Mangalorean Catholics

{{short description|Latin Christian ethno-religious community in India}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} {{EngvarB|date=March 2014}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Mangalorean Catholics<br />''Kōdiyālcheñ Kathōlikā'' | image = Monti_Fest_Pune.jpg | image_caption = Mangaloreans partaking in the occasion of [[Monti Fest]] at [[Poona (Pune)]]. | region1 = [[India]] | region2 = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore|Diocese&nbsp;of&nbsp;Mangalore]] | pop2 = 360,000<ref name = "MD"/> | region3 = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Udupi|Diocese of Udupi]] | pop3 = 106,000 (approx) | langs = [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Kanarese]], [[Hindi-Urdu]], [[Indian English]] & [[Bombay Mahratti]]. Previously: [[Goan Portuguese]]. | rels = [[Latin Church in India]] | related = [[Christianity in Maharashtra#Kudali Catholics|Kudali Catholics]], [[Goan Catholics]], [[Karwari Catholics]], [[Bombay East Indian Catholics]], [[Damanese people|Damanese Catholics]], [[Mangalorean Protestants]], [[Latin Catholics of Malabar]], [[Koli Christians]], [[Kunbi]]s, [[Gauda and Kunbi|Gaodi Christian]]s, [[Christian Brahmin]]s, [[Christian Cxatria]]s, [[Daivadnya]]s, [[Vaishya Vani]]s, [[Anglo-Indians]] & [[Luso-Indian]]s }} '''Mangalorean Catholics''' ({{langx|kok|Kōdiyālcheñ Kathōlikā|italic=yes}}) are an [[ethno-religious]] community of [[Latin Church in India|Latin Christian]]s from the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore|Diocese of Mangalore]] and the erstwhile [[South Canara]] area; by the southern coast of present-day [[Karnataka, India]].<ref name="spo">{{harvnb|Pai|Supriya|1981|loc=p. 203: "This city (Mangalore) has a very influential proportion of Roman Catholics, numbering over a good quarter of the total population. It is the seat of the Diocese of Mangalore, a [[Latin Church]] jurisdiction, and hence when we speak of the Mangalorean Catholics, we do not limit ourselves only to the roughly 60,000 Catholics within the city limits, but to a total of much over {{formatnum:200000}} Catholics spread over the whole diocese, which is co-terminous with the civil district of South Kanara."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=299}}: "Four centuries of living in South Kanara gave these Catholics an identity of their own. Thus they are commonly known as ''Mangalorean Catholics''."</ref>

Contemporary Mangalorean Catholics descend mainly from the [[New Christian]]s of [[Portuguese Goa]], who migrated to the [[Keladi Kingdom]] 1560-1763,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/archives/125-years-still-growing-2415303 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926165441/https://www.deccanherald.com/archives/125-years-still-growing-2415303 | archive-date=26 September 2024 | title=125 years and still growing }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://milagres.church/full-history | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926163139/https://milagres.church/full-history | archive-date=26 September 2024 | title=Full History - Milagres Church }}</ref> throughout the courses of the [[Goan Inquisition]], the [[Portuguese–Adil Shahi War]]s & the [[Mahratta Invasion of Goa and Bombay|Mahratta Invasions of Goa and Bombay]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.caskmangalore.org/original-settlements-roots-mangalore-catholic-families-kanaramangalore-communitys-socio-economic-evolution-transition-recent-times | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241211141547/https://www.caskmangalore.org/original-settlements-roots-mangalore-catholic-families-kanaramangalore-communitys-socio-economic-evolution-transition-recent-times | archive-date=11 December 2024 | title=Original settlements ('roots') of mangalore catholic families in kanara/Mangalore and the community's socio-economic evolution and transition in recent times. – Catholic Association of South Kanara }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-26 |title=Monti Fest: Feast of the Nativity of Blessed Virgin Mary: The Cultural Identity of Konknni Catholics - Daijiworld.com |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusiveDisplay?articlesID=6473 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926165003/https://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusiveDisplay?articlesID=6473 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2024-09-26 |access-date=2024-10-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Edit/UPFRONT/Did-Shivaji-think-of-conquering-Portuguese-Goa/157309 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409160610/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Edit/UPFRONT/Did-Shivaji-think-of-conquering-Portuguese-Goa/157309 | archive-date=9 April 2022 | title=Did Shivaji think of conquering 'Portuguese' Goa? | date=22 February 2020 }}</ref> They learned [[Tulu language|Tulu]] and [[Kanarese]] whilst in [[Canara]], but retained the [[Konkani language]] and preserved much of their [[Konkani people|Konkani way of life]], which had undergone [[Christianisation in Goa]]. The "Canara Christians" suffered a [[Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam|15-year-long captivity]] at [[Seringapatam]], that was imposed by [[Tippu Sultan]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cOs1MwEACAAJ | title=The Captivity of Canara Christians Under Tippu in 1784, Etc | date=1933 }}</ref> Following Tippu's defeat and death at the [[Siege of Seringapatam (1799)]] by the [[English East India Company]], the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] & other allies; most of them resettled in and around South Canara; also in areas such as [[Chikmagalur (Chickmangalore)]] & [[Coorg (Kodagu)]] during the [[Company rule in India]]. A lesser number was shipped to the [[Seven Islands of Bombay]] & the [[Bombay metropolitan area]] in the northern [[Konkan region]].

Historically, an agrarian community,<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> there were migrations of the working and educated class in the early 20th century, to bigger cities such as the [[Bombay (Mumbai)]], [[Poona (Pune)]] & [[Bangalore (Bengaluru)]]. Later, more migrations led to the formation of a [[Indian diaspora|Mangalorean diaspora]] in the [[Persian Gulf countries]] and the [[Anglosphere]];<ref name=":1" /> thus the younger generation outside of historical locales of South Canara, is mostly an English-speaking [[Anglo-americanisation|Anglo-Americanised]] sub-culture. Also, intermarriages with non-[[Mangalorean]]s has caused a decline in "Mangalore stores" and the culture of [[Mangalorean Catholic cuisine]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mid-day.com/mumbai-guide/mumbai-food/article/Mumbai-Mangalore-stores-slow-business-Food-Mumbai-Food-17654199 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240922154325/https://www.mid-day.com/mumbai-guide/mumbai-food/article/Mumbai-Mangalore-stores-slow-business-Food-Mumbai-Food-17654199 | archive-date=22 September 2024 | title=Mumbai's Mangalore stores are slowly dying | date=2 October 2016 }}</ref>

==Ethnic identity== The community gets its name from the [[Mangalore Diocese|Mamgalore diocesan]] adherents of the [[Latin Church in India]],<ref name="spo"/> located by the southwestern [[coast of India]]. Most of their hometowns lie in present day civil districts of [[Dakshina Kannada]] and [[Udupi district]]s in Karnataka state and [[Kassergode]] in the present-day Kerala state. This area was collectively referred to as South Canara in [[British India]], and then from the [[partition of India|partition]] until the [[States Reorganisation Act|reorganisation (1956)]] of the [[states and territories of India]].<ref name="MD"/>

In 1526, [[Portuguese in Goa and Bombay]] arrived in [[Mangalore]], and the number of local converts to [[Christianity]] slowly increased. However, a sizeable Christian population did not exist there until the second half of the 16th century, when there was a large-scale immigration of Christians from [[Portuguese Goa and Damaon|Goa]] to South Canara. They were reluctant to learn the local languages of South Canara<ref name="sf6"/> and continued to speak [[Konkani language|Konkani]], so that local Christians (''[[Padval]]s'') had to learn Konkani to converse with them.<ref name="sf6">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=6}}</ref> After this migration, these skilled agriculturists were offered various land grants by the native [[Keladi Nayaka|Bednore]] rulers of [[South Canara]].<ref name="sf6"/> They observed their Eastern cultural [[Hindu]] customs in conjunction with the newfound [[Western Catholic]] faith, and preserved their much of their Konkani lifestyle.<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|pp=4–5}}</ref>

Most migrants were people from the lower economic strata who had been left out of government and economic jobs; their lands had been confiscated due to heavy taxation under the Portuguese in Goa. As a consequence of the wealth and privileges which these migrants enjoyed in Mangalore, they began feeling superior to their landless kindred in Goa. Their [[Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam|captivity at Seringapatam]] (1784–1799), where many died, were killed, or were converted to [[Sunni Islam]], led to the formation of a separate and common cultural identity among members of the group, who had previously considered themselves an extension of Goans. They no longer self-identified as Goan Catholics after the captivity.<ref name="mloreans"/> Alan Machado Prabhu estimates that almost 95 per cent of Mangalorean Catholics have origins in Goa.<ref name="jp0687">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=154}}</ref>

==History== {{main|History of Mangalorean Catholics}}

===Pre-migration era=== [[File:Stmarys udupi 1.JPG|thumb|left|St Mary's Islands in [[Udupi]], where the Portuguese explorer [[Vasco da Gama]] landed in 1498]] All records of an early existence of Christians in South Canara were lost at the time of their deportation by [[Tipu Sultan]] in 1784. Hence, it is not known exactly when [[Christianity]] was introduced in [[South Canara]], although it is possible that [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] settled in [[South Canara]], just as they did in [[Kerala]], a state just south of Canara.<ref name="sf4">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=4}}</ref> The [[Italians|Italian]] traveller [[Marco Polo]] recorded that there were considerable trading activities between the [[Red Sea]] and the Canara coast in the 13th century. It can be surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce; it is possible some Christian priests might have accompanied them for evangelistic work.<ref name="sc101">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=101|Ref=sc}}</ref>

In April 1321 the French [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar [[Jordan Catala|Jordanus Catalani]] of Severac (in south-western [[France]]) landed at [[Thane|Thana]] with four other friars.<ref name="mc3">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=78}}</ref> He then travelled to [[Bhatkal]] in [[North Canara]], a port town on the coastal route from Thana to [[Quilon]].<ref name="jor">{{harvnb|Catalani|Yule|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nhcH4E3li3AC&pg=RA1-PA40 M1 40]}}</ref><ref name="mc2"/> Being the first bishop of [[India]] and the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon|Quilon Diocese]], he was entrusted the spiritual nourishment of Christian community in [[Mangalore]] and other parts of [[India]] by [[Pope John XXII]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.quilondiocese.org/former%20prelates%20of%20diocese.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618161814/http://quilondiocese.org/former%20prelates%20of%20diocese.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 June 2006 |title=The great prelates who shaped the history of Diocese of Quilon |access-date=14 January 2008 |publisher=[[Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon|Diocese of Quilon]] }}</ref> According to historian Severine Silva, no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century. It was only after the advent of the Portuguese in the region that Christianity began to spread.<ref name="sc101"/>

In 1498 the Portuguese explorer [[Vasco da Gama]] landed on a group of islands in South Canara on his voyage from Portugal to India. He named the islands ''El Padron de Santa Maria''; they later came to be known as [[St Mary's Island, Karnataka|St Mary's Islands]].<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/life/2002/09/16/stories/2002091600170300.htm |title = Where rocks tell a tale |author = J. Kamath |date = 16 September 2002 |access-date = 8 July 2008 |newspaper = [[Business Line|The Hindu Business Line]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130922134826/http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/life/2002/09/16/stories/2002091600170300.htm |archive-date = 22 September 2013 |df = dmy }}</ref> In 1500, Portuguese explorer [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] arrived at [[Anjadip Island|Anjediva]] in North Canara with eight Franciscan missionaries. Under the leadership of Frei Henrique Soares de Coimbra, the missionaries converted 22 or 23 natives to [[Christianity]] in the [[Mangalore]] region.<ref name="mc2">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=81}}</ref> During the early part of the 16th century, [[Krishnadevaraya]] (1509–1529), the ruler of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] of [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], granted commercial privileges to the Portuguese on the Canara coast. There was complete freedom of worship, belief, and propagation of religious tenets in the Vijaynagara Empire.<ref name="sc101"/> In 1526, under the viceroyship of [[Lopo Vaz de Sampaio]], the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore.<ref name="sch52">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=52|Ref=sch}}</ref>

The Portuguese Franciscans slowly started propagating Christianity in Mangalore.<ref name="sch52"/> The most prominent local convert was the Brahmin ''[[mahant]]'' Shankarayya, who in 1751 travelled with his wife from [[Kallianpur]] to Goa and was baptised, with the Portuguese viceroy assuming the role of his godfather. The honoured ''mahant'' took the name of Francisco de Távora, after the Viceroy [[Francisco de Távora|Marques de Távora]].<ref name="ft0687">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=155}}</ref><ref name="Shankarayya">{{harvnb|Shastry|Borges|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=raLL0A3Pb_0C&pg=PA260 260]}}</ref> Their properties were subsequently taken over by their Hindu relatives, but the viceroy instructed his factor of Mangalore to get their property restored.<ref name="Shankarayya"/><ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=152}}</ref> In 1534, Canara was placed under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Bishop of Goa, where the Portuguese had a strong presence. Missionaries soon arrived and gained converts. The number of local converts in South Canara continually increased until 1546.<ref name="sf4"/> During the mid-16th century, the Portuguese faced resistance from [[Abbakka Rani]] of [[Ullal]], the Queen of the Bednore dynasty. This put a halt to conversions. The first battle between Abbakka Rani and the Portuguese was fought in 1546; she emerged victorious and drove the Portuguese out of South Canara.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://hindu.com/2007/10/23/stories/2007102350570200.htm |last=Raghuram |first=M |title=Abbakka's legacy being revived |access-date=24 August 2008 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |date=23 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226082815/http://hindu.com/2007/10/23/stories/2007102350570200.htm |archive-date=26 February 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref>

===Migration era=== {{see also|Christianisation of Goa}} [[File:Saint Francis Xavier taking leave of King John III (1635) - José Avelar Rebelo.png|thumb|Jesuit missionary [[Francis Xavier]] taking leave of [[John III of Portugal]] before his departure to Goa in 1541, by [[José de Avelar Rebelo|Avelar Rebelo]] (1635).]]

In 1510, a Portuguese fleet under [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], sent by [[Manuel I of Portugal|King Manuel I of Portugal]], [[Portuguese conquest of Goa|wrested the region of Goa]] from ''Sultan'' [[Yusuf Adil Shah]] of [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Mathew|first=K. M.|year=1988|title=History of the Portuguese Navigation in India, 1497–1600|publisher=Mittal Publication|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-7099-046-8|page=123}}</ref> In 1534, the [[Archdiocese of Goa|Diocese of Goa]] was established. Soon missionaries were sent to Goa, which led to conversion of a sizeable population to [[Roman Catholicism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Shastry|Borges|2000|p=256}}</ref> The bulk of Christian settlers came in three major migration waves towards South Canara. These migrations occurred in periods of great unrest: the [[Goa Inquisition]] occurred from 1560 onwards; the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]]–Adil Shahi wars were between 1570 and 1579; and the Portuguese–[[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] wars occurred between 1667–83 and 1737–40.<ref name="amp16"/> Other factors that led to mass migrations were disease epidemics, famines, natural calamities, overpopulation, poor living conditions, heavy tax burdens, and social discrimination by the Portuguese.<ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=183}}</ref>

In 1542, the [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarrese]] Jesuit Francis Xavier, co-founder of the Society of Jesus; arrived in Goa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schurhammern|first=Georg|title=Francis Xavier; His Life, His Times: India, 1541–1545|page=148|publisher=Jesuit Historical Institute|isbn=978-0-8294-0355-8|year=1982}}</ref> He discovered that the newly converted Christians were practising their old Hindu customs and traditions. He requested the Portuguese king [[John III of Portugal|João III]] to install an [[Inquisition]] in Goa in 1545.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baring-Gould S (Sabine)|year=2009|title=The Lives of the Saints, Volume XIV|publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC|page=629|isbn= 978-1-110-73420-7}}</ref> Many of the Goan ancestors of the present Mangalorean Catholics fled Goa after the Inquisition began in 1560. [[Sebastian of Portugal|King Sebastião I]] decreed that every trace of Hindu customs should be eradicated through the Inquisition. Many Goan Christians of upper-caste Hindu origins were attached to their caste practices, and did not want to abandon them.<ref name="rod">{{Cite journal |author=Rodrigues, Vernon |title=Mangalorean Pagan Catholics <!--|access-date=12 August 2009--> |volume=18 |issue=9 |date=2 March 2009 |journal=The Secular Citizen |id=[[The Office of the Registrar of Newspapers for India|RNI]] No. 56987/92, Registered No. 139/2009-11 |page=<!--5-->12 |editor1-last=Myaboo |editor1-first=Philip }}</ref> Those converts who refused to comply were forced to leave Goa and to settle outside the Portuguese dominion,<ref name="sf4"/> which resulted in the first major wave of migrations towards South Canara.<ref name="migration">{{cite book|last1= Kanjamala|first1=Augustine|author2=Commission for Proclamation and Communication ([[Catholic Bishops' Conference of India]])|year=1997|title=Paths of Mission in India Today|publisher=St Pauls|location=Bandra, India|isbn=978-81-7109-286-4|page=160}}</ref>

The Christians who left Goa were for the most part skilled agriculturists who abandoned their irrigated fields in Goa to achieve freedom.<ref name="Mercury"/> The remainder were skilled carpenters, goldsmiths, artisans, and merchants.<ref name="Pius">{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=150}}</ref> At the time of migration, Canara was ruled by the [[Keladi Nayaka|Keladi]] king [[Shivappa Nayaka]] (1540–60). He evinced great interest in the development of agriculture in his empire and welcomed these agriculturists to his kingdom, giving them fertile lands to cultivate.<ref name="Mercury"/> They were recruited into the armies of the Bednore dynasty.<ref name="sc102">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=102|Ref=sc}}</ref>{{ref label|a|a|none}} This was confirmed by [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton|Francis Buchanan]], a Scottish physician, when he visited Canara in 1801. In his book ''A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar'' (1807), he stated that "The princes of the house of Ikkeri had given great encouragement to the Christians, and had induced 80,000&nbsp;of them to settle in [[Tulu Nadu|Tuluva]]."<ref name="buc23">{{harvnb|Buchanan|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bK4Ba6824koC M1 23]}}</ref><ref name="buc24">{{harvnb|Buchanan|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bK4Ba6824koC M1 24]}}</ref> Later, this was identified as a probable mistake and should have read "8,000". This figure included the second emigration of Christians from Goa.<ref name="Mercury">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=5}}</ref> The taxation policies of the Keladi Nayakas during 1598–1763 enabled the Goan Catholic migrants to emerge as prominent landowning gentry in South Canara.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} These migrants usually brought their own capital from Goa, which they invested in their new lands, thereby indirectly contributing to the prosperity of the Keladi kingdom.<ref name="Pius"/>

Under the provisional treaties between the Portuguese and the Bednore rulers, and the [[Padroado]], the Christians were allowed to build churches and help foster the growth of Christianity in South Canara.<ref name="sc102"/> The arrival of the British and the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] halted the activity of the Portuguese, and they were gradually unable to send the required number of missionaries to Mangalore.<ref name="dm"/> Shivappa Nayaka had previously expelled the Portuguese from their forts a little before 1660, which brought about considerable changes in the ecclesiastical situation.<ref>{{harvnb|George|2010|p=128}}</ref> The appointment of the [[Vicar Apostolic]] of Mangalore was felt by the [[Holy See]] to be of critical importance. Nayaka pressured the church authorities to appoint a native priest as the Vicar Apostolic, which resulted in the appointment of Fr. Andrew Gomez to the post; however, he died before the nomination papers could reach [[Mangalore]].<ref name="ver"/>

[[File:Aliadilshah.jpg|thumb|left|Ali Adil Shah I's attack on [[Goa]] in 1571 precipitated the second wave of [[Goan Catholic]] migrations towards [[South Canara]].]] At the recommendation of the [[Vicar General]] of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly|Verapoly]], Mons. Joseph Sebastiani, Pope [[Clement X]] appointed [[Thomas de Castro|Bishop Thomas de Castro]], a Goan [[theatines|Theatine]] and Bishop of Fulsivelem, as the Vicar Apostolic of [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples|Propaganda Fide]] in the [[Apostolic vicariate|Vicariate]] of Canara on 30 August 1675, for the purpose of providing spiritual leadership to the Canara Christians.<ref name="ver">{{cite web |url=http://www.verapolyarchdiocese.org/history.htm |title=Brief history of the Archdiocese of Verapoly |publisher=[[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly|Archdiocese of Verapoly]] |access-date=22 December 2009 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316132507/http://www.verapolyarchdiocese.org/history.htm |archive-date=16 March 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref name="Propaganda">{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=208}}</ref> After his consecration, he first went to [[Zamorin|Calicut]] and then moved to Mangalore, where he served from 1677 to 1684.<ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=209}}</ref> In 1677, Bishop de Castro entered into a conflict with the Archbishop of Goa, Dom Frei {{Interlanguage link|António Brandão|pt|António Brandão, Arcebispo de Goa e Primaz das Índias}} for disregarding the Padroado. Consequently, they did not cede the jurisdiction to him despite the Pope's letter of appointment.<ref name="Vicar"/> The Padroado–Propaganda conflict which ensued divided the Catholics of Canara into two sides—those who recognised the authority of the Padroado Archbishop in Goa versus those who supported de Castro.<ref name="Propaganda"/>

The Portuguese refused to recognise Bishop de Castro's appointment and vigorously opposed his activities. Archbishop Brandão's sudden death on 6 July 1678 further complicated matters, and the [[Cathedral chapter]] administering the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman|Archdiocese of Goa]] following the vacancy created by his death, forbade the Canara Catholics from receiving the sacraments from the bishop or from priests appointed by him. In his turn, Bishop de Castro excommunicated those Catholics who were obedient to the Padroado authorities in Goa and their priests.<ref name="Propaganda"/> In 1681, the Holy See appointed another Goan priest [[Blessed Joseph Vaz|Fr. Joseph Vaz]], as the [[Archpriest|Vicar Forane]] of Canara; he was asked not to submit to Bishop de Castro unless he showed the letter of appointment.<ref name="Vicar">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=158}}</ref> However, after being convinced of its legitimacy, Fr. Vaz submitted to Bishop de Castro and brought about a truce. He further managed to persuade the bishop to delegate his jurisdiction to him while retaining the post.<ref name="amp17"/> In 1700, the Catholics of Canara were again brought under the jurisdiction of the Padroado Archbishop of Goa.<ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=212}}</ref>

The [[Milagres Church (Mangalore)|Milagres Church]], one of the oldest churches in South Canara, was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas de Castro.<ref name="dm"/><ref name="sf 9">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/30/stories/2005113018370300.htm |title = Jubilee celebrations at Milagres Church on Tuesday |author = Raviprasad Kamila |date = 30 November 2005 |access-date = 1 March 2009 |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |location = Chennai, India |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121103222636/http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/30/stories/2005113018370300.htm |archive-date = 3 November 2012 |df = dmy }}</ref> In 1568, the Church of ''[[Nossa Senhora do Rosário de Mangalore]]'' (Our Lady of Rosary of Mangalore) was erected by the Portuguese at [[Bolar (Location)|Bolar]] in Mangalore. The Churches of ''[[Nossa Senhora de Mercês de Velala]]'' (Our Lady of Mercy of [[Ullal]]) and ''[[Church of St. Francis of Assisi, Farangipet|São Francisco de Assis]]'' (St. Francis of Assisi) at Farangipet were erected by the Portuguese in South Canara at around the same time. These three churches were mentioned by the Italian traveller [[Pietro Della Valle]], who visited Mangalore in 1623.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/11/27/stories/2004112702480100.htm |title = The holy heritage |author = Raviprasad Kamila |date = 27 November 2004 |access-date = 23 August 2008 |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |location = Chennai, India |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121103043155/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/11/27/stories/2004112702480100.htm |archive-date = 3 November 2012 |df = dmy }}</ref>

In 1570, the ''[[Sultan]]'' of [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur]], [[Ali Adil Shah I]], entered into an alliance with the ''Sultan'' of [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmadnagar]], Murtaza Nizam Shah, and the ''[[Zamorin]]'' of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] for a simultaneous attack on the Portuguese territories of Goa, [[Chaul]], and Mangalore.<ref name="amp16"/> He [[War of the League of the Indies|attacked Goa in 1571]] and ended Portuguese influence in the region. The Bijapur ''Sultans'' were especially renowned for their loathing of Christianity.<ref name="pra"/> Fearing persecution, many Goan Catholics fled to South Canara during this second wave of migrations, and settled in [[Barkur|Barcoor]], [[Kallianpur]], [[Kundapura|Cundapore]], and [[Basrur|Basroor]].<ref name="amp16">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=157}}</ref><ref name="pra"/> For the next century, there was continual migration of Goan Catholics southwards, so that by 1650, a considerable number of Catholics were settled around Mangalore, [[Mulki, Karnataka|Moolki]], [[Shirva, India|Shirva]], Pezar, [[Bantval]], Cundapore, Kallianpur, and Kirem.<ref name="amp16"/> The Christian Goud Saraswat Brahmins who came during this wave belonged mostly to the [[Shenoy|Shenvi]] subcaste.<ref name="Mercury"/>

[[File:Sambhaji painting late 17th century.png|thumb|left|The Maratha ruler [[Sambhaji]]'s onslaught was responsible for the third and final great wave of migrations to South Canara.]] The [[Maratha invasion of Goa (1683)|attacks of the Maratha Empire on Goa]] during the mid-17th century precipitated the third major wave of migrations. In 1664 [[Shivaji]], the founder of the Maratha empire, attacked [[Kudal]], a town north of Goa, and began his campaign for Goa. After Shivaji's death on 3 April 1680, his son [[Sambhaji]] ascended to the throne.<ref name="pra"/> The onslaught of Sambhaji along the northern territories of Goa drove nearly all the Christians from their homelands, and most of them migrated to South Canara. Migration increased with the fall of the Portuguese "Province of the North" (which included [[Vasai|Bassein]], [[Chaul]] and [[Salsette]]) and a direct threat to the very existence of Goa in 1738–40.<ref name="amp17"/>

According to one estimate, emigrations from the [[Salcete]] district of Goa were around the rate of 2,000 annually. Jesuit priests estimated that 12,000 Christians emigrated from the [[Bardez]] district of Goa between 1710 and 1712, most of them going southward. A Goa government report of 1747 presently in the [[Panjim]] archives records that around 5,000 Christians fled from the Bardez and [[Tiswadi]] districts of Goa during the Maratha invasion.<ref name="mc22">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=132}}</ref> During the Maratha raids on Goa, about 60,000 Christians migrated to South Canara.<ref>{{harvnb|Kurzon|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p5iK3CmIW6EC M1 77]}}</ref> These new migrants were given lands at [[Shirva, India|Shirva]], Kirem, [[Mundkur]], Pezar, and [[Hosabettu]] by the [[Chowta]] kings of [[Moodbidri]] and at Milagres, Bondel, and Cordel by the Banghel kings of Mangalore.<ref name="amp17">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=159}}</ref> During later years, migration slowed because of the Maratha–[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] wars, and some 10,000 Christians returned to Goa.<ref name="pra">{{cite book |title=Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians |author=Prabhu, Alan Machado |year=1999 |publisher=I.J.A. Publications |location=Bangalore |isbn=978-81-86778-25-8}} Material available in the [http://portal.kinnigoli.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28:sarasvatis-children&catid=13:english-fiction&Itemid=37 Sarasvati's Children] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713152653/http://portal.kinnigoli.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28%3Asarasvatis-children&catid=13%3Aenglish-fiction&Itemid=37 |date=13 July 2011 }} article, written by Joe Lobo, the President of the Goan Catholic Association in Florida, was borrowed mainly from Alan Machado's book.</ref> According to Alan Machado Prabhu, Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58,000 by 1765.<ref name="mc65">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=167}}</ref>

Subsequent to this steady rise in South Canara's Catholic population, the Portuguese took advantage of every opportunity to extend their control over the Mangalorean Catholics, who came to be identified with Portuguese interests.<ref name="D'Mello"/> The Portuguese sought to expand the power of the priests, as from the beginning of their empire, priests had accompanied Portuguese delegations on diplomatic missions and on occasion were the principal negotiators. Treaties they signed with the Keladi Nayakas progressively incorporated clauses which increased the authority of the priests over the local Catholic population, making them obedient to the priests in matters of Christian laws as well as granting priests the authority to punish violations.<ref name="D'Mello">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=160}}</ref> The Portuguese promised to refrain from slaughtering cows and to halt forcible conversions in their [[Factory (trading post)|factories]].<ref name="D'Mello"/> The terms of these treaties were not always honoured by the Portuguese, with the result that whenever hostilities broke out between the Keladis and the Portuguese, the Catholic settlers were often harassed or arrested by the Nayakas.<ref>{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=162}}</ref>

===Post-migration era and captivity=== {{main|Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam}} [[File:Tipu Sultan BL.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tipu Sultan]] (1750–1799), the architect of the Seringapatam captivity]] In 1686, [[Srirangapatna|Seringapatam]], the capital of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]], had a community of more than 400 Catholics. The community was severely harassed in the following two decades, with the churches destroyed and the priest's house confiscated. The destruction was undertaken under the name of the [[Wodeyar]] king, [[Kanthirava Narasaraja I]], by his finance minister. The priest's house was returned to the church in 1709.<ref name="George">{{harvnb|George|2010|p=132}}</ref> Relations between the Wodeyars and the Mangalorean Catholics improved until 1717, when there was an anti-Christian outburst. The resident priest was expelled and forbidden to preach. Several more anti-Christian outbursts followed. By 1736, there were better relations between the two groups.<ref name="Shirvagar">{{harvnb|George|2010|p=134}}</ref>

From 1761 onwards, [[Hyder Ali]], a distinguished soldier in the Mysore army, took ''de facto'' control of the throne of the Kingdom of Mysore through the Wodeyar dynasty. Hyder occupied Mangalore in 1763.<ref name="sch62"/> The Mangalorean Catholics numbered 80,000 in 1767.<ref>{{harvnb|Rural Industrialization in Backward Areas|2006|p=37|Ref=more}}</ref> In February 1768 the British captured Mangalore from Hyder.<ref name="sch62">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=62|Ref=sch}}</ref> Toward the end of 1768, Hyder and his son Tipu Sultan defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore fort. After the conquest, Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore. Hyder believed that this behaviour of the Christians amounted to treachery against the sovereign.<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|1957|loc=N. 6, p. 90}}</ref>

The Christians were alleged to have helped General Mathews with a sum of Rs. 3,30,000/-.<ref>{{harvnb|Jayadev|1996|p=66}}</ref> Hyder summoned a Portuguese officer and several Christian priests from Mangalore to suggest the punishment for the Mangalorean Catholics for treachery. The Portuguese officer suggested the death penalty for those Catholics who helped the British, because it was a fitting punishment for people who betrayed the sovereign. But Hyder exhibited a diplomatic stance and imprisoned the Christians, rather than killing them.<ref>{{harvnb|Tour|1855|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5ryCAAAAIAAJ&dq=history%20of%20hyder%20sha&pg=PA236 p. 236]: As soon as Hyder was informed of this, he caused these merchants to appear before him, with the chief of the Portuguese factory, and several Christian priests belonging to the three churches at Mangalore. He then demanded of the Portuguese chief and the priests, what punishment the Christians inflict on those who should presume to betray their sovereign, by giving assistance to his enemies. The Portuguese officer having without hesitation answered that such a crime deserved death, Hyder replied, "I do not judge in that manner, for our laws are milder. Since they have made themselves English by engaging to serve them, their property shall be adjudged to belong to Englishmen; and themselves shall be thrown into prison till I make peace with that nation."}}</ref>

Later, he opened negotiations with the Portuguese. As a result of the agreement, the suspicion against the clergy and the Christians was removed.<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|1957|loc=N. 6, pp. 103–104}}</ref> During Hyder's regime, the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish.<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|1957|loc=N. 6, p. 105}}</ref> After Hyder's death in the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]] on 7 December 1782, the British captured the fort again. Hyder was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan.<ref name="sch63">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=63|Ref=sch}}</ref> Tipu laid several assaults on the Mangalore fort until January 1784, all of which resulted in failure. The fort was finally delivered to Tipu when [[Siege of Mangalore|the British capitulated]] on 30 January 1784.<ref name="sch64">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=64|Ref=sch}}</ref>

Tipu received highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Mangalorean Catholics and their help to the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War.<ref name="s116">{{harvnb|Silva|1957|loc=N. 6, p. 116}}</ref> To minimise the British threat to his kingdom and in the ''Sultan-ul-Tawarikh'', due to "the rage of Islam that began to boil in his breast",<ref name="jnp1">"In Tipu's own writings, he justified his action as arising from "the rage of Islam that began to boil in his breast" for something that the Portuguese had done centuries before."{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=191}}</ref> Tipu banished the Mangalorean Catholic community from their lands, and imprisoned them at Seringapatam, the capital of his empire.<ref name="s7">{{harvnb|Silva|1957|loc=N. 6, p. 117}}</ref> The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.<ref name="dajser">{{cite web |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=28 |title=Deportation & The Konkani Christian Captivity at Srirangapatna (1784 Feb. 24th Ash Wednesday) |access-date=29 February 2008 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080129233351/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=28 |archive-date=29 January 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref>

Soon after the [[Treaty of Mangalore]] in 1784, Tipu gained control of Canara.<ref>{{harvnb|Forrest|1887|pp=[https://archive.org/stream/bombaysecretar02forruoft#page/314/mode/2up 314–316]}}</ref> He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates,<ref>{{harvnb|The Gentleman's Magazine|1833|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CnSrSlq_ckcC M1 388]|Ref=ge}}</ref> and deport them to Seringapatam, through the Jamalabad fort route.<ref name="dm">{{cite web|url=http://www.dioceseofmangalore.org/history.asp|title= Christianity in Mangalore|access-date=30 July 2008|publisher=[[Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore|Diocese of Mangalore]]|url-status=usurped|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080622155343/http://www.dioceseofmangalore.org/history.asp |archive-date = 22 June 2008}}</ref> All this was accomplished in a secret and well-planned move on [[Ash Wednesday]] (24 February 1784).<ref name="mc690">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=183}}</ref> Accounts of the number of captives differ, ranging from 30,000 to 80,000.<ref name="mc687">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=231}}</ref> The generally accepted figure is 60,000, as per Tipu's own records.<ref>{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=76}}</ref> They were forced to climb nearly {{convert|4000|ft|m}} through the dense jungles and gorges of the [[Western Ghats|Western Ghat]] mountain ranges along two routes; one group travelled along the [[Bantwal]]-[[Belthangadi]]-[[Kulshekar]]-[[Virajpet]]-[[Coorg]]-[[Mysore]] route,<ref name="mloreans"/><ref>{{harvnb|Prasad|1980|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4nUx8ZzIHBsC M1 20]}}</ref><ref name="ds48">{{harvnb|D'Souza|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aAli0XqprNMC M1 48]}}</ref> and the other along the [[Jog Falls|Gersoppa falls]] ([[Shimoga]]) route.<ref name="far73">{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=73}}</ref> It was {{convert|200|mi|km}} from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks.<ref name="s128">{{harvnb|Silva|1957|loc=N. 6, p. 128}}</ref>

[[File:Dungeon dwelling of Seringapatam.jpg|thumb|right|A dungeon at Seringapatam. Many Mangalorean Catholics who refused to embrace Islam were imprisoned in such dungeons.]]

According to the ''Barcoor Manuscript'', written in [[Kannada]] by a Mangalorean Catholic from [[Barkur|Barcoor]] after his return from Seringapatam, 20,000 of them (one-third) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger, disease, and ill treatment by the soldiers.<ref name="gyu">{{harvnb|Farias|1999|loc=p. 74: "More than one third of the number succumbed before the party reached Seringapatam. This account of the siege and captivity of the Kanara Catholics is taken from old Kanarese manuscript written by a Catholic of the Barkur ''taluka'' after his return from Seringapatam at the defeat and death of Tipu."}}</ref> At the camp at Jamalabad fort, Mangalorean Catholic leaders were thrown down from the fort.<ref name="ds48"/> All Christian churches in South Canara, except the [[Hospet Church]] at Hospet and the [[Monte Mariano Church]] at Farangipet,<ref name="escdemo"/> were razed to the ground and all land owned by the captured Christians was taken over by Tipu and distributed among his favourites.<ref name="Farangipet"/> After they were freed, all their belongings had disappeared and their deserted lands were being cultivated by the [[Bunt (community)|Bunt]]s.<ref name="Farangipet">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=2}}</ref>

After arriving at Seringapatam, the Christian captives were made to forcibly embrace Islam, were tortured, or sentenced to death.<ref>{{harvnb|Chetti|1897|p=94}}</ref> The young men who refused to embrace Islam were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears. They were seated on asses, paraded through the city, and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam.<ref name="ds49">{{harvnb|D'Souza|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aAli0XqprNMC M1 49]}}</ref> Historian Praxy Fernandes, author of ''Storm over Seringapatam: The Incredible Story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan'', states that contrary to popular belief, 40,000 Christians were not kept manacled in the dungeons of Seringapatam.<ref>{{harvnb|Fernandes|1969|p=249}}</ref>

[[Ludwig von Pastor]], a German historian, claimed "countless" Mangalorean Catholics were hanged, including women with their children clinging around their necks. Others were trampled or dragged by elephants.<ref name="p397"/> The able-bodied young men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam.<ref name="mc0687">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=213}}</ref> The young women and girls were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourites living in Seringapatam.<ref name="gyu"/> According to Mr. Silva of [[Gangolli]]m, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found, Tipu had ordered the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet, and one hand as punishment.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090201151859/http://geocities.com/prakashjm45/seringapatnam2.html Account of a Surviving Captive, A Mr. Silva of Gangollim] (Letter of a Mr. L.R. Silva to his sister, copy of which was given by an advocate, M.M. Shanbhag, to the author, Severine Silva, and reproduced as Appendix No. 74: ''History of Christianity in Canara'' (1965))</ref> The persecutions continued until 1792.<ref name="p397">{{harvnb|Pastor|1978|p=[https://archive.org/stream/historyofpopesfr39past#page/397/mode/1up/search/peace 397]}}</ref> This was followed by a brief relaxation period from 1792 to 1797, during which a few Catholic families managed to escape to Coorg, [[Kannur|Cannanore]], and [[Tellicherry]].<ref>{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=226}}</ref> The persecutions resumed in 1797.<ref>{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=230}}</ref>

===British and modern eras=== {{see also|Participation of Mangalorean Catholics in the Indian Independence Movement}} [[File:Tipu death.jpg|thumb|left|''[[The Last Effort and Fall of Tippoo Sultaun]]'' by [[Henry Singleton (painter)|Henry Singleton]]]] In the [[Battle of Seringapatam]] on 4 May 1799, the British army, under officers [[George Harris, 1st Baron Harris|George Harris]], [[Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet|David Baird]], and [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]], [[Siege of Seringapatam (1799)|stormed the fortress]] and breached the town of Seringapatam, with Tipu being killed in action.<ref name="dis39">{{harvnb|Wellington|Gurwood|1837|p=[https://archive.org/stream/dispatchesindex01welluoft#page/40/mode/1up 40]}}</ref> After his death in the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]], the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from his captivity.<ref name="free">{{cite web|url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=381 |title=Canara Catholics in Freedom Quest |author=John B Monteiro |date=15 August 2006 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |access-date=22 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825220037/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=381 |archive-date=25 August 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> Of the 60,000–80,000&nbsp;Mangalorean Catholics taken captive, only 15,000–20,000 made it out as Christians.<ref name="mc33">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=xiv}}</ref>

Historian Alan Machado Prabhu mentions that only 11,000 survived the captivity as Christians.<ref name="pra"/> British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10,000 of them return to South Canara and resettle on their lands.<ref name="dis39"/><ref name="fe">{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=81}}</ref> Of the remaining Christians freed, about a thousand went to [[Malabar District|Malabar]], and some hundreds settled in Coorg.<ref>{{harvnb|Saldanha|1938|p=79}}</ref> According to [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton|Francis Buchanan]], 15,000 of them returned to Mangalore and its vicinity, while 10,000 of them migrated to Malabar.<ref name="buc24"/> The ''Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency'' (1883) mentions that 15,000 persons returned, of which 12,000 were from South Canara and 3,000 from [[North Canara]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency|1883|p=381|Ref=gz}}</ref> According to genealogist [[Michael Lobo]], the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from this small group of survivors.<ref name="lobo1"/>

Later, the British took over South Canara. In 1800, they took a census of the region. Of the {{formatnum:396672}} people living in South Canara,<ref>{{harvnb|A Gazetteer of the World|1856|p=254|Ref=rgs}}</ref> 10,877 were Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Pai|Supriya|1981|p=217}}</ref> Thomas Munro was appointed the first [[District collector|collector]] of Canara in June 1799.<ref name="sch65">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=65|Ref=sch}}</ref> He passed three orders in respect of the estates of the Christians, which were taken over by non-Christians during the captivity.<ref>{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=85}}</ref> Through the assistance of the church and with the support of Munro, the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates.<ref>{{harvnb|Indica|1997|p=146|Ref=xav}}</ref> Fr. José Miguel Luis de Mendes, a Goan Catholic priest, was appointed Vicar of Our Lady of Rosary of Mangalore on 7 December 1799. He took interest in the re-establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808.<ref name="si"/> Later, British general John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector of [[South Canara]]. He took an active part in the restoration of the Catholic community's former possessions and the recovery of its estates. He constructed a church for them, which was completed in 1806.<ref>{{harvnb|The Gentleman's Magazine|1833|p=389|Ref=ge}}</ref>

[[File:Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Bt by Sir Martin Archer Shee.jpg|thumb|[[Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet|Thomas Munro]] helped the Mangalorean Catholics recover their lands after their return from captivity.]] In 1800, there were 2,545 Catholic households with a population of 10,877.<ref>{{harvnb|Paths of mission in India today|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dzU9NyOycG4C&dq=Mangalorean%20Catholics&pg=PA161 161–162]|Ref=dio}}</ref> Their population almost doubled by 1818. According to various parish books, Mangalorean Catholics numbered 19,068 in South Canara (12,877 in Mangalore and [[Bantwal|Bantval]],<ref name="orx">{{harvnb|The Oriental Herald|1824|p=14|Ref=or}}</ref> 3,918 in [[Mulki, India|Moolki]], 2,273 in [[Kundapura|Cundapore]] and [[Barkur|Barcoor]]).<ref name="ory">{{harvnb|The Oriental Herald|1824|p=15|Ref=or}}</ref> Most of the churches which were earlier destroyed by Tipu were rebuilt<ref name="or16">{{harvnb|The Oriental Herald|1824|p=16|Ref=or}}</ref> by 1815.<ref>{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=245}}</ref> The community prospered under the British, and the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa recommenced.<ref name="si">{{harvnb|Silva|1961|p=165}}</ref>

The opening of the Protestant German [[Basel Mission]] of 1834 in Mangalore brought many handicraft industries, such as cotton weaving and tile-manufacturing, to the region and led to a large-scale rise in employment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=400 |title=Mangalore: Comtrust Carries On Basel's Mission |access-date=28 November 2009 |first=John B. |last=Monteiro |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928062532/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=400 |archive-date=28 September 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref name="sc103">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=103|Ref=sc}}</ref> In 1836–37, the political situation in [[Portugal]] was in [[History of Portugal (1834–1910)#Setembrismo and Cartismo|turmoil]]. Antonio Feliciano de Santa Rita Carvalho, a Portuguese priest, was appointed Archbishop-elect of Goa in September 1836 without authorisation from the then Pope, [[Pope Gregory XVI|Gregory XVI]].<ref>{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=91}}</ref> Many Mangalorean Catholics did not accept the leadership of Carvalho but instead submitted to the [[Vicar Apostolic]] of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly|Verapoly]] in [[Travancore]], while some of them continued to be under the jurisdiction of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman]]. The parishes in South Canara were divided into two groups—one under Goa and the other under Verapoly.<ref name="dm"/>

Under the leadership of Joachim Pius Noronha, a Mangalorean Catholic priest, and John Joseph Saldanha, a Mangalorean Catholic judge, the Mangalorean Catholics sent a petition to the Holy See in 1840 to establish Mangalore as a separate Vicariate.<ref>{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=92}}</ref> Conceding to their request, [[Pope Gregory XVI]] established Mangalore as a separate Vicariate on 17 February 1845 under the Verapoly [[Carmelites]]. The Mangalore Mission was transferred to the French Carmelites by a bull dated 3 January 1870.<ref>{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=108}}</ref> During the regime of Carmelites, the Mangalorean Catholics constantly sent memorandums to the Holy See to send Jesuits to Mangalore to start institutions for higher education, since students frequently had to go to Bombay and Madras for educational purposes.<ref>{{harvnb|Indica|1988|p=144|Ref=xav2}}</ref> [[Pope Leo XIII]], by the Brief of 27 September 1878, handed over the Mangalore mission to the Italian Jesuits of [[Naples]], who reached Mangalore on 31 December 1878.<ref name="dm"/><ref name="i15">{{harvnb|The Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 14|p=[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V14_367.gif 361]|Ref=imp}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=113}}</ref>

The Italian Jesuits played an important role in education, health, and social welfare of the community.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://hindu.com/2004/01/08/stories/2004010810180300.htm |title = College all set to celebrate 125th anniversary |date = 8 January 2004 |access-date = 30 October 2008 |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121007090741/http://hindu.com/2004/01/08/stories/2004010810180300.htm |archive-date = 7 October 2012 |df = dmy }}</ref> They built [[St. Aloysius College (Mangalore)|St. Aloysius College]] in 1880,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.staloysius.ac.in/campus/aboutus/index.php |title=About St. Aloysius College |access-date=5 September 2008 |publisher=[[St. Aloysius College (Mangalore)]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527101359/http://www.staloysius.ac.in/campus/aboutus/index.php |archive-date=27 May 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref> [[St Aloysius Chapel]] in 1884,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://staloysius.edu.in/web/guest/st.-aloysius-chapel |title=About Chapel |access-date=5 September 2008 |publisher=[[St. Aloysius' College (Mangalore)|St. Aloysius College (Mangalore)]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223212740/http://staloysius.edu.in/web/guest/st.-aloysius-chapel |archive-date=23 December 2010 |df=dmy }}</ref> [[St. Joseph's Seminary (Mangalore)|St. Joseph's Seminary]]<ref name="seminary">{{cite web|url=http://stjosephseminary.org/aboutus.aspx |title=About St. Joseph's Seminary (Mangalore) |publisher=[[St. Joseph's Seminary (Mangalore)|St. Joseph's Seminary]] |access-date=22 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728060721/http://stjosephseminary.org/aboutus.aspx |archive-date=28 July 2011 }}</ref> and many other institutions and churches. On 25 January 1887, [[Pope Leo XIII]] established the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore|Diocese of Mangalore]], which is considered to be an important landmark in the community's history.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} By the later half of the 19th century, many Mangalorean Catholics were involved in the [[Mangalore tile]] industry, coffee plantations, and trade in plantation products.<ref name="rod"/> They prospered under the British and competed with the local Brahmins for offices in the service of the British.<ref name="books.google.co.in">{{harvnb|Sardesai|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&pg=PA291 291]}}</ref> The overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics continued to remain agriculturists.<ref name="bobo">{{harvnb|Lobo|2000|p=vi}}</ref>

[[File:St. Aloysius Church Mangalore.jpg|thumb|left|The St. Aloysius Chapel in Mangalore was built by [[Antonio Moscheni]] in 1884, after Mangalore was transferred to the Italian Jesuits in 1878.]]

During the later 19th century, they started migrating to other urban areas, especially [[Bombay]],{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} [[Bangalore]],{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} [[Calcutta]], [[Karachi]], [[Madras]], [[Mysore]] and [[Poona]]. The Mangalorean Catholics came to Bombay out of economic necessity.<ref name="narain">{{harvnb|Research in sociology|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0yED5k62TsC&pg=PA88 88]|Ref=na}}</ref> The first permanent settlement of Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay was recorded in the 1890s.<ref>{{harvnb|Farias|1999|loc=p. 286: "A link is thus maintained in the Community's contact with and contribution to the hometown. The Christians had migrated to urban areas especially cities like Bangalore, Bombay, Calcutta, Karachi, Madras, Mysore and Pune in search of greener pastures just as other agrarian communities from other parts of India had done."; "The earlier of the Christians to leave South Kanara were the Protestants of the Basel Mission, a few men who left in the 1880s and landed in Bombay. The Catholics comprising a few men came into Bombay almost a decade later."}}</ref> The first Mangalorean Catholic settlement in Madras was recorded in the 1940s.<ref>{{harvnb|Farias|1999|p=295}}</ref> [[Joachim Alva]], a Mangalorean Catholic politician, actively participated in uniting the Mangalorean Catholic community against the British during the [[Indian Independence Movement]].<ref name="ja">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/23/stories/2008012352390300.htm|title=Minister recalls contribution of Joachim Alva|date=23 January 2008|author=|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=26 November 2009|location=Chennai, India|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080129120930/http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/23/stories/2008012352390300.htm|archive-date=29 January 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[File:Mangalorean Catholic Doctors in a elite gathering at Milagres Church Complex in 2023.jpg|thumb|Mangalorean Catholic doctors in a gathering in 2023 at Milagres Church, Mangalore]] In 1901, Mangalorean Catholics accounted for 76,000 of the total 84,103 Christians in South Canara.,<ref name="i14">{{harvnb|The Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 14|p=[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V14_366.gif 360]|Ref=imp}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Oddie|1991|p=127}}</ref> while in 1962, they numbered {{formatnum:186741}}.<ref>{{harvnb|D'Sa|1972|p=1}}</ref> During the mid-20th century, [[Bishop Victor R. Fernandes|Victor Fernandes]], Bishop of Mangalore from 1931 to 1955, erected a large [[Christian cross|cross]] at [[Nanthoor]], near [[Padav hills]], on the former outskirts of Mangalore, in honour of the memory of Mangalorean Catholic martyrs who died on the march and during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam.<ref name="mloreans">{{cite news |url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/news/ie/daily/19990503/iex03030.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130629130029/http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/news/ie/daily/19990503/iex03030.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 June 2013 |title=We the Mangaloreans |date=3 May 1999 |access-date=25 May 2013 |first=Maxwell |last=Pereira |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] }}</ref> During the 1970s, coastal communication increased between Bombay and Mangalore with the introduction of ships by the London-based trade firm Shepherd. These ships facilitated the entry of Mangalorean Catholics to Bombay.<ref>{{harvnb|Indica|1983|p=113|Ref=xav}}</ref> In 1993, the Mangalore Diocese estimated the population of Mangalorean Catholics to be {{formatnum:325510}} out of a total South Canara population of {{formatnum:3528540}}. This amounts to 9.23 per cent of the population.<ref name="dio159">{{harvnb|Paths of mission in India today|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dzU9NyOycG4C&dq=Mangalorean%20Catholics&pg=PA159 159]|Ref=dio}}</ref> A notable post-independence era event pertaining to the Mangalorean Catholics that occurred in southern Karnataka, and made national headlines, were the [[2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka|attacks on Christian religious institutions in September 2008]].

==Geographical distribution== The Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore estimates the population of Mangalorean Catholics in the areas that comprise historical South Canara to be {{formatnum:360000}} out of a total population of {{formatnum:3957071}}, or approximately 9.5&nbsp;per cent of the population.<ref name="MD">{{cite web |url = http://www.dioceseofmangalore.org/ |title = Statistics |publisher = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore|Diocese of Mangalore]] |access-date = 12 January 2011 |url-status = usurped |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725235407/http://www.dioceseofmangalore.org/ |archive-date = 25 July 2011 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Other regions of India having a significant proportion of Mangalorean Catholics, characterised by the presence of Mangalorean Catholic organisations or celebration of the unique Mangalorean Catholic ''[[Monti Fest]]'' festival, are [[Bangalore Urban district|Bangalore]], [[Chennai]], [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]], [[Mumbai metropolitan area|Mumbai]], [[Pune]], [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]], [[Chikkamagaluru district|Chikkamagaluru]], [[Hassan district|Hassan]], and [[Ranchi]].<ref name="dajworld">{{cite web |url = http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=955 |title = Nativity Fest Around the World |access-date = 30 October 2008 |publisher = [[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080925083944/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=955 |archive-date = 25 September 2008 |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="lobo"/><ref name="mad">{{harvnb|Oddie|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qbf83q7MjlYC&pg=PA140 140]}}</ref><ref name="calc">{{harvnb|Nair|2004|p=88}} "There are about 200 Catholics hailing from Mangalore and its surroundings living in Calcutta for the past one hundred years or so."</ref> A few Mangalorean Catholics are found in [[Kodagu district|Kodagu]] and [[Kerala]], where there are tiny pockets concentrated in [[Thalassery]], [[Kasargod district|Kasargod]], [[Kannur]] and [[Kochi]]. They are mainly descended from those Catholics who fled the persecution and roundup by Tipu Sultan.<ref name="knk0687">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=156}}</ref> The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is scattered across the globe.<ref name="lobo1">{{harvnb|Lobo|1999|loc=p. ix: "Members of our community may now be found all over the world&nbsp;– from Norway in the north to Chile in the Southwest and New Zealand in the Southeast. There are Mangaloreans in virtually every country in Europe and in virtually every state of the United States. There are Mangaloreans in unusual and exotic locations like Korea, the Bahamas and Papua New Guinea. What binds these diverse and far-flung members of the Mangalorean community is that they commonly descend from a small group of families who returned to their homeland in 1799."}}</ref> Many Mangalorean Catholics are found in [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf Arab states]] in the Middle East. The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) has estimated that around 300&nbsp;Mangalorean Catholic families live in Sydney, Australia, with a lot of second generation families. Many of these are multi-racial, being married into Anglo-Saxon, Spanish, Italian, Greek, and other ethnicities.<ref name="SYD">{{cite web|url=http://mangalorecatholicsyd.com/history/mcasbirth.pdf |title=The Birth of the Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney Inc. (MCAS) |format=PDF, 15.8 [[Kilobyte|KB]] |publisher=Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) |access-date=29 February 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714025513/http://mangalorecatholicsyd.com/history/mcasbirth.pdf |archive-date=14 July 2011 }}</ref> Mangalorean [[Genealogy|genealogist]] [[Michael Lobo]] has estimated that approximately half of the Mangalorean Catholics still reside in Mangalore and the other towns in the South Canara district. As for the remaining half, about 15 per cent reside in other parts of [[Karnataka]] (mostly [[Bangalore]]), 15 per cent reside in [[Mumbai]] and its neighbouring areas, 10 per cent reside in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf countries]], 5 per cent reside in other parts of India, and the remaining 5 per cent reside in other parts of the world.<ref name="lobo">{{harvnb|Lobo|1999|loc=p. xiii: "If a comprehensive survey of the South Kanara Catholic community, as a whole, were to be attempted, my guess is that about half would still be residing either in Mangalore itself or in one of the smaller towns or villages of the district. Of the remaining half, about 15% would be residing in other parts of Karnataka (mainly Bangalore and the Ghats), another 15% in Bombay and its surrounding areas, another 10% in the Persian Gulf countries, another 5% in other parts of India, and the remaining 5% in other parts of the world."}}</ref>

==Culture== {{main|Culture of Mangalorean Catholics}}

===Architecture=== {{main|Architecture of Mangalorean Catholics}} [[File:Mangalorean Catholic house.jpg|thumb|left|A traditional Mangalorean Catholic house]]

The German missionary [[Georg Plebst]] set up the first tile factory at Mangalore in 1860. It was called the [[Basel Mission tile factory]].<ref name="tile"/> Mangalorean Catholics learnt the technique of preparing [[Mangalore tiles]].<ref name="rod"/> The [[Albuquerque tile factory]], the first Indian Mangalore tile factory, was started in South Canara by Pascal Albuquerque at [[Panemangalore, Karnataka|Panemangalore]] in 1868. Since then, Mangalorean Catholics have been actively involved in manufacturing the tiles. The [[Alvares tile factory]] was established in Mangalore by Simon Alvares, a Mangalorean Catholic from Bombay, in 1878.<ref name="sm2">{{harvnb|Somerset|Bond|Wright|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8WNEcgMr11kC M1 511]}}</ref> In 1991–1992, out of twelve Mangalore tile manufacturing factories in Mangalore, six were owned by Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Giriappa|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=k8j7tyiCAFkC M1 62]}}</ref> These tiles, prepared from hard clay, were in great demand throughout India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, and were even shipped to East Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and Australia. These were the only tiles to be recommended for Government buildings in India,<ref name="sm1">{{harvnb|Somerset|Bond|Wright|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8WNEcgMr11kC&pg=PA509 M1 510]}}</ref> and still define Mangalore's skyline and characterise its urban setting.<ref name="tile">{{cite news |url = http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/02/17/stories/2007021701030100.htm |title = Tiles for style |first = Savitha Suresh |last = Babu |date = 17 February 2007 |access-date = 4 April 2008 |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110212135016/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/02/17/stories/2007021701030100.htm |archive-date = 12 February 2011 |df = dmy }}</ref> Urban and rural housing follows the traditional variety of [[laterite]] brick structures with Mangalore tile roofing on steeply sloped roofs. Inside the house, a spacious hall is present while a large verandah is present in front of the house.<ref name="sc118">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=118|Ref=sc}}</ref> The traditional houses tend to have spacious porticos, red cement or [[terracotta]] floors, and have fruit trees outside the house.<ref name="Panikkar"/> The old Catholic houses of South Canara bear traces of Portuguese influence. The tall windows, pointed roofs, and verandahs are some of the [[Architecture of Portugal|Portuguese influenced architectural features]] of the century-old houses.<ref name="Panikkar">{{harvnb|Panikkar|1929|p=183}}</ref>

===Cuisine=== {{main|Mangalorean Catholic cuisine}} [[File:Kuswar (Bombay).jpg|thumb|''[[Kuswar]]'' are sweet delicacies prepared at Christmas, and include around 22 varieties of sweets.]]

Coconut and curry leaves are common ingredients to most curries.<ref name="food"> {{Citation |author = Amrita Nayak |url = http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/08/11/stories/2007081150880400.htm |title = Typically home |date = 11 August 2007 |location = Mangalore |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121103043142/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/08/11/stories/2007081150880400.htm |archive-date = 3 November 2012 |access-date = 16 August 2017 |df = dmy }} </ref> ''Sanna-Dukra Maas'' (''[[Sanna (dish)|Sanna]]'' is ''[[idli]]'' fluffed with toddy or yeast; ''Dukra Maas'' is pork) is one of the most popular dishes of the Mangalorean Catholic community.<ref name="DAJ"> {{Citation |author = Stephan D'Souza |url = http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=726 |title = What's in a Name? |date = 8 January 2008 |publisher = [[Daijiworld Media|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd]] |location = Mangalore |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120208022637/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=726 |archive-date = 8 February 2012 |access-date = 16 August 2017 |df = dmy }} </ref> ''Rosachi Kadi'' (''Ros'' Curry), a fish curry made with coconut milk (''ros''), is a traditional curry served during the ''Ros'' ceremony.<ref name="foodkadi"> {{Citation |author = Arun Bhatia |url = http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/06/17/stories/2002061701160400.htm |title = Anyone for shark curry? |date = 17 June 2002 |access-date = 18 August 2017 |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |df = dmy |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20041125171400/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/06/17/stories/2002061701160400.htm |archive-date = 25 November 2004 }} </ref> ''[[Patrode]]'', a dish of colocasia leaves stuffed with rice, ''[[dal]]'', [[jaggery]], coconut, and spices is popular.<ref>{{Harvnb | Sen | 2004 | p= 110 }} </ref> ''[[Kuswar]]'' are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas and include around 22 varieties of sweets.<ref> {{Citation |url = http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/11/25/stories/2006112500760100.htm |title = Santa, cakes and kuswar |access-date = 29 August 2008 |date = 25 November 2006 |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://archive.today/20240525193701/https://www.webcitation.org/66KX9CPBY?url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/11/25/stories/2006112500760100.htm |archive-date = 25 May 2024 |df = dmy }}</ref> Fish and rice form the staple diet of most Mangalorean Catholics.<ref name="sc121">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=121|Ref=sc}}</ref> Par-boiled rice, known as red rice, is the traditional rice eaten<ref>{{Citation |url = http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/06/17/stories/2002061700920300.htm |title = Taste of Mangalore |access-date = 3 November 2008 |date = 17 June 2002 |work = [[The Hindu]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120105012222/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/06/17/stories/2002061700920300.htm |archive-date = 5 January 2012 |df = dmy }}</ref> and is preferred over raw rice.<ref name="sc121"/>

===Names and surnames=== {{main|Mangalorean Catholic names and surnames}} [[File:Maxwell Pereira.JPG|thumb|Maxwell Kaamath-Pereira, popularly known as {{Ill|Maxwell Pereira|id}}, is a senior-ranking [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] officer from [[Delhi]].]]

Bilingual names, having variants in both Konkani and English, like ''Zuãuñ'' (from Portuguese ''João'', meaning [[John (first name)|John]]) and ''Mornel'' ([[Magdalene (given name)|Magdalene]]) are common among Mangalorean Catholics who still use Konkani as the [[first language]].<ref name="maff"/><ref name="maffei"/> Most Mangalorean Catholic names for males follow the second [[declension]]. Among women, the names follow the first declension, while among young girls, the names follow the second declension.<ref name="maff"/> [[List of Portuguese surnames|Portuguese surnames]] like [[De Souza|D'Souza]], [[Coelho]], and [[Pinto (disambiguation)|Pinto]] are common among Mangalorean Catholics,<ref name="sc103"/><ref name="maff8">{{harvnb|Maffei|1882|p=[https://archive.org/stream/akonkanigrammar00maffgoog#page/n33/mode/1up/search/coel 8]}}</ref> and generally follow the second declension.<ref name="maff9"/> Rarely, other European surnames are found as well.<ref name="maff9">{{harvnb|Maffei|1882|p=[https://archive.org/stream/akonkanigrammar00maffgoog#page/n64/mode/1up 39]}}</ref> Mangalorean Catholics also use Konkanised forms of their surnames in Konkani conversations, such as ''Soza'', ''Kueli'', ''Piint'' & so on;<ref name="maff9"/> instead of the Portuguese forms of De Souza, Coelho, Pinto etc.<ref name="maff8"/> Some families of [[Christian Cxatria]] and [[Christian Brahmin]] origin use surnames such as [[Prabhu|Porbu]], [[Kamath]], [[Nayak (title)|Naik]], [[Shenoy]] & [[Shett]].<ref name="sc103"/><ref name="pin">{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=168}}, "The Konkani Christians had names of saints like Peter, John, James, Jacob and Portuguese surnames like Saldanha, Britto, Coelho, Pinto, Vas and others. Some did have Hindu surnames: Shet, Shenoy, Kamath, Padival, etc."</ref> These original surnames are actually the names of five classes of persons: lord, cultivator, merchant, warrior, and writer.<ref>{{harvnb|Maffei|1882|p=[https://archive.org/stream/akonkanigrammar00maffgoog#page/n242/mode/1up/search/porbu 217]}}</ref> At least one of these are [[Saraswat Brahmin]] surnames, with the exception of [[Padval|Padival]] and Shett; Shett is used by those who trace their origins to [[Daivadnya]]s.{{cn|date=February 2025}} These ancestral pre-Christian surnames are called ''paik'' in Konkani.<ref name="md0687">{{harvnb|Prabhu|1999|p=137}}</ref> A few have reverted to their ''paik'' surnames.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=282}}</ref> While a few others use both, they use Konkani surnames which are hyphenated with the Portuguese ones.{{cn|date=October 2020}} [[Mudartha]] is a rare and unique Konkani and Gaud Saraswat Brahmin surname found among a few Catholics who hail from [[Udupi]].<ref name="Mudartha">{{cite web|url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=1150 |title=Prof Wilfred D'Souza&nbsp;– Third Generation Teacher Who Achieved Greater Heights |last=D'Souza |first=Dr. Eugene |date=5 September 2009 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |access-date=19 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100427025714/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=1150 |archive-date=27 April 2010 |df=dmy }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" |- !Mangalorean Catholic variant !English variant !Portuguese variant !Meaning !Sex |- |Mâri |[[Mary (given name)|Mary]] |''Maria'' |Beloved |Female |- |Monku |[[Monica (given name)|Monica]] |''Mónica'' |To advise |Female |- |Motes |[[Matthew (name)|Matthew]] |''Mateus'' |Gift from God |Male |- |Nâtu |[[Natalia (given name)|Natalia]] |''Natália'' |Birthday |Female |- |Pedru |[[Peter (given name)|Peter]] |''Pedro'' |Stone |Male |- |��ila |[[Sylvester]] |''Silva'' |Wooded |Male |- |Zâbel |[[Elizabeth (given name)|Elizabeth]] |''Isabel'' |My God is my oath |Female |- |Zoze |[[Joseph (name)|Joseph]] |''José'' |The Lord will add |Male |- | colspan=5 style="text-align:center;"|Source: ''An English–Konkani Dictionary'' (1882)<ref name="maffei">{{harvnb|Maffei|1882b|pp=[https://archive.org/stream/anenglishkonkan00bygoog#page/n555/mode/2up/search/iliana 540–541]}}</ref> and ''A Konkani Grammar'' (1882)<ref name="maff">{{harvnb|Maffei|1882|p=[https://archive.org/stream/akonkanigrammar00maffgoog#page/n63/mode/1up/search/baptismal 38]}}</ref> |}

===Language and literature=== [[File:Michael Lobo.jpg|thumb|[[Michael Lobo]] published the first genealogical encyclopaedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999.]] {{main|Konkani Language|Literature of Mangalorean Catholics}}

Mangalorean Catholics speak the [[Konkani language]], which they have retained as their mother tongue despite the migration; the language is central to the community's identity.<ref name="buc24"/> They speak a dialect known as Mangalorean Catholic Konkani, which the ''[[Ethnologue]]'' broadly identifies as the ''Mangalore'' dialect.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gom |title=Ethnologue report for Konkani, Goan (ISO 639–3: gom) |access-date=25 September 2008 |publisher=[[Ethnologue]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009164936/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gom |archive-date=9 October 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref>

The Mangalorean Catholic dialect has [[Sanskrit]] influences, and preserves many features of the [[Maharashtri]], [[Shauraseni]], and [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadhi]] dialects of [[Prakrit]]. It also has [[loanword]]s from the [[Tulu language|Tulu]] and [[Kannada language|Kannada]] languages.<ref name="mir97">{{harvnb|Miranda|1977|p=[http://resources.metapress.com/pdf-preview.axd?code=jl2250500582hg17&size=largest 247]}}</ref> It is written in the [[Kanarese script]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cardona|2003|p=731}}</ref> The dialect does not distinguish between the nouns of Kannada and Konkani and has developed into a language that is very practical for business.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} Some Kannada root words which have disappeared from the Goan dialects due to the influence of Portuguese have re-entered the Mangalorean lexicon.<ref name="mir97"/> 350–400 Portuguese lexical items are found in the Mangalorean Catholic dialect, of which more than half are related to religious terminology. The influence of Portuguese syntax is only found in some sets of phrases and prayers which have come down from the pre-migration era.<ref>{{harvnb|Abbi|Gupta|Kidwai|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tcfJY7kANo8C M1 53]}}</ref>

The Mangalorean Catholic dialect is largely derived from the ''Bardeskaar'' ([[North Goa]]n) dialect and bears a good degree of [[mutually intelligible|intelligibility]] with the modern ''Bardeskaar'' dialect (spoken by North [[Christianity in Goa|Goan Christians]]) and to a slightly lesser extent with the standard Konkani dialect.<ref name="knk0687"/><ref>{{harvnb|Miranda|1978|pp=77–78}}</ref> It consequently differs from the dialect spoken by the [[Goud Saraswat Brahmin]]s in South Canara, which is copiously derived and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern ''Sashtikaar'' (South Goan) dialect spoken by South Goan Christians and North Canara Konkani Hindus.<ref name="knk0687"/><ref>{{harvnb|Asiatic Society of Bombay|Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain|Ireland Bombay Branch|1853|p=[https://archive.org/details/journalasiatics00bombgoog/page/n337 300]|Ref=as}}</ref> It is much closer to the dialects of the Goan Hindus than to that of the [[Goan Catholics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kelley|Dimock|Kachru|1992|p=219}}</ref>

The Italian Jesuits who arrived in Mangalore in 1878, devoted themselves to the study and development of Konkani, and were thus responsible for the revival of the Konkani language in Mangalore.<ref>{{harvnb|George|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=m1R2Pa3f7r0C&pg=PA210 210]}}</ref> The origin of their literature dates to 1883, when Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, an Italian Jesuit, published the first ''An English–Konkani Dictionary'' in Mangalore.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/02/02/stories/2007020212980400.htm|title=New English-Konkani dictionary ready|author=Nagesh Prabhu|date=2 February 2007|access-date=7 September 2008|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105190542/http://www.hindu.com/2007/02/02/stories/2007020212980400.htm|archive-date=5 January 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> He published a book on Konkani grammar in 1882, with a revised version in 1893.<ref name="ds2">{{harvnb|D'Souza|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aAli0XqprNMC&q=Louis+Mascarenhas+Konkani%2C&pg=PA4 M1 4]}}</ref> In 1912 the first Konkani periodical, ''Konknni Dirvem'' (Konkani Treasure), was published in Mangalore by Louis Mascarenhas.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=32675&n_tit=News+headlines |title= Rich Tributes Paid to Pioneer Konkani Poet Louis Mascarenhas |access-date= 1 March 2008 |author= Melka Miyar |publisher= Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090825221419/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=32675&n_tit=News+headlines |archive-date= 25 August 2009 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Popular Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore include ''Raknno'' (Guardian) (1938) by Mons. Sylvester Menezes,<ref name="geo216">{{harvnb|George|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=m1R2Pa3f7r0C M1 216]}}</ref> ''Konkan Daiz'' (Heritage of Konkani) (1958),<ref name="sar288">{{harvnb|Sardesai|2000|p=288}}</ref> and ''Kannik'' (Donation) (1965) by Raymond Miranda.<ref name="sar289">{{harvnb|Sardesai|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&pg=PA290 M1 289]}}</ref> The twentieth-century literature focused on themes like the suffering of the Mangalorean Catholics during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam and the oppression of Goan Catholics during the [[Goa Inquisition]].<ref name="ds1">{{harvnb|D'Souza|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aAli0XqprNMC M1 1]}}</ref><ref name="sar256-7">{{harvnb|Sardesai|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&pg=PA256 256–257]}}</ref> The first Konkani novel in Karnataka ''Aangel'' (1915), was written in the Kannada script by Joachim Santan Alvares.<ref>{{harvnb|George|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=m1R2Pa3f7r0C&pg=PA217 217]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|D'Souza|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aAli0XqprNMC&pg=PA5 5]}}</ref> In Bombay—which had a small Mangalorean Catholic community—periodicals like ''Sukh-Dukh'' (Ups and Downs) (1948) by G.M.B. Rodrigues, ''Konknni Yuvak'' (Konkani Youth) (1949) by [[George Fernandes]], ''Poinnari'' (Traveller) (1950) by [[V.J.P. Saldanha]],<ref name="geo216"/> and ''Divo'' (Lamp) (1995) by J.B. Moraes were published.<ref name="gka">{{cite web |url=http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/konkaniweb/language-literature.htm |title=Konkani Language and Literature |publisher=Goa Konkani Akademi |access-date=14 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828171254/http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/konkaniweb/language-literature.htm |archive-date=28 August 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref>

[[File:Richard Crasta.jpg|thumb|[[Richard Crasta]] is best known for his work ''The Revised Kamasutra'', a novel on sexual desires.]]

Modern literature is diverse and includes themes such as [[Politics of India|Indian politics]] in books like ''What Ails the Socialists'' by George Fernandes,<ref name="gf"> {{cite web |url = http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok12/biodata/12bi34.htm |publisher = [[Parliament of India|Indian Parliament]] |title = Biographical Sketch (George Fernandes) |access-date = 14 September 2008 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060505050044/http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok12/biodata/12bi34.htm |archive-date = 5 May 2006 |df = dmy-all }} </ref> historical awakening, in books such as ''Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians'' by Alan Machado Prabhu,<ref name="prabhu">"Migration, Myths And Mangalore: A Writer Pieces Together The Story", [[Frederick Noronha]], ''South Asia Religious News''</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=I.J. Saldanha-Shet|date=5 December 2011|url=http://www.mangaloretoday.com/mt/index.php?action=opinion&type=74&cat=2|title="SHADES within SHADOWS"&nbsp;– Delving into the History of Mangalore|publisher=Mangalore Today|access-date=11 December 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406183924/http://www.mangaloretoday.com/mt/index.php?action=opinion&type=74&cat=2|archive-date=6 April 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and sexual desires, in ''The Revised Kama Sutra: A Novel of Colonialism and Desire'' by Richard Crasta.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report_17-years-later-this-kama-sutra-gets-a-fresh-launch_1435581 |title = 17 years later, this Kama Sutra gets a fresh launch |access-date = 14 September 2008 |newspaper = dnaindia.com |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120930125317/http://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report_17-years-later-this-kama-sutra-gets-a-fresh-launch_1435581 |archive-date = 30 September 2012 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Genealogist Michael Lobo published the first genealogical Encyclopedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999. This genealogical encyclopaedia, which exceeds 6,000 pages, covers over a thousand families, each of which is researched as far as its ancestry can be traced. Three offshoots have thus far been launched, which include ''Mangaloreans Worldwide&nbsp;– An International Directory'' (1999), ''Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics'' (2000), and ''The Mangalorean Catholic Community&nbsp;– A Professional History / Directory'' (2002).<ref name="DAJlobo">{{cite web |url = http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=10 |title = Dr. Michael Lobo: Probing family roots and history |author = Richie Lasrado |publisher = [[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |access-date = 20 October 2008 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120303180800/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=10 |archive-date = 3 March 2012 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> William Robert da Silva translated the first complete Bible from English into Konkani. The work entitled ''Baibol'' (Bible) was written in the Kannada script, and published by the Mangalore-based Konkani Bible committee in 1997.<ref>{{cite news|work=[[Pratap Naik|Fr. Pratap Naik, S.J.]] |date=5 June 2006 |url=http://www.mangalorean.com/news.php?newstype=local&newsid=29346 |title=Bible and Konknni |publisher=Mangalorean.com |access-date=11 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209070936/http://www.mangalorean.com/news.php?newstype=local&newsid=29346 |archive-date=9 December 2014 }}</ref> In 2000, the Mangalore Diocese also released a Konkani Bible in Kannada script entitled ''Pavitr Pustak'' (Holy Book), which was made available online on 26 July 2007.<ref>[https://archive.today/20121209094156/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://www.konkanicatholics.com/press-release.htm Entire Konkani Bible is available online]&nbsp;– Indian Catholic. Retrieved 30 October 2011</ref>

===Customs and festivals=== Mangalorean Catholics have retained many Indian customs and traditions; these are especially visible during the celebration of a marriage.<ref name="Saraswati"/> Their culture is more traditional and Indian.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Though the Portuguese traded quite frequently in Mangalore, and most of the priests arriving in the area were Portuguese, there did not develop a community identified with Portugal and Portuguese culture.{{cn|date=October 2020}} Their marriage rites have similarities with the Shenvi sub-caste of the [[Saraswat Brahmin]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=11}}</ref> It was mainly these pre-Christian marriage rites that the Portuguese found objectionable and prohibited during the Goan Inquisition.<ref name="rod"/><ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=12}}</ref>

The ''roce''{{ref label|b|b|none}} ([[ritual bath]]ing) ceremony, conducted one or two days before a wedding, celebrates the last day of virginity of the bride and the groom; it involves the parents' blessing the bride and groom, who are bathed in ''roce'' ([[coconut milk]]),<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=25}}</ref> while a cross is inscribed on the bride's forehead.<ref name="rod"/><ref name="catholicroce">{{cite web|last=D'Souza |first=Anil |title=Catholic Roce&nbsp;–- Is it an Extinct Ceremony ? |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=1123 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |access-date=12 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418183243/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=1123 |archive-date=18 April 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|D'Sa|1972|p=79}}</ref> The ethnic Konkani marriage rituals include ''soirik'' ([[betrothal]]),<ref name="sar73"/> exchange of ''paan pod''{{Ref label|c|c|none}} ([[betel leaves]]) during the marriage ceremony,<ref name="sf18">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=18}}</ref> which known as ''badalchen'' (changing hands; formal acceptance of the promise made by the bride's father to the bridegroom's father that he will give his daughter in marriage).<ref>{{harvnb|D'Sa|1972|p=74}}</ref>{{Ref label|d|d|none}}<ref name="sar73"/> The bride is adorned with the ''sado'' (wedding ''[[sari]]'')<ref name="sf19"/> and ''pirduk''{{Ref label|f|f|a}} (wedding necklace).<ref name="sf19">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=19}}</ref> Other rites include the ''onpnni'' or ''{{transliteration|kok|vopsun diunche}}'' (giving away the bride formally by the father or the guardian of the bride),<ref name="dsa86"/> ''porthoponn'' (re-invitation to the bride's house),<ref name="dsa86">{{harvnb|D'Sa|1972|p=86}}</ref> and singing of ''honvious'' (hymns).<ref name="sar73"/> Some other customs include ''novemjeevon'' (partaking of the food prepared from new corn) and ''novem'' (blessing of new harvests).<ref name="sar73">{{harvnb|Sardesai|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&pg=PA73 M1 73]}}</ref>

[[File:Monti Fest.jpg|thumb|A [[Monti Fest]] celebration near the Milagres Church in [[Hampankatta]], Mangalore]] In addition to common Christian festivals like Christmas, [[Great Friday]], and Easter, the community celebrates many other festivals of religious and historical significance. ''[[Monti Fest]]'' is one of the major festivals, celebrated on 8 September. It combines the [[Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary]] and blessing of ''novem'' (new crops). The festival derives its name from the [[Monte Mariano Church]] at Farangipet, and was initiated by Fr Joachim Miranda, a [[Goan Catholics|Goan]] priest at Farangipet, in 1763. Although Tipu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the friendship of his father Hyder Ali with Fr Miranda.<ref name="escdemo">{{cite web |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=129 |title=Monti Fest Originated at Farangipet&nbsp;– 240 Years Ago! |access-date=15 January 2008 |author=John B. Monteiro |publisher=Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080125132305/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=129 |archive-date=25 January 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref> ''Attur Jatre'' or ''Attur Fest'' (Attur festival) is the feast of [[Lawrence of Rome|St Lawrence]], celebrated at the [[St. Lawrence Shrine]] on the outskirts of [[Karkala]].<ref name="DAJ"/> This shrine, in existence since 1759, is said to have a history of miracles.<ref name="DAJ"/> ''Evkaristik Purshanv'' ([[Eucharist]]ic Procession) is an annual religious procession led by the Bishop of Mangalore from [[Milagres Church (Mangalore)|Milagres Church]] to [[Rosario Cathedral, Mangalore|Rosario Cathedral]].<ref name="DAJ"/> The procession, held on the first Sunday of the New Year of the Gregorian calendar, seeks blessings for the new year.<ref name="DAJ"/>

===Costumes and ornaments=== {{main|Attire of Mangalorean Catholics}} [[File:Mangalorean Catholic wedding costumes.jpg|thumb|A Mangalorean Catholic couple dressed in traditional wedding costumes. The bride is wearing a wedding ''sari'' (''sado''); while the groom is wearing a ''todop'' (golden hem), ''kutanv'' (coat), ''pudvem'' (''[[dhoti]]'') & ''urmaal'' (turban).]]

Mangalorean Catholic men traditionally white or black coats known as ''kutanv'' (similar to the [[bandhgala]]s), while the ''pudvem'' (''[[dhoti]]''), a piece of unstitched cloth, usually around {{convert|7|yd}} long, was wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist. The turban called ''mundaas'' or ''urmal'', were usually flattened like the ''[[Coorgi]]'' turbans.<ref name="sf31"/> It was a long white piece of cloth with a ''todop'' (golden hem) tied around the head like a turban in a particular manner by which they could be easily identified as Catholic Christians.<ref name="sf31"/><ref>{{harvnb|D'Souza|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aAli0XqprNMC&dq=Pudvem&pg=PA9 9]}}</ref> In modern times however, this mode has changed. Only a few older men can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church-going occasions.<ref name="sc119">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=119|Ref=sc}}</ref>

Before marriage, women used to wear a ''kirgi'' (''[[half sari]]'') and ''baju'' (''[[kurti top|kurti]]''). The ''kirgi'' is a piece of cloth not longer than four feet, and about three feet wide. It was wrapped around the body from the waist down. A jacket with long sleeves called a ''baju'', was used to cover the upper part of the body. This dress was a sign of the bride's virginity and was worn during the ''roce'' or ''ros'' ceremony.<ref name="sf31">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=31}}</ref><ref name="dsa77">{{harvnb|D'Sa|1972|p=77}}</ref> The ''kirgi'' was wrapped around the waist, but the end of the ''sari'' is not thrown over the shoulder.<ref name="dsa77"/> To wear the full ''sari'' with its end thrown over the shoulder, known as ''worl'', it was the exclusive right of a married woman.<ref name="sf40">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=40}}</ref> Married women used to wear sarees the general way.<ref name="sc120">{{harvnb|South Kanara District Gazetteer|1973|p=120|Ref=sc}}</ref> The ''[[salwar kameez]]'' and the [[lungi]] are forms of popular clothing among present-day Mangaloreans. The Mangalorean Catholic bride's wedding ''sari'' is known as a ''sado''.{{ref label|e|e|none}}<ref name="sf32">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=32}}</ref> It is usually a red-coloured ''[[Banarasi|Benaresi sari]]'' which is made of finely woven silk and is decorated with elaborate engravings.<ref name="sf19"/> In olden days, the bride wore on her head a red cloth, three feet square. Gold ornaments were absent in those days: the bride went to the church dressed as a virgin girl. In modern times, the bride wears (in place of the ''kirgi'') a red sari, but the end of the ''sari'' is not thrown over the shoulder; it is wrapped around the waist. The bride wears a few gold ornaments, some rings on the fingers, earrings, and at least two of the ''dantoni'' (golden combs).<ref name="sf32"/> Other ornaments worn by the bride in the olden days included ''kanti'', ''chakrasar'', ''kap'', ''karap'', ''mugud'', ''kanto'', and ''dantoni''.<ref name="dsa77"/>

[[File:Mangalorean Catholic sado.JPG|thumb|left|A Mangalorean Catholic wedding ''sari'' (''sado'').]] ''Dantoni'' consist of two ordinary combs with the upper part of each one plated with gold; they are worn in the hair on both sides of the head over the ears. On the way to church the bride wears some white and red flowers stuck in the hair. In the centre of the forehead, a ''bang'' (gold chain) was placed with a pendant.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=21}}</ref> The ''pirduk'' (''[[mangalsutra]]''){{Ref label|f|f|b}} is a necklace made of black beads strung on gold wire as either as a single chain or double chain, with a connecting pendant.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} This necklace is worn as long as the husband is alive; a widow is expected to take it off.<ref name="sf40"/> It is highly prized by women as the symbol of their married state.<ref name="sf20">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=20}}</ref> A widow is expected to wear a black ''sari'' for the remainder of her life, and is not allowed to wear ornaments.<ref name="Saraswati">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=52}}</ref> The bridegroom's dress in early times consisted of a breechcloth (''[[dhoti]]''), with a red and gold hem (''todop''), a coat (''kutanv'') & a towel (''urmal'') on the head.<ref name="sf31"/><ref name="dsa77"/> The bridegroom wore a ''chakrasar'' (neck chain) around his neck. He wore a pair of sandals or at least a pair of socks.<ref name="dsa78">{{harvnb|D'Sa|1972|p=78}}</ref> Presently, most Mangalorean Catholic couples opt for a [[white wedding]], where the groom wears a [[suit|black suit]], while the bride wears a [[dress|white dress]].<ref name="DAJAnilds">{{cite web|url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=1019 |title=Weddings then, now and in Future... |last=D'Souza |first=Anil |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |access-date=20 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401002651/http://daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=1019 |archive-date=1 April 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> The traditional style of wedding is becoming exceedingly rare.<ref name="todop">{{cite web|url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=46715 |title=Hassan: CSI Grounds hosts First-ever Traditional Konkani Marriage |last=Veigas |first=Praveen |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |access-date=20 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011192936/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=46715 |archive-date=11 October 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref>

===Historical society=== [[File:Cajetan Lobo Prabhu.jpg|thumb|A Mangalorean Catholic gentleman belonging to the ''Bamonn'' caste, c. 1938]]

Catholics were divided into three broad divisions: the higher classes of Catholics were landlords, merchants and public servants. The middle classes were traders, cultivators; the lower classes were agricultural laborers, tailors and domestic servants.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Pinto |first=Vishanz |date=2009-12-31 |title=Migration of the catholics of South Canara and its socio-economic dimensions 1900 to 1980 |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/132249 |journal=Mangalore University |hdl=10603/132249 |language=English}}</ref> Mangalorean Catholics retained the same caste system as their Konkani ancestors in Goa. They were mainly divided into four castes: ''[[Roman Catholic Brahmin|Bamonns]]'', ''[[Roman Catholic Kshatriya|Charodis]]'', ''Sudirs'', and ''Gaudis''.<ref name="sf7">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=7}}</ref> There were also local converts from [[Bunt (community)|Bunt]], [[Beary]], [[Koraga people|Koragas]], [[Holeya]], [[Mogaveera]], [[Billava|Billavas]], [[Adi Dravida|Mansa]] and other communities due to the social reform and missionary activities of the [[Jesuits]] and [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchins]] in the 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fernandes |first=Royston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3c0BQAAQBAJ |title=The Indefatigable Crusader |date=2014-05-01 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-93-84049-55-3 |page=8 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

Converts from Brahmin sub-castes such as the [[Saraswat Brahmins]], [[Padye]]s, [[Daivadnya]] goldsmiths/ merchants etc;<ref name=":0" /> were merged into the Christian caste of ''Bamonn''.<ref name="Mercury" /><ref name="bhat">{{harvnb|Gomes|1987|p=77}}</ref> The ''Bamonns'' were further divided into other subcastes or classes according to rank. In Mangalore, they were sub-divided into ''Sirudhegars'' (the highest class), ''Alhdhengars'', ''Cutdhnangars'', ''Dhivodegars'', ''Nathnolegars'', ''Sashragars'', ''Puruvargars'', and ''Maidhegars''. These names are taken from the villages to which they once belonged.<ref>{{harvnb|Maffei|1885|p=[https://archive.org/stream/anenglishkonkan00bygoog#page/n730/mode/1up/search/sirudegar 155]}}</ref> According to John B. Kutinha of the Karnataka Second Backward Classes Commission, the Bamon Christians and Sarodi Christians were akin to [[Vaishyas]] and [[Shudra]]s, and the [[Gauda and Kunbi|Gaudi]] Christians were akin to [[dalit|untouchables]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=L. G. Havanur |first1=Chairman |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.2681/page/n230/mode/1up |title=Report of the Karnataka Backward Classes Commission |last2=Y. Ramachandra |first2=Member |last3=K. R. Srinivasulu Nayudu |first3=Member |last4=K. M. Naganna |first4=Member |last5=A. Masana Chetty |first5=Member |last6=Dharamsingh |first6=Member |last7=P. T. Habib |first7=Member |date=1975 |publisher=Bangalore, Government Press |page=211}}</ref>

The ''Charodis'' were converts from the [[Kshatriya]] (warrior class) and [[Vaishya]] (merchant class) castes.<ref name="sf7"/> They were generally engaged in farming, trade, and commercial vocations.<ref name="merchant">{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=165}}</ref> The artisan converts formed the third group who were known as ''Sudirs'' (the Konkani word for [[Shudra]]s who were the labour class).<ref name="sf7"/> They were workers and agricultural labourers engaged in service professions.<ref name="merchant"/> The converts from the fisher caste residing around [[Ullal]], Kuloor, and other places around the seacoast were called ''Gaudis'', and formed the fourth group.<ref name="Mercury"/> They cultivated the lands of the ''Bamonns'' and the high-caste Hindus.<ref name="land">{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=177}}</ref> Other minor castes included the ''[[Padval]]s'', whom historian Severine Silva found to be native [[Tulu Jains|Tulu Jain Bunt]] converts.<ref name="Mercury"/>

[[File:Pais Prabhu.JPG|thumb|left|An extended Catholic family in Mangalore belonging to the ''Bamonn'' caste, year 1929.]] The Mangalorean Catholics constituted a small community widely scattered across the [[South Canara|South Canara district]]. Rather than being a closely knit and united group, the Goan Catholic immigrants and their progeny did not associate with the native Catholics on account of caste, origin, and language, and even among themselves were strongly divided by caste.<ref name="sf6"/> The Hindu uppercastes, including the indigenous Brahmins (mostly belonging to the [[Shivalli Brahmins|Shivalli]], [[Havyaka Brahmin|Havyaka]], and [[Kota Brahmin|Kota]] sub-groups) and [[Bunt (community)|Bunts]] did not associate with the Catholic Christians and would not admit them into their houses on account of their religion.<ref name="Saraswati"/> However, a close contact was kept by the Catholic Christians with the Hindus of the same caste who were migrants from Goa. Catholic Christians would invite their Hindu cousins to festivities such as birth celebrations, weddings, and funeral feasts. The Hindus accepted such invitations.<ref name="Saraswati"/> Unlike the Hindu counterpart, a high-caste Mangalorean Catholic did not consider himself polluted upon physical contact with a member of the lower castes, but members of different castes did not fraternise or invite each other home for dinner.<ref name="Canon"/> According to sociologist Vinay Rajath D, the relationship between caste and occupation was very tenuous among Catholic Christians, as Bamons as well as Sudirs consisted of cultivators, agricultural labourers, traders, masons, and cooks.<ref name=":0" />

Marriage between members of the various castes was not permitted, and such matches were strictly discouraged by the elders. For instance, a ''Bamonn'' boy would only marry a ''Bamonn'' girl and a ''Charodi'' boy would only marry a ''Charodi'' girl.<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=15}}</ref> The ''Bamonns'' and ''Charodis'' would invite neighbours and friends belonging to the ''Sudir'' and ''Gaudi'' castes to special occasions such as weddings and baptisms, although the latter would have to observe certain restrictions with regards to sitting and eating. The lower castes felt honoured if they were invited and usually accepted such invitations.<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=22}}</ref> The upper castes usually did not attend the ceremonies of the lower castes, even if expressly invited.<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=23}}</ref>

[[File:Salvador Barboza.jpg|thumb|left|The [[sacristan]] of St Lawrence Church, [[Moodubelle]], gives his blessings to his granddaughter during her ''Ros'' ceremony, year 1975. He wears a short kurta and a [[dhoti]].]]

It was difficult for the few priests who had accompanied the Christian emigrants to South Canara to look after them properly. Thus, the ''gurkar'' system came into existence. ''Gurkars'' were Mangalorean Catholic men of good moral character who were selected as headmen in Christian settlements. They were entrusted with the social and religious supervision of the community.<ref name="sf 9"/> After migration, the only possible occupation of a Mangalorean Catholic was agriculture, since they were skilled farmers.<ref name="Mercury"/> Every farmer practised carpentry, but it was quite primitive and unskilled, and other crafts and industries were non-existent.<ref name="sf16">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=16}}</ref> The [[Eucharist in the Catholic Church|mass]] was celebrated in Latin; but the [[sermon]], the [[catechism]], and the explication of the mysteries were delivered to the congregation in Konkani.<ref>{{harvnb|The Oriental Herald|1824|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ihgYAAAAYAAJ M1 17]|Ref=or}}</ref>

The parishes were grouped into deaneries called ''varados''. Every parish was divided into wards, while [[Pastoral Council|parish council]]s were present in most parishes.<ref name="dio159"/> About 15 percent of the households in the parishes were literate.<ref>{{harvnb|Paths of mission in India today|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dzU9NyOycG4C&dq=Mangalorean%20Catholics&pg=PA160 160]|Ref=dio}}</ref> A widow had to remain indoors, practically for the rest of her life. Since high-caste Hindu widows cannot remarry after the death of their husbands, the high-caste Christians too considered the remarriage of a widow as something unnatural. [[Canon law]] did allow remarriage for widows and therefore there was no direct prohibition for widows to remarry in the society of the Christians of South Canara. Few women had the courage to go against the strict conventions of their community. A widow who remarried was looked down upon, pitied, and shunned as unlucky. But she was not ill-treated or made an outcast, and no stigma was attached to her husband.<ref name="Saraswati"/><ref name="Canon"/> Succession to property was practised as per the Hindu laws.<ref name="Canon">{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=168}}</ref>

By the end of the 20th century however, social categorization and differentiation became manifested not on various factors apart from caste. Catholic Christians who belonged to the lower economic classes and were tenants in former times now have become land owners, due to the land reforms.<ref name=":0" /> Mangalorean Catholic society had become very mobile owing to factors such as education, job affiliation, non-agricultural jobs, acquisition of wealth, cultivation of cash crops, inter-caste marriages, inter-religious marriages, and migration to metropolitan cities.<ref name=":0">{{cite thesis |author=D, Vinay Rajath |title=Social structure and stratification among the catholics of Dakshina Kannada |date=2000 |type=Phd |publisher=Mangalore University |page=[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/131282/12/12_chapter%204.pdf 58] |hdl=10603/131282}} Pg 201, 202.</ref>

===Songs and music=== [[File:Konkani Nirantari.jpg|thumb|''Konkani Nirantari'', a Konkani cultural event, entered the Guinness Book of World Records for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns.]]

On 26 and 27 January 2008, a [[Konkani language|Konkani]] cultural event, ''Konkani Nirantari'', held in Mangalore by the Mangalorean Catholic organisation ''Mandd Sobhann''; entered the [[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of World Records]] for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns.<ref name="GUI"/> ''Mandd Sobhann'' members sang for 40&nbsp;hours, surpassing the old record of 36&nbsp;hours held by a Brazilian musical troupe, ''Communidade Evangelica Luterana São Paulo'' (Lutheran Evangelical Community of [[São Paulo]]) of [[Universidade Luterana do Brasil]] (Lutheran University of Brazil).<ref name="GUI">{{cite news |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=42855&n_tit=Mangalore: |title=Mangalore: Guinness Adjudicator Hopeful of Certifying Konkani Nirantari |access-date=1 February 2008 |date=25 January 2008 |publisher=Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120728235422/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=42855&n_tit=Mangalore:+Guinness+Adjudicator+Hopeful+of+Certifying+Konkani+Nirantari |archive-date=28 July 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> The Silver Band, started in 1906 by Lawrence D'Souza in Mangalore, is one of the oldest and most popular brass bands in Mangalore.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/12/10/stories/2005121001110100.htm |title = Golden notes from Silver Band |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |date = 10 December 2005 |access-date = 14 September 2008 |author = M. Raghuram |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://archive.today/20240525184045/https://www.webcitation.org/65qYMOpQ9?url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/12/10/stories/2005121001110100.htm |archive-date = 25 May 2024 |df = dmy }}</ref> The well-known Konkani hymn ''Riglo Jezu Molliant'' (Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene) was written by Fr. Joachim Miranda, an 18th-century Goan Catholic priest, when he was held captive by Tipu Sultan on his Canara mission.<ref>{{harvnb|Ayyappapanicker|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=RA1-PA277 277]}}</ref> Mons. Minguel Placid Colaco wrote the devotional hymn ''Jezucho Mog'' (Jesus' Love)<ref>{{harvnb|Sardesai|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&dq=Jezucho+Mog&pg=PA20 20]}}</ref> in 1905,<ref name="gka"/> and translated the Latin hymn ''[[Stabat Mater]]'' into Konkani under the title ''Khursa Mullim'' (Bottom of the Holy Cross).<ref name="sar253">{{harvnb|Sardesai|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&dq=Jezucho%20Mog&pg=PA253 253]}}</ref> Joseph Saldanha's ''Shembor Cantigo'' (100 Hymns)<ref name="sar253"/> and Raimundo Mascarenhas' ''Deva Daia Kakultichea'' (O Compassionate Master) were popular.<ref>{{harvnb|George|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=m1R2Pa3f7r0C&pg=PA216 216]}}</ref> Other popular Konkani hymns composed by Mangalorean Catholics are ''Aika Cristanv Jana'' (Listen, O' Christian People), ''Utha Utha Praniya'' (Wake up, Creatures), and ''Sorgim Thaun'' (From Heaven).<ref name="sar251">{{harvnb|Sardesai|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&pg=PA290 M1 251]}}</ref>

Konkani [[pop (music)|pop music]] became popular after [[Indian Independence Movement|Indian Independence]] in 1947. Henry D'Souza and Helen D'Cruz are known for the Konkani love duet ''Kathrina'' in 1971<ref>{{Harvnb|Rodrigues|2009|p=64}}</ref> and the love Ballad ''Garacho Divo'' (Lamp of the House) in the 1970s,<ref>{{Harvnb|Rodrigues|2009|p=106}}</ref> while Wilfy Rebimbus' [[sonnet]] ''Mog Tuzo Kithlo Axelom'' (How I Have Loved Thee) from 1977 is popular.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rodrigues|2009|p=172}}</ref> Konkani plays, especially religious ones, were written and staged in Mangalore in the 20th century by prominent playwrights such as Pedru John D'Souza, Pascal Sequeira and Bonaventure Tauro.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/> The ''[[Ghumot|Ghumat]]'' was a popular musical instrument played especially during weddings.<ref name="sf47">{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=47}}</ref> The instrument has the form of an earthen pot but is open at both sides. One end is covered with the skin of some wild animal, and the other is left open.<ref>{{harvnb|Naimpalli|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z63zvthhbhAC M1 18]}}</ref> The traditional theatre form is called ''Gumat'', and is performed on the eve of the marriage or in connection with the marriage celebrations in the decorated ''pandal'' (stage).<ref name="gumat"/> The play is conducted by males belonging to both the brides' and bridegrooms' parties, and usually takes place for two or three nights.<ref name="gumat"/> The plays performed are usually those of Biblical stories, and their morals are presented with the purpose of educating the bride and bridegroom.<ref name="gumat"/> This tradition has almost completely died out among the present generation.<ref name="gumat">{{harvnb|Choondal|1984|p=39}}</ref>

The tradition of ''Voviyo'' (wedding songs), sung by women during a ''Ros'', is important to this community. The procedure is that an elderly lady, usually the ''{{transliteration|kok|yejman}}'' (wife of the master of ceremonies, who is known as ''{{transliteration|kok|yejmani}}'') who knows the ''{{transliteration|kok|voviyos}}'', leads the song while the rest of the women sing along. Only women whose husbands are still living may sing. In ancient times, the wedding songs expressed very lofty sentiments and gave vent to the feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families, invoking the blessing of God on them.<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Fuchs|1965|p=26}}</ref>

{{cquote|''Aprosachi vatli, kasgran petli, ruzai mai betli, hea rosalagim.''<br />The ''Ros'' brass plate is made by brass smith, our Lady of Rosary is here at this ros ceremony.

''Dimbi ami galeam, santa kuru kadeam, kurpa ami magieam amchea Jezulagim.''<br />Let us kneel, make sign of the cross, and pray for God's grace.

''Akashim mod, narl kubear telacho kuris hokleachea kopalar.''<br />Clouds in the sky, coconut on the tree, oily sign of cross on the forehead of the bride. |author=''Voviyos'' taken from ''The Tradition of Voviyo'' article by Maurice D'Mello<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.konkanifoundation.com/ancy/vovio.doc |title = The Tradition of Voviyo |format = [[DOC (computing)|DOC]], 77 [[Kilobyte|KB]] |publisher = Konkani Sahitya Kala Foundation |access-date = 12 March 2008 |author = Maurice D'Mello |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110713164325/http://www.konkanifoundation.com/ancy/vovio.doc |archive-date = 13 July 2011 |df = dmy-all }}</ref>}}

===Castes=== Konkani Christians of the erstwhile South Kanara area belong to multiple castes, that correspond to the Hindu castes they converted from. These include: [[Gauda and Kunbi|Gowdis]], [[Christian Cxatria|Charodis]], [[Christian Brahmins|Bahmons]], [[Shudra|Sudirs]], [[Kharvi]], [[Dalit|Dalits]], [[Madval|Madivals]], [[Bhandari (caste)|Renders]], [[Kumhar|Kumbars]], [[Koraga people|Koragas]], etc. Other communities in the region treated the Catholic Christians of Dakshina Kannada as a single jati or caste group but the Catholics were not a monolithic block. Historically, they had internal divisions and inter-marriages between these castes were not forbidden, but rarely took place.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DHNS |title=A priest who reached out to the underserved |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/a-priest-reached-underserved-2024186 |access-date=2024-09-28 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=MLA Lobo sees amicable outcome to Jeppu Compound residents-Bishop dispute |url=https://www.mangaloretoday.com/main/MLA-Lobo-sees-amicable-outcome-to-Jeppu-Compound-residents-Bishop-dispute.html |access-date=2024-09-30 |website=www.mangaloretoday.com}}</ref> Caste differences among Mangalore catholics have reduced because of advancing education, inter-caste marriages, inter-religious marriages, migration to the gulf, and land reforms in the 1970s.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pinto |first=Elroy |date=2021-07-29 |title=Bombay Catholics and the question of caste |url=https://thesatyashodhak.com/bombay-catholics-and-the-question-of-caste/ |access-date=2024-09-28 |website=The Satyashodhak |language=en-US}}</ref> As Christians in Karnataka, they are classified under Category III(B) of [[Other Backward Class|other backward classes]] in Karnataka and are eligible for reservations in education and government employment for non [[Creamy layer|creamy-layer]] sections, while [[Dalit Christian|scheduled caste converts to Christianity]] are classified under Category I.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caste List of Other Backward Classes- Karnataka State List |url=https://bcw.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/caste%20list.new.pdf |access-date=Oct 1, 2024 |website=bcw.karnataka.gov.in |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110113355/https://bcw.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/caste%20list.new.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Government Order No SWD 225 BCA 2000 Dated 30th March 2002 |url=https://kscbc.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/Article%2015%20(4)%20&%2016%20(4).pdf |website=Karnataka State Commission For Backward Classes - Official Website}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hegde |first=M. Dinesh |date=2002-12-31 |title=Making of the backward class constituency in Karnataka |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/131772 |journal=University |language=English |pages=138|hdl=10603/131772 }}</ref>

==Organisations== Many organisations cater to the community in South Kanara. The most notable are ''Mandd Sobhann'', which broke the Guinness record for non-stop singing, and the Catholic Association of South Kanara (CASK).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=51519&n_tit=M |title=Catholic Association of South Kanara Condemns Attacks on Christians |access-date=20 October 2008 |date=23 September 2008 |publisher=Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928063049/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=51519&n_tit=M%5C |archive-date=28 September 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref> The first session of the Canara Konkani Catholic World Convention took place on 26 December 2004 in Mangalore.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/29/stories/2004022909620300.htm |title = Konkani Catholic convention in December |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |date = 29 February 2004 |access-date = 5 December 2008 |location = Chennai, India |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121103141439/http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/29/stories/2004022909620300.htm |archive-date = 3 November 2012 |df = dmy }}</ref> The convention aimed to establish institutions to conduct research on the history of Mangalorean Catholics.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/2005/01/19/stories/2005011912670300.htm |title = 'Future Foundation' may document heritage of Konkan Catholics |author = Jaideep Shenoy |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |date = 19 January 2005 |access-date = 5 December 2008 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090820081523/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2005/01/19/stories/2005011912670300.htm |archive-date = 20 August 2009 |df = dmy }}</ref>

In India, the Kanara Catholic Association, Mumbai, (KCA Mumbai,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kcamumbai.org|title=KCA Mumbai|website=kcamumbai.org|access-date=2017-06-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620081205/http://kcamumbai.org/|archive-date=20 June 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> established in 1901), the Kanara Catholic Association, ([[KCA Bangalore]], established in 1955)<ref name="kcab">{{cite web |url=http://kcab.fkca.net/ |title=KCA Bangalore History |access-date=23 August 2008 |publisher=Kanara Catholic Association, [[Bangalore]] (KCA Bangalore) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723130045/http://kcab.fkca.net/ |archive-date=23 July 2011 }}</ref> and Mangalore Catholic Association, ([[Pune]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19990920/ile20150.html|title=Little Mangalore in Pune|date=20 September 1999|publisher=Indian Express Newspapers (Bombay) Ltd.|access-date=13 March 2008|author=S Raye|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815111942/http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19990920/ile20150.html|archive-date=15 August 2009}}</ref> (MCA, established on 10 February 1996) in are well known. Also the [[Kanara Entrepreneurs, Bangalore]] (established in 2007) a non profit group to promote skill development and success among Mangalorean Catholic Entrepreneurs, students and catholic institutions are part of the efforts to help the community.<ref>[http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=58952 Dubai: 'KE Global' Launched to Unite Kanara Entrepreneurs Worldwide, Friday, April 17, 2009, Daijiworld News, Mangalore] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303194659/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=58952 |date=3 March 2018 }}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, Mangalorean United Konkani Association (MUKA) in [[Nottingham]] is popular.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=37814&n_tit=News |title=Nottingham: Mangalorean United Konkani Association (MUKA) celebrates Monthi Fest |access-date=5 December 2008 |date=9 September 2007 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323061322/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=37814&n_tit=News+headlines |archive-date=23 March 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref>

In Australia, The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Victoria (MCAV) established in [[Melbourne]] was the first organisation for the community in Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=25697&n_tit=Australia: |title=Mangalorean Catholic Association of Victoria (MCAV) |access-date=29 February 2008 |date=3 September 2006 |publisher=Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323061208/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=25697&n_tit=Australia:+Mangaloreans+Celebrate+Nativity+Feast+in+Melbourne |archive-date=23 March 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> In 2006 the Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) was established in Australia.<ref name="SYD" />

In Singapore, the Singapore Mangalorean and Goan Association (SingManGo) group caters to the needs of those who have migrated there.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

In North America, the Mangalorean Association of Canada<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=37829&n_tit=Canada: |title=MAC Canada |access-date=5 September 2008 |author=Nishita D'Mello |date=10 September 2007 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323061213/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=37829&n_tit=Canada:+MAC+Celebrates+Nativity+Feast+-+Photo+Album |archive-date=23 March 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> and the Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association (MKCA) in Chicago<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=37940&n_tit=USA: |title=MKCA&nbsp;– USA |access-date=5 September 2008 |date=13 September 2007 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323061220/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=37940&n_tit=USA:+MKCA+Celebrates+Nativity+Feast+-+Pictures |archive-date=23 March 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> are well known.

In the Middle East, the Mangalore Cultural Association (MCA) in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]]; was established in March 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcaqatar.org/mcaqatar/subpage.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415075117/http://www.mcaqatar.org/mcaqatar/subpage.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |title=About MCA |access-date=20 September 2008 |publisher=Mangalore Cultural Association (MCA) }}</ref>

==Notable people== *[[Joachim Alva]], member of the ''[[Rajya Sabha]]'', the upper house of the [[Parliament of India|Indian Parliament]], from 1968 to 1974<ref>{{harvnb|Kamath|2002|p=6}}</ref> *[[Margaret Alva]], member of ''Rajya Sabha'' from 1972 to 1998; appointed Governor of [[Uttarakhand]] in 2009<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.mangaloretoday.com/mt/index.php?action=mn&type=2202 |newspaper=Mangalore Today |title=Uttarakhand Governor Margaret Alva felicitated in city |date=18 December 2010 |access-date=18 December 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714030039/http://www.mangaloretoday.com/mt/index.php?action=mn&type=2202 |archive-date=14 July 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref> * [[Adline Castelino]], winner of [[Miss Diva|Miss Diva Universe]] [[Miss Diva 2020|2020]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/entertainment/2020/02/25/ent11-adline-miss%20universe.html|title=Stakes are high but passion is stronger - Adline Castelino on Miss Universe|date=25 February 2020|work=The Week|access-date=26 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225213609/https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/entertainment/2020/02/25/ent11-adline-miss%20universe.html|archive-date=25 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Janalynn Castelino]], Indian-Italian pop singer, songwriter and doctor * [[Blasius D'Souza]], Politician in the [[Indian National Congress]] and first [[Roman Catholic]] minister in the Karnataka state government<ref name="Blasius">{{cite news |url = http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/27/stories/2008012756640400.htm |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |title = Blasius D'Souza passes away |access-date = 14 September 2008 |location = Chennai, India |date = 27 January 2008 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121026075111/http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/27/stories/2008012756640400.htm |archive-date = 26 October 2012 |df = dmy }}</ref> *[[Faye D'Souza]], Indian journalist and television news anchor *[[Jerome D'Souza]], Jesuit priest, educationist, writer, and member of the [[Constituent Assembly of India|Indian Constituent assembly]] from 1946 to 1950<ref>{{harvnb|Hoehn|1952|p=145}} "Born on 6 August—the Feast of the Transfiguration—1897, of Brahmin Catholic parents in Mangalore, South Kanara, India, ..."</ref>* *[[Tony D'Souza]], American novelist<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.khaasbaat.com/nov2007/books.htm |title = A guest column Sarasota novelist throws spotlight on the 'Konkans' |access-date = 2 November 2008 |author = Tony D'Souza |publisher = Khaasbaat |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081020033604/http://www.khaasbaat.com/nov2007/books.htm |archive-date = 20 October 2008 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> *[[Erica Fernandes]], television actress<ref>{{Citation | author = Kavya Christopher | url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/kannada/news-interviews/Puneeth-is-very-down-to-earth-Erica-Fernandes/articleshow/24297464.cms | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021144622/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-10-18/news-interviews/43145010_1_erica-fernandes-kannada-film-industry-kannada-debut | url-status = live | archive-date = 21 October 2013 | title = Puneeth is very down to earth: Erica Fernandes | newspaper = [[The Times of India]] | date = 18 October 2013 | access-date = 18 August 2017 }}</ref> *[[George Fernandes]], former [[Defence Minister of India]] from 1998 to 2004 *[[Oscar Fernandes]], member of ''[[Lok Sabha]]'', the lower house of the Indian Parliament, from 1980 to 1998<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rajyasabha.nic.in/kiosk/whoswho/alpha_f2.htm |publisher=[[Rajya Sabha|Rajya Sabha, Parliament of India]] |title=Biographical Sketch (Oscar Fernandes) |access-date=23 August 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080611193706/http://rajyasabha.nic.in/kiosk/whoswho/alpha_f2.htm |archive-date = 11 June 2008}}</ref> *[[Terence Lewis (choreographer)]], Indian dancer, singer and choreographer *[[John Richard Lobo]], former [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] of Mangalore South constituency<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=173014 |title = Mangalore: J R Lobo humbles four-time MLA, N Yogish Bhat |publisher = [[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |date = 8 May 2013 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160821002930/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=173014 |archive-date = 21 August 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> *[[Michael Lobo]], Indian writer, scientist and genealogist<ref name="DAJlobo"/> *[[Rita Lobo]], Indian former actress and singer *[[Malishka Mendonsa]], Indian radio personality and actress *[[Sonal Monteiro]], Indian actress - Tulu, Kannada, Konkani language *[[Betty Naz]], Indian former actress and singer *[[Ester Noronha]], Indian actress and singer - Telugu, Kannada, Konkani language *[[Brian J. G. Pereira]], veteran biopharmaceutical and healthcare leader *{{Ill|Maxwell Pereira|id}}, [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] officer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=34 |title=Achievers: Maxwell Francis Joseph Pereirakamath |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |access-date=2 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628215917/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=34 |archive-date=28 June 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> *[[Freida Pinto]], Hollywood actress known for her role in ''[[Slumdog Millionaire]]''<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=53994 |title=The Newest Star on the Mangalorean Horizon—Freida Pinto |date=20 November 2008 |access-date=25 November 2008 |author=Gerry D'Mello |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221091957/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=53994 |archive-date=21 February 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> *[[Pius Fidelis Pinto]], Indian historian, researcher and scholar on Christianity<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=50819&n_tit=London: |last=Periera |first=Raj Francis |title=London: Nativity Feast Celebrations&nbsp;– Report & Pictures |date=30 August 2009 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |access-date=2 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405121103/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=50819&n_tit=London:+Nativity+Feast+Celebrations+-+Report+&+Pictures |archive-date=5 April 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> *[[Viren Rasquinha]], captain of India's national [[field hockey]] team<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=31 |title=A Mangalorean in India's Olympic Squad (Viren Rasquinha) |access-date=5 December 2008 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |author=Gerry D'Mello |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628215609/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=31 |archive-date=28 June 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> *[[Mabel Rebello]], member of Parliament Bhopal *[[Wilfy Rebimbus]], Konkani singer and lyricist<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mangalorean.com/news.php?newstype=broadcast&broadcastid=172260 |title=Wilfy Rebimbus&nbsp;– The Voice Lives on! |access-date=5 December 2008 |publisher=Mangalorean.com |author=Team Mangalorean |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325092040/http://www.mangalorean.com/news.php?newstype=broadcast&broadcastid=172260 |archive-date=25 March 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> *[[Jemimah Rodrigues]], Indian professional cricketer - [[India women's national cricket team]] *[[Melvyn Rodrigues]], [[Sahitya Akademi]] award (2011) winning Konkani poet<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=125368 |title = Mangalore: Melvyn Rodrigues Bags Central Sahitya Akademi Award |publisher = [[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |date = 21 December 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151123054508/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=125368 |archive-date = 23 November 2015 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> *[[Victor Rodrigues]], Konkani novelist and short story writer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=80767&n_tit=Mangalore: |title=Mangalore: Thousands Bid Adieu to Konkani Litterateur Victor Rodrigues |access-date=5 December 2008 |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |author=Edward Nazareth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012034741/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=80767&n_tit=Mangalore:+Thousands+Bid+Adieu+to+Konkani+Litterateur+Victor+Rodrigues+ |archive-date=12 October 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> *[[Lawrence Saldanha]], archbishop of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lahore|Lahore Archdiocese]] from 2001 to 2011<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=418 |title=Meet Joseph Periera&nbsp;– A Prominent Pakistani of Mangalorean Origin |publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]] |access-date=22 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061101160413/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=418 |archive-date=1 November 2006 |df=dmy }} "In Pakistan, the present Catholic Archbishop of Lahore, Larry Saldanha, is a third cousin of Joseph."</ref> *[[V.J.P. Saldanha]], Konkani litterateur, dramatist, musician, and poet<ref name="Saldanha">{{harvnb|D'Souza|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aAli0XqprNMC&pg=PA59 M1 59]}}</ref> *[[Aarti Sequeira]], Indian American cook and television personality

==Notes== <div> : '''a''' {{note label|a|a|none}} Most of the Christian soldiers in the [[Keladi Nayaka]] army belonged to the ''[[Roman Catholic Kshatriya|Charodi]]'' caste.<ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=178}}</ref> : '''b''' {{note label|b|b|none}} The ''Ros'' is a ceremony similar to the ''Tel'' ceremony performed by the Goan Hindus.<ref name="ros">{{harvnb|da Silva Gracias|1996|p=[https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/62 62]}}</ref> The ''Tel'' is an auspicious ceremony during which the Hindu bride wears a yellow [[sari]], while ladies from the family would rub the body with [[turmeric]] and oil. They would apply it with the help of two leaves of a mango tree over the forehead, neck, chest, shoulder arms and legs of the bride.<ref>{{harvnb|da Silva Gracias|1996|p=[https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/57 57]}}</ref> A similar pattern was followed wherein the Christian bride was smeared with turmeric paste, coconut milk, rice flour with the leaves of ''ambolim'' to make the skin smooth, fair and prepare the bride for marriage. In 1736, this practice was banned by the Holy Inquisition in Goa.<ref name="ros"/> : '''c''' {{note label|c|c|none}} ''Bido'' is the small packet of pieces of [[areca nut]] wrapped into a betel leaf with the addition of several spices. ''Pan-pod'' is the same, but loosely placed on a plate, so that each guest can prepare his own pan. The areca nut, uncut, is called ''popal'', cut into small pieces it is ''pod''.<ref name="sf18"/> : '''d''' {{note label|d|d|none}} In the past, [[Kanara|Canara]] was famous for its [[spices]]. And so, ''[[paan]]'' (betel leaf) and ''pod'' (areca nut cut into small pieces), the seed of the tropical palm ''[[Areca catechu]]'' were generously supplied on all festive occasions. The spices were not mixed with ''chuno'' ([[Quick lime]]). In fact, in every house a copper or brass plate was always kept ready for a ''pan-pod'' party. Whenever a guest arrived at the house, it was customary to offer him this plate with a fresh betel leaf just picked from the vine. A [[betel nut]] known as ''tobak'' or ''dumti'' (Tobacco) was prepared and placed on the brass plate.<ref name="sf18"/> : '''e''' {{note label|e|e|none}} After the wedding was over, the ''sado'' was well preserved and worn only on high feast-days or for weddings. Sometimes, a particularly precious sado was handed down from mother to daughter and considered a valuable heirloom. The cost of a sado was reckoned in ''varahas''. Saris are known for their variety by special names, such as ''Katari'', ''Shilari'', ''Gulabi'', etc.<ref name="sf19"/> Both the ''Sado'' and ''Dharma sado'' were costly saris, while the ''Sado'' was the most expensive, the ''Dharma Sado'' was the second most expensive.<ref name="dsa77"/> : '''f''' {{note label|f|f|a}}{{note label|f|f|b}} The Hindus call it ''[[mangalsutra]]'' or ''[[mangala sutra]]'' (the auspicious necklace). It is the symbol of the married state.<ref name="sf19"/> In the olden days, the Mangalsutra was made of black glass beads strung on a thread made of the fibres of dried [[pineapple]] leaves.<ref name="sf40"/> The ordinary crude pattern of the {{transliteration|kok|pirduk}} was improved in the course of time. Later longish beads of gold were inserted between the black glass beads and a pendant was added. The earliest pendant was a round disk of silver. It was called ''thali''. Later it was changed into a golden pendant.<ref name="sf20"/> </div>

==See also== {{Portal|Catholicism}} *[[2008 anti-Christian attacks in Carnataca]] *[[Catholic Church in India]] *[[Chickmangalore district|Chickmangaloreans]] *[[Christianity in Karnataka]] *[[Christianity in India]] *[[Mangalorean Protestants]] *[[Mangaloreans]] *[[Monti Fest]] *[[Roman Catholicism in Mangalore]] *[[World Konkani Centre]]

{{Clear}}

==References== {{Reflist|30em}}

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===Further reading=== {{refbegin|2}} *{{cite book |title=The Mangalorean Catholic Community&nbsp;– A Professional History / Directory |year=2000 |location=Mangalore |publisher=Camelot Publishers |isbn=978-81-87609-02-5 |last=Lobo |first=Michael |ref=none}} *{{cite book |publisher=Samanvaya Prakashan |title=Canaranthle Konknni Catholic (The Konkani Catholics of Canara) |year=2004 |last=Pinto |first=Pius Fidelis |author-link=Pius Fidelis Pinto |location=[[Mangalore]] |language=kok |ref=none}} *{{cite book |publisher=Samanvaya Prakashan |title=Desaantar Thaun Bandhadek&nbsp;– Karavali Karnatakantle Konkani Kristanv (From Migration to Captivity&nbsp;– The Konkani Christians of Canara) |last=Pinto |first=Pius Fidelis |location=[[Mangalore]] |year=1999 |language=kok |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=Konkani Christians of Coastal Karnataka in Anglo-Mysore Relations 1761–1799 |publisher=Samanvaya Prakashan |location=Mangalore |year=1999 |last=Pinto |first=Pius Fidelis |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=Ancient and Pre-Modern History of the Mangalorean Catholic Community |last=Prabhu |first=Mohan |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=The captivity of 1784: Re-Appraising Causes & Conclusions |last=Prabhu |first=Alan Machado |isbn=978-81-86778-30-2 |year=1999 |publisher=I.J.A. Publications |location=Bangalore |ref=none}} *{{Cite book |last=D'Souza |first=A.B. |year=1993 |title=Popular Christianity: A Case Study among the Catholics of Mangalore |publisher=PhD thesis. [[University of Delhi]] |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=History of the Catholic Community of South Kanara |first=A. L. P. |last=D'Souza |publisher=Desco Publishers |location=Mangalore |oclc=11536326 |year=1983 |ref=none}}

{{refend}}

==External links== {{commons category}} *[http://www.mkcausa.org/ Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association (MKCA), USA] *[http://www.macsaunsar.com/ Mangalorean Association of Canada (MAC)]

{{Christianity footer}} {{Catholicism}} {{Communities in Mangalore}} {{Asia in topic|Roman Catholicism in}} {{Ethnic and social groups of Goa and the Konkan}}

{{good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mangalorean Catholics}} [[Category:Mangalorean Catholics| ]] [[Category:Social groups of Karnataka]] [[Category:Christianity in Mangalore]] [[Category:Indian Roman Catholics]] [[Category:Konkani]] [[Category:Mangalorean society|Catholics]] [[Category:Christian communities of India]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in India]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Karnataka]] [[Category:Ethnoreligious groups in India]] [[Category:Catholic ethnoreligious groups]]