{{Short description|1=Solution to x*x + y*y + z*z = 3xyz}} {{distinguish|Markov constant|Markov theorem}} A '''Markov number''' or '''Markoff number''' is a positive integer ''x'', ''y'' or ''z'' that is part of a solution to the '''Markov Diophantine equation''' :<math>x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 3xyz,\,</math> studied by {{harvs|txt|authorlink=Andrey Markov|first=Andrey|last=Markoff|year1=1879|year2=1880}}.
The first few Markov numbers are :1, 2, 5, 13, 29, 34, 89, 169, 194, 233, 433, 610, 985, 1325, ... {{OEIS|id=A002559}} appearing as coordinates of the Markov triples :(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 5), (1, 5, 13), (2, 5, 29), (1, 13, 34), (1, 34, 89), (2, 29, 169), (5, 13, 194), (1, 89, 233), (5, 29, 433), (1, 233, 610), (2, 169, 985), (13, 34, 1325), ... There are infinitely many Markov numbers and Markov triples.
== Markov tree == thumb|450px|The first levels of the Markov number tree There are two simple ways to obtain a new Markov triple from an old one (''x'', ''y'', ''z''). First, one may permute the 3 numbers ''x'',''y'',''z'', so in particular one can normalize the triples so that ''x'' ≤ ''y'' ≤ ''z''. Second, if (''x'', ''y'', ''z'') is a Markov triple then so is (''x'', ''y'', 3''xy'' − ''z''). Applying this operation twice returns the same triple one started with. Joining each normalized Markov triple to the 1, 2, or 3 normalized triples one can obtain from this gives a graph starting from (1,1,1) as in the diagram. This graph is connected; in other words every Markov triple can be connected to {{nowrap|(1,1,1)}} by a sequence of these operations.<ref>Cassels (1957) p.28</ref> If one starts, as an example, with {{nowrap|(1, 5, 13)}} we get its three neighbors {{nowrap|(5, 13, 194)}}, {{nowrap|(1, 13, 34)}} and {{nowrap|(1, 2, 5)}} in the Markov tree if ''z'' is set to 1, 5 and 13, respectively. For instance, starting with {{nowrap|(1, 1, 2)}} and trading ''y'' and ''z'' before each iteration of the transform lists Markov triples with Fibonacci numbers. Starting with that same triplet and trading ''x'' and ''z'' before each iteration gives the triples with Pell numbers.
All the Markov numbers on the regions adjacent to 2's region are odd-indexed Pell numbers (or numbers ''n'' such that 2''n''<sup>2</sup> − 1 is a square, {{OEIS2C|id=A001653}}), and all the Markov numbers on the regions adjacent to 1's region are odd-indexed Fibonacci numbers ({{OEIS2C|id=A001519}}). Thus, there are infinitely many Markov triples of the form
:<math>(1, F_{2n-1}, F_{2n+1}),\,</math>
where ''F''<sub>''k''</sub> is the ''k''th Fibonacci number. Likewise, there are infinitely many Markov triples of the form
:<math>(2, P_{2n-1}, P_{2n+1}),\,</math>
where ''P''<sub>''k''</sub> is the ''k''th Pell number.<ref>{{OEIS2C|id=A030452}} lists Markov numbers that appear in solutions where one of the other two terms is 5.</ref>
==Other properties== Aside from the two smallest ''singular'' triples (1, 1, 1) and (1, 1, 2), every Markov triple consists of three distinct integers.<ref>Cassels (1957) p.27</ref>
The ''unicity conjecture'', as remarked by Frobenius in 1913,<ref name="Frobenius 1913 ">{{cite journal | last=Frobenius | first=G. | title=Über die Markoffschen Zahlen | journal=S. B. Preuss Akad. Wiss. | date=1913 | pages=458–487}}</ref> states that for a given Markov number ''c'', there is exactly one normalized solution having ''c'' as its largest element: proofs of this conjecture have been claimed but none seems to be correct.<ref>Guy (2004) p.263</ref> Martin Aigner<ref>Aigner (2013)</ref> examines several weaker variants of the unicity conjecture. His fixed numerator conjecture was proved by Rabideau and Schiffler in 2020,<ref name="Rabideau Schiffler 2020 ">{{cite journal | last=Rabideau | first=Michelle | last2=Schiffler | first2=Ralf | title=Continued fractions and orderings on the Markov numbers | journal=Advances in Mathematics | volume=370 | date=2020 | doi=10.1016/j.aim.2020.107231 | article-number=107231| arxiv=1801.07155 }}</ref> while the fixed denominator conjecture and fixed sum conjecture were proved by Lee, Li, Rabideau and Schiffler in 2023.<ref name="Lee Li Rabideau Schiffler 2023 ">{{cite journal | last=Lee | first=Kyungyong | last2=Li | first2=Li | last3=Rabideau | first3=Michelle | last4=Schiffler | first4=Ralf | title=On the ordering of the Markov numbers | journal=Advances in Applied Mathematics | volume=143 | date=2023 | doi=10.1016/j.aam.2022.102453 | article-number=102453| doi-access=free }}</ref>
None of the prime divisors of a Markov number is congruent to 3 modulo 4, which implies that an odd Markov number is 1 more than a multiple of 4.<ref>Aigner (2013) p. 55</ref> Furthermore, if <math>m</math> is a Markov number then none of the prime divisors of <math>9m^2-4</math> is congruent to 3 modulo 4. An even Markov number is 2 more than a multiple of 32.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Zhang | first = Ying | title = Congruence and Uniqueness of Certain Markov Numbers | journal = Acta Arithmetica | volume = 128 | issue = 3 | year = 2007 | pages = 295–301 | url = http://journals.impan.gov.pl/aa/Inf/128-3-7.html | mr = 2313995 | doi = 10.4064/aa128-3-7 | ref = Zhang2007| arxiv = math/0612620 | bibcode = 2007AcAri.128..295Z | s2cid = 9615526 }}</ref>
In his 1982 paper, Don Zagier conjectured that the ''n''th Markov number is asymptotically given by :<math>m_n = \tfrac13 e^{C\sqrt{n+o(1)}} \quad\text{with } C = 2.3523414972 \ldots\,.</math> The error <math>o(1) = (\log(3m_n)/C)^2 - n</math> is plotted below.
thumb|300px|Error in the approximation of large Markov numbers
Moreover, he pointed out that <math>x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 3xyz + 4/9</math>, an approximation of the original Diophantine equation, is equivalent to <math>f(x)+f(y)=f(z)</math> with <math>f(t) =</math> arcosh<math>(3t/2).</math><ref>{{cite journal | last = Zagier | first = Don B. | title = On the Number of Markoff Numbers Below a Given Bound | journal = Mathematics of Computation | volume = 160 | year = 1982 | pages = 709–723 | doi = 10.2307/2007348 | mr = 0669663 | issue = 160 | jstor = 2007348 | ref = Zagier1982| doi-access = free }}</ref> The conjecture was proved {{Disputed inline|Status of the asymptotic formula|date=July 2016}} by Greg McShane and Igor Rivin in 1995 using techniques from hyperbolic geometry.<ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Greg McShane | author2 = Igor Rivin | title = Simple curves on hyperbolic tori | journal = Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série I | volume = 320 | year = 1995 | number = 12 | ref = McShane1995}}</ref>
The ''n''th Lagrange number can be calculated from the ''n''th Markov number with the formula
:<math>L_n = \sqrt{9 - {4 \over {m_n}^2}}.\,</math>
The Markov numbers are sums of (non-unique) pairs of squares.
==Markov's theorem==
{{Distinguish|Markov theorem}}
{{harvs|txt|last=Markoff|year1=1879|year2=1880}} showed that if
:<math>f(x,y) = ax^2+bxy+cy^2</math>
is an indefinite binary quadratic form with real coefficients and discriminant <math>D = b^2-4ac</math>, then there are integers ''x'', ''y'' for which ''f'' takes a nonzero value of absolute value at most
:<math>\frac{\sqrt D}{3}</math>
unless ''f'' is a ''Markov form'':<ref>Cassels (1957) p.39</ref> a constant times a form :<math>px^2+(3p-2a)xy+(b-3a)y^2</math> such that :<math>\begin{cases} 0<a<p/2,\\ aq\equiv\pm r\pmod p,\\ bp-a^2=1, \end{cases}</math> where (''p'', ''q'', ''r'') is a Markov triple.
==Matrices== Let tr denote the trace function over matrices. If ''X'' and ''Y'' are in SL<sub>2</sub>('''<math>\mathbb{C}</math>'''), then
: <math> \operatorname{tr}(X) \operatorname{tr}(Y) \operatorname{tr}(XY) + \operatorname{tr}(XYX^{-1}Y^{-1}) + 2 = \operatorname{tr}(X)^2 + \operatorname{tr}(Y)^2 + \operatorname{tr}(XY)^2 </math>
so that if <math display=inline> \operatorname{tr}(XYX^{-1}Y^{-1}) = -2 </math> then
: <math> \operatorname{tr}(X) \operatorname{tr}(Y) \operatorname{tr}(XY) = \operatorname{tr}(X)^2 + \operatorname{tr}(Y)^2 + \operatorname{tr}(XY)^2 </math>
In particular if ''X'' and ''Y'' also have integer entries then tr(''X'')/3, tr(''Y'')/3, and tr(''XY'')/3 are a Markov triple. If ''X''⋅''Y''⋅''Z'' = I then tr(''XtY'') = tr(''Z''), so more symmetrically if ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' are in SL<sub>2</sub>(<math>\mathbb{Z}</math>) with ''X''⋅''Y''⋅''Z'' = I and the commutator of two of them has trace −2, then their traces/3 are a Markov triple.<ref>Aigner (2013) Chapter 4, "The Cohn Tree", pp. 63–77</ref>
==See also== *Markov spectrum
== Notes == <references/>
==References== * {{cite book | last=Aigner | first=Martin | author-link=Martin Aigner | title=Markov's Theorem and 100 Years of the Uniqueness Conjecture: A Mathematical Journey from Irrational Numbers to Perfect Matchings | publisher=Springer | publication-place=Cham Heidelberg | date=2013-07-29 | isbn=978-3-319-00887-5 | mr=3098784}} * {{cite book | first=J.W.S. | last=Cassels | author-link=J. W. S. Cassels | title=An Introduction to Diophantine Approximation | series=Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics and Mathematical Physics | volume=45 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1957 | zbl=0077.04801 }} * {{cite book | first1=Thomas | last1=Cusick | first2=Mary | last2=Flahive | title=The Markoff and Lagrange Spectra | series=Math. Surveys and Monographs | volume=30 | publisher=American Mathematical Society | location=Providence, RI | year=1989 | isbn=0-8218-1531-8 | zbl=0685.10023 }} * {{cite book|first=Richard K. | last=Guy | author-link=Richard K. Guy| title=Unsolved Problems in Number Theory| publisher=Springer-Verlag| year=2004|isbn=0-387-20860-7| zbl=1058.11001 | pages=263–265 }} * {{eom|id=m/m062540|first=A.V.|last= Malyshev|title=Markov spectrum problem}} * {{Cite journal | last1=Markoff | first1=A. | author-link = Andrey Markov | title=Sur les formes quadratiques binaires indéfinies | journal=Mathematische Annalen | issn=0025-5831 }} :: {{cite journal | last1=Markoff | first1=A. | author-link = Andrey Markov|title=First memoir| journal=Mathematische Annalen | year=1879 | doi=10.1007/BF02086269 | volume=15 | pages=381–406 | issue=3–4 | s2cid=179177894 |url=https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235181684_0015?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B393%5D%7D}}<!--- ref=Markoff1879---> :: {{cite journal | last1=Markoff | first1=A. | author-link = Andrey Markov|title=Second memoir| journal=Mathematische Annalen | year=1880 | doi=10.1007/BF01446234 | volume=17 | pages=379–399 | issue=3 | s2cid=121616054 |url=https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235181684_0017?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B394%5D%7D}}<!--- ref=Markoff1880--->
Category:Diophantine equations Category:Diophantine approximation Category:Fibonacci numbers