography== * {{cite book|last=Russell| first= Jeffrey Burton | title=Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World|url=https://archive.org/details/mephistophelesde00russ|url-access=registration| location= Ithaca, New York| publisher= Cornell |year=1986| edition=1990 reprint| isbn= 978-0-8014-9718-6}} * {{cite book| editor-last=Hamlin| editor-first= Cyrus| first= Johann Wolfgang Von |last= Goethe|title= Faust: A Tragedy; Interpretive Notes, Contexts, Modern Criticism| edition= Norton Critical | location=New York, New York| publisher= W. W. Norton & Company| year= 2001| isbn= 978-0-393-97282-5}} * {{cite book| author-link=Leo Ruickbie| last= Ruickbie| first= Leo| title= Faustus: The Life and Times of a Renaissance Magician| publisher= History Press| location= Stroud, UK| year= 2009| isbn= 978-0-7509-5090-9}} * Andersson, Love. ““The Devil to Pay” : Temptation and Desire in Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus.” ''DIVA'', 2021, www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1527786&dswid=197 * Smith, Warren D. “The Nature of Evil in “Doctor Faustus.”” ''The Modern Language Review'', vol. 60, no. 2, Apr. 1965, p. 171, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/3720056</nowiki> *
==External links== {{EB1911 poster|Mephistopheles}} * {{wikiquote-inline}} * {{Wiktionary-inline|Mephistophelean}}
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