{{short description|Language family of West Africa}} {{confuse|text=the Mandi language, sometimes called Mande}} {{Infobox language family |name=Mande |region=West Africa |ethnicity=Mandé peoples |familycolor=Niger-Congo |fam1=Niger–Congo? |protoname=Proto-Mande |child1=Western Mande |child2=Eastern Mande |iso5=dmn |glotto=mand1469 |glottorefname=Mande |lingua=00- (phylozone) |map= Mande languages.png }}
The '''Mande languages''' are a family of languages spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mandé peoples. They include Maninka (Malinke), Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Kpelle, Jula (Dioula), Bozo, Mende, Susu, and Vai. There are around 60 to 75 languages spoken by around 60 million people, chiefly in Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) and also in southern Mauritania, northern Ghana, northwestern Nigeria and northern Benin.
The Mande languages show a few lexical similarities with the Atlantic–Congo language family, so together they have been proposed as parts of a larger Niger–Congo language family since the 1950s. However, the Mande languages lack the noun-class morphology that is the primary identifying feature of the Atlantic–Congo languages. Accordingly, linguists increasingly treat Mande and Atlantic–Congo as independent language families.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Dimmendaal |first=Gerrit J. |date=2008 |title=Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continen t |journal=Language and Linguistics Compass |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=840–858 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00085.x |issn=1749-818X}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Güldemann |first=Tom |title=The Languages and Linguistics of Africa |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-11-042606-9 |editor-last=Güldemann |editor-first=Tom |series=The World of Linguistics |volume=11 |location=Berlin |pages=58–444 |chapter=Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa |doi=10.1515/9783110421668-002 |quote=Overall, unless more robust and systematic evidence is brought forward, the long-standing but vague idea that Mande is distant from the rest of Niger-Kordofanian as one of its earliest offshoots should give way to the neutral assessment that it is a family without a proven genealogical affiliation (p. 192). |s2cid=133888593}}</ref>
==History== Various opinions exist as to the age of the Mande languages.
Valentin Vydrin concluded that "the Mande homeland at the second half of the 4th millennium BC was located in Southern Sahara, somewhere to the North of 16° or even 18° of Northern latitude and between 3° and 12° of Western longitude.".<ref name="Vydrin II">{{cite web |last1=Vydrin |first1=Valentin |title=On the Problem of the Proto-Mande Homeland |url=http://www.jolr.ru/files/(10)jlr2009-1(107-142).pdf |website=Journal of Language Relationships |volume=1 |year=2009 |pages=107–142}}</ref> That is now Mauritania and southern Western Sahara.
If Mande's linguistic affiliation were clearer that would help inform its history. For example, Joseph Greenberg suggested that the Niger-Congo group, which in his view includes the Mande language family, began to break up at around 7000 years BP. Its speakers would have practised a Neolithic culture, as indicated by the Proto-Niger-Congo words for "cow", "goat" and "cultivate".<ref>{{cite book |last=McCall |first=D.F. |title=Papers on the Manding |publisher=Indiana University |year=1971 |isbn=9780877501589 |editor-last=Hodge |editor-first=C.T. Hodge |location=Bloomington |chapter=The Cultural Map and Time Profile of the Mande Speaking Peoples}}</ref>
==Early scholarship== The group was first recognized in 1854 by Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle, in his ''Polyglotta Africana''. He mentioned 13 languages under the heading ''North-Western High-Sudan Family, or Mandéga Family of Languages''. In 1901, Maurice Delafosse made a distinction of two groups.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue ...| last=Delafosse |first=Maurice |publisher=Institut national de langues et civilisations orientales |year=1901 |oclc=461494818}}</ref> He speaks of a northern group ''mandé-tan'' and a southern group ''mandé-fu''. The distinction was basically done only because the languages in the north use the expression ''tan'' for ten, and the southern languages use ''fu''. In 1924, Louis Tauxier noted that the distinction is not well founded and there is at least a third subgroup he called ''mandé-bu''. It was not until 1950 that André Prost supported that view and gave further details.
In 1958, Welmers published an article called "The Mande Languages," where he divided the languages into three subgroups: North-West, South and East.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Welmers |first=William E. |year=1971 |title=Niger–Congo, Mande |journal=Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa |series=Current Trends in Linguistics |volume=7 |editor-last1=Sebeok |editor-first1=Thomas A. |editor-last2=Berry |editor-first2=Jade |editor-last3=Greenberg |editor-first3=Joseph H. |pages=113–140 |location=The Hague |publisher=Mouton}}</ref> His conclusion was based on lexicostatistic research. Joseph Greenberg followed that distinction in his ''The Languages of Africa'' (1963). Long (1971) and Gérard Galtier (1980) follow the distinction into three groups but with notable differences.
==Classification== ===Relation to Niger-Congo=== Mande does not share the morphology characteristic of most of the Niger–Congo family, such as the noun-class system. Nor are there many recognized cognates in core vocabulary between Mande and Niger-Congo. Accordingly, Dimmendaal (2008) argues that the evidence for inclusion is slim, and that for now Mande is best considered an independent family.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Dimmendaal |first=Gerrit J. |title=Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African Languages |publisher=John Benjamins |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-272-8722-9}}</ref> The same view is held by Güldemann (2018).<ref name=":2" />
Without definitively concluding that Mande is or is not a member of Niger–Congo, Vydrin (2016) notes that proto-Mande basic vocabulary fits relatively well with Niger–Congo, and that typological criteria such as the absence of a noun-class system should not be taken as probative; he notes that "If the position of Mande within Niger-Congo is confirmed... Mande will certainly represent the most ancient branching of the phylum".<ref name="Vydrin3">{{cite journal |last=Vydrin |first=Valentin |title=Toward a Proto-Mande reconstruction and an etymological dictionary |journal=Faits de Langues |year=2016 |volume=47 |pages=109–123 |doi=10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000008 |s2cid=56242828 |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01375776/file/08-Vydrin-mande.pdf}}</ref> Blench regards it as an early branch that diverged before the noun-class morphology developed. Dwyer (1998) compared it with other branches of Niger–Congo and finds that they form a coherent family, with Mande being the most divergent of the branches he considered. A preliminary study from 2024 suggests that a relationship between the Mande and Atlantic-Congo branches is plausible based on reconstructed lexical items.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Smith | first1=Casey Roche | title=Mande and Atlantic-Congo: A Preliminary Investigation in Phonology and Lexicon | date=January 2024 | url=https://www.academia.edu/126121513 }}</ref>
===Internal classification=== The diversity and depth of the Mande family is comparable to that of Indo-European. Eleven low-level branches of Mande are nearly universally accepted: Southern Mande (Dan etc.), Eastern Mande (Bisa, Boko etc.), Samogo, Bobo, Soninke–Bozo, Southwestern Mande (Mende, Kpelle, Loma etc.), Soso–Jalonke, Jogo, Vai–Kono, Mokole and Manding (Bambara, Djula etc.). It is also widely accepted that these form two primary branches, the first two as Southeastern Mande and the rest as Western Mande.<ref name="Vydrin">{{cite web |last1=Vydrin |first1=Valentin |year=2018 |title=Mande Languages |url=https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-397 |website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.397 |isbn=978-0-19-938465-5}}</ref>
Most internal Mande classifications are based on lexicostatistics, for example, that based on the Swadesh list.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mandelang.kunstkamera.ru/index/mande_languages/mande_family/ |title=Mande language family |website=mandelang.kunstkamera.ru |access-date=2019-03-25 |archive-date=2019-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331181536/http://mandelang.kunstkamera.ru/index/mande_languages/mande_family/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> An alternative classification from Kastenholz (1996) is based on lexical innovations and comparative linguistics. Kastenholz warns however that this is not based on objective criteria and thus is not a genealogical classification in the narrow sense.<ref name="Kastenholz">{{Cite book |title=Sprachgeschichte im West-Mande: Methoden und Rekonstruktionen |first=Raimund |last=Kastenholz |date=1996 |publisher=Köppe |isbn=3896450719 |location=Köln |pages=281 |oclc=42295840}}</ref> The following classification is a compilation of both.
{{tree list}} * '''Mande''' ** Southeast Mande *** Southern Mande (Dan, Mah, etc.) *** Eastern Mande (Bisa, Busa, etc.) ** West Mande *** Central West (Manding–Kpelle) **** Central Mande ***** Susu–Yalunka ***** Manding–Jɔgɔ ****** Jogo languages ****** Manding–Vai ******* Vai–Kono ******* Manding–Mokole ******** Manding languages ******** Mokole languages **** Southwest Mande (Mende, Kpelle, etc.) *** Northwest (Samogo–Soninke) **** Jɔ (Jowulu) **** Northwest proper ***** Samogo languages (partial: Duun–Sembla) ***** Soninke–Bobo ****** Bɔbɔ ****** Soninke–Bozo {{tree list/end}}
Vydrin (2009) differs somewhat from this: he places Soso-Jalonke with Southwestern (a return to André Prost 1953); Soninke-Bozo, Samogho and Bobo as independent branches of Western Mande, and Mokole with Vai-Kono. Most classifications place Jo within Samogo.
==Morphosyntactic features== Mande languages do not have the noun-class system or verbal extensions of the Atlantic–Congo languages and for which the Bantu languages are so famous, but Bobo has causative and intransitive forms of the verb. Southwestern Mande languages and Soninke have initial consonant mutation. Plurality is most often marked with a clitic; in some languages, with tone, as for example in Sembla. Pronouns often have alienable–inalienable and inclusive–exclusive distinctions. Word order in transitive clauses is subject–auxiliary–object–verb–adverb. Mainly postpositions are used. Within noun phrases, possessives come before the noun, and adjectives and plural markers after the verb; demonstratives are found with both orders.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |isbn=0521661781}}</ref>
== Comparative vocabulary == Below is a sample basic vocabulary of reconstructed proto-forms:
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! Language !! eye !! ear !! nose !! tooth !! tongue !! mouth !! blood !! bone !! tree !! water !! eat !! name |- | Proto-Mande<ref name="Vydrin3"/> || || || || *ɲíŋ || *lɛɓ̰́ Ṽ || || || || *yíti || || || |- | Proto-West Mande<ref name="Kastenholz"/> || || *túli || *sʸúN || *ɲíN || **nɛ̌N || *dá ~ ɗá || *jío ~ yío || || *gúri ~ wúri || *jío ~ yío || || *tɔ́ko |- | Proto-Manding (Mandekan)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bimson |first=Kent |year=1976 |title=Comparative reconstruction of Mandekan |journal=Studies in African Linguistics |volume=7 |issue=3}}</ref> || *nya || *tulo || *nun || *nyin || *nɛn(e) || *da || *joli || *kolo || *yiri || *ji || *domo(n) || *tɔgɔ |- | Proto-East Mande (Niger-Volta)<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-3-89645-076-0 |title=Eine historische Phonologie der Niger-Volta-Sprachen: Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Sprachgeschichte der östlichen Ost-Mandesprachen |last1=Schreiber |first1=Henning |date=2008 |publisher=R. Köppe }}</ref> || *jɛN (< *gɛN) || *toro || *N-jẽ || *soN(-ka) || *N-lɛ || *lɛ || *(N-)wa(-ru) || *(N-)gero || *li/*da || *jiN || *be(-le) || *tɔ |- | Proto-South Mande<ref>{{cite book |last=Vydrin |first=Valentin |year=2007 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2031755 |chapter=South Mande reconstruction: Initial consonants |title=Аспекты компаративистики 2 |series=Orientalia et classica |volume=XI |publisher=Труды Института восточных культур и античн}}</ref> || *yũ̀ã́ || *tɔ́lɔ́ŋ || *yṹã̄ || *sɔ̃̀ɛ̃́ || *nã̄nɛ̃́ || *ɗé || *yɔ̃̀mũ̄ || *wɔ̃́nɛ̃́ || *yílí || *yí || *ɓɪ̀lɪ̀ || *tɔ́ |}
Below are some cognates from D. J. Dwyer (1988) ({{angbr|j}} is {{IPA|[dʲ]}} or {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}):<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dwyer |first=David J. |year=1988 |url=https://llacan.cnrs.fr/PDF/Mandenkan14-15/14dwyer.pdf |title=Towards Proto-Mande phonology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409103407/https://llacan.cnrs.fr/PDF/Mandenkan14-15/14dwyer.pdf |archive-date=2022-04-09 |journal=Mandenkan |volume=14/15 |pages=139–152}}</ref> {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" |- ! <small>GLOSS</small> ! <small>PROTO-<br>MANDÉ</small> !! Manding !! Kono-Vai !! Susu !! Mandé (SW) !! Soninké ! Sembla !! Bobo !! San !! Busa !! Mano !! Dan !! Guro !! Mwa |- | 'mouth' || *da || da || da || dɛ || la || laqqe | jo || do || le || le || le || Di || le || le, di |- | 'saliva' || *da-yi || da-ji || da- || sɛ-ye || la-yi || laxan-ji | jon-fago || dibe || se || le-i || le-yi || Di-li || leri || liri |- | 'water' || *yi || je || yi || yi || ya || ji | jo || ji, zio || mun || i || yi || yi || yi || yi |- | 'breast' || *n-koŋ || sin || susu || sisi || ŋeni || konbe | kye || ɲiŋi || ɲo || ɲo || ɲoŋ || ɲoŋ || ɲoŋ || ɲoŋ |- | 'milk' || *n-kon-yi || nɔnɔ || susu-ji || xin-yɛ || gen-iya || -xatti | kye-n-dyo || n-yan-niŋi || || n-yo- || || || n-yoŋ-yi || n-yoŋ-yi |- | 'goat' || *bo(re) || ba || ba || || ɓoli || sugo | bi || gwa || bwe || ble || bɔ || bɔ || bori || bɔ |- | 'buck' || *bore-guren || ba-koro || || || ||diggeh | || gu-gura || || ble-sa || bɔ-gon || bɔ-gon || gyagya || bɔ-guren |- | 'sheep' || *saga || saga || bara-wa || yexe || ɓara || jaxe | sega || sɛge || sere || sa || baa || bla || bera || bla |- | 'ram' || *saga-guren || saga-koro || || || | jaxampade|| kekyere || si-gula || da-gu || || bla-gon || bra-gon || bla-gure|| |- | 'head' || * || Koun-kolo || || || | yin-kola|| || || || || || || |}
Note that in these cognates: *'saliva' = 'mouth'+'water' *'milk' = 'breast'+'water' *'buck (he-goat)' = 'goat'+'male' *'ram' = 'sheep'+'male'
==Numerals== Comparison of numerals in individual languages:<ref name="ChanNumeralsNC">{{Cite web|url=https://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/channumerals/Niger-Congo.htm|title=The Niger-Congo Language Phylum|last=Chan|first=Eugene|publisher=Numeral Systems of the World's Languages|date=2019}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%" ! Classification !! Language !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 |- | Bissa || Bissa (Bisa) || díí || píjà || kakʊ́ || sɪ̀ || sɔ́ɔ̀ || sòàtɪ (5 + 1) || sáápra (5 + 2) || síɲe (2 x 4) ? || nɛfʊ̀ (10 -1) ? || bʊ̀ |- | Busa || Boko || do || pla || ʔààɔ̃ || sííɔ̃ || sɔ́o || soolo (5 + 1) || sopla (5 + 2) || swaàɔ̃ (5 + 3) || kɛ̃̀okwi [ litː tear away 1 (from) 10 ] || kwi |- | Busa || Bokobaru (Zogbẽ) || do || pláa || ʔààɡɔ̃ || sííɡɔ̃ || sɔ́ɔ́ro || swɛ́ɛ̀do (5 + 1) || swɛ́ɛ̀pláa (5 + 2) || sɔ́rààɡɔ̃ (5 + 3) || kɛ̃́ndo (10–1) || kurì |- | Busa || Illo Busa || do || pia || ʔààkɔ̃ || ʃííkɔ̃ || sɔ́o || sóodo (5 + 1) || soopia (5 + 2) || swààkɔ̃ (5 + 3) || kĩ́ṇdokwi [litː tear away 1 (from) 10] || kwi |- | Busa || Busa || do || pla || ʔààkɔ̃ || sííkɔ̃ || sɔ́ɔ́ro || súddo (5 + 1) || súppla (5 + 2) || sɔ́rààkɔ̃ (5 + 3) || kɛ̃́ndo (10–1) || kurì |- | Kyanga || Kyanga (Kyenga) (1) || dúú || fʸáā || ˀāàː || ʃíí || sɔ́ɔ́rū || sɔ̄ɔ̄dū (5 + 1) || sʷāhʸáā (5 + 2) || sōōwà (5 + 3) || sòòʃí (5 + 4) || kōōrì |- | Kyanga || Kyanga (Kyenga) (2) || dūː || fʲâː || ʔàː || ʃíː || sɔ̂ːwû || sɔ̂ːdū (5 + 1) || sɔ̂ːfʲá (5 + 2) || sōːuwà (5 + 3) || sōwēʃíː (5 + 4) || kōːlì |- | Kyanga || Kyenga (3) || do || hia / fia || ʔà || ʃí || sɔɔlu || sɔɔdu (5 + 1) || sɔɔhia (5 + 2) || soowà (5 + 3) || sooʃí (5 + 4) || korì |- | Kyanga || Shanga || do || ʍa || ʔà || ʃí || sɔ́ɔ || sɔbodo (5 + 1) || sɔhia (5 + 2) || sɔboʔà (5 + 3) || sɔdoʃí (5 + 4) || wókòì |- | Samo || Matya Samo || ɡɔ̀rɔ́ || prá || tjɔwɔ || sí || sɔ́rɔ́ || sɛ̀rɛ́ (5 + 1) || tjʊ́sʊ́ (5 + 2) || tjisí (2 x 4) || ménaŋɡɔrɔ (10–1) || flè / fʊ̀ |- | Samo || Maya Samo || dɛ́nɛ́ || fúrá || kàakú || síirí || sɔ́ɔrɔ́ || sɔ̀rɔ̀ (5 + 1) || sɔ̀frá (5 + 2) || cíɡísí (2 x 4 ) ? || sóosí (5 + 4) ? || bù |- | Guro-Tura || Guro || dʊ || fíé || yaá || zĩ̀ɛ̃́ || sólú || sʊɛdʊ / sʊɛlʊ (5 + 1) || sʊlàyíé (5 + 2) || sʊlaá (5 + 3) || sʊlàzĩ̀ɛ̃́ (5 + 4) || vu |- | Guro-Tura || Yaouré || tʊ̀ || fli̋ || yaaɡa || sĩjɛ̃ = sĩɟɛ̃ or sĩd͡ʒɛ̃ || sóolu || ʃɛ́dʊ (5 + 1) || sɔ́ravli (5 + 2) || sɔ́ra (5 + 3) || sɔ́rasiɛ̃ (5 + 4) || fù |- | Guro-Tura || Mann (Mano) || doó || pèèlɛ || yààka || yììsɛ || sɔ́ɔ́li || sáláádo (5 + 1) || sálápèèlɛ (5 + 2) || sálàka (5 + 3) || sɛ́lɛ̀ìsɛ (5 + 4) || vũ̀ |- | Nwa-Ben || Beng || do || plaŋ || ŋaŋ || siéŋ || sɔ́ŋ || sɔ́do (5 + 1) || sɔ́pla (5 + 2) || sɔ́wa (5 + 3) || sisi (5 + 4) || ebu |- | Nwa-Ben || Gagu || dò || fɪ́n || yía || zié || súu || sɛ́dò (5 + 1) || sɛ́fɪ́n (5 + 2) || sɛà (5 + 3) || tízie (5 + 4) || vù |- | Nwa-Ben || Mwan (Muan) || do || plɛ || yaɡa || yiziɛ || sóó || srɔádo (5 + 1) || srɔáplɛ (5 + 2) || srɔ́a (5 + 3) || srɔáyiziɛ (5 + 4) || vu |- | Nwa-Ben || Wan || do || pilɔŋ || ʔã́ || sijá || sɔ̀lú || wáŋ́ || séaʔã́ (5 + 2) || séjãŋ́ (5 + 3) || sɔlásijá (5 + 4) || sɔ́jɔlú |- | Jogo-Jeri || Jalkunan || dúlì || fìlɑ̀ || siɡ͡bù || nɑ̄ːnī || sōːlō || mìːlù || mɑ̀ɑ́lɑ̀ || mɑ̀sīɡ͡bū (5 + 3) || mɑ́nɑ̄nì (5 + 4) || tɑ̄ |- | Jogo-Jeri || Ligbi || díén / díyé || fàlà / fàlá || sèɡ͡bá / siɡ͡bá || náánè / náani || sóólò / sóolo || mɔ̀ɔ̀dó / mooró (5 + 1) || màúlà / mafála (5 + 2) || másèɡ͡bá / masiɡ͡bá (5 + 3) || màdááné / maráni (5 + 4) || táàn / táa |- | Manding || Marka (Dafing) || kyen / kyeren || fila / fila || saba / saba || nɛi / naani || luu / luuru{{typo help inline|reason=similar to uluru|date=March 2023}} || wɔɔ / wɔɔrɔ || wəna / wonla || sii / siɡi || konon / kondon || tan / tan |- | Manding || Bambara || kélen [kélẽ́] || fìla [fìlá] || sàba [sàbá] || náani [náːní] || dúuru [dúːrú] || wɔ́ɔrɔ [wɔ́ːrɔ́] || wólonwula [wólṍwulá] || sèɡin [sèɡĩ́] || kɔ̀nɔntɔn [kɔ̀nɔ̃̀tɔ̃́] || tán [tã́] |- | Manding || Jula (1) || kelen [ké.lẽ́] || filà [fì.là] ~ [flà] || sàbà [sà.bà] || nàànìn [nàːnĩ̀] || dùùrù [dù.ɾù] || wɔ̀ɔ̀rɔ̀ [wɔ̀ːɾɔ́] || wolon fìlà [wò.lṍ.fi.̀là] || sieɡi [sí.é.ɡí] || kɔ̀nɔ̀ndon [kɔ.̀nɔ̃.ⁿdṍ] || tan [tã́] |- | Manding || Jula (2) || kelen [kélẽ́] || fila [fìlá] / fla [flá] || saba [sàbá] || naani [náːní] || looru [lóːrú] || wɔɔrɔ [wɔ́ːrɔ́] || wolonfila [wólṍfìlá] / wolonfla || seɡin [sèɡĩ́] / seeɡi [sèːɡí] || kɔnɔntɔn [kɔ̀nɔ̃̀tɔ̃́] || tan [tã́] |- | Manding || Sankaran Maninka || kɛlɛn || fila || sawa || naani || loolu / looli || wɔɔrɔn || wɔɔrɔn (fi)la || sen || konondo || tan |- | Manding || Mahou || kéléŋ || fyàà || sàwà || náání || lóó || wɔ́ɔ́lɔ́ || wóóŋvyàà || sɛ́ɲíŋ || kɔ̀ɔ̀nŋdɔ́ŋ || táŋ |- | Manding || Mandinka || kíliŋ || fula || saba || náani || lúulu || wóoro || wórówula || sáyi || konónto || táŋ |- | Manding || Xaasonga || kilin || fula || saba || naani || luulu || wooro || woorowula || saɡi || xononto || tan |- | Mokole || Kakabe || kélen || fìla || sàba || náani || lɔ́ɔlu || wɔ́ɔrɔ || wɔ́rɔwila (6 + 1) || sáɡin || kɔ̀nɔntɔ || tán |- | Mokole || Kuranko || kelen || fila || sawa / saba || nani || loli || wɔrɔ || wɔrɔnfila (6 + 1) ? || seɡin || kɔnɔnt || tan |- | Mokole || Lele || kelɛŋ || fela || sawa || nani || luuli || wɔɔrɔ || wɔrɔŋ kela (6 + 1) || seŋ || kɔnɔndɔ || taŋ |- | Vai-Kono || Kono || ncélen / ncéle, dɔ́ndo || fèa || sàwa || náani || dúʔu || wɔ́ɔlɔ || wɔ́nfèa / ɔ́ɱfèa || séi / séin || kɔ̀nɔ́ntɔn || tán |- | Vai-Kono || Vai || lɔ̀ndɔ́ || fɛ̀(ʔ)á || sàk͡pá || náánì || sóó(ʔ)ú || sɔ̂ŋ lɔ̀ndɔ́ (5 + 1) || sɔ̂ŋ fɛ̀(ʔ)á (5 + 2) || sɔ̂ŋ sàk͡pá (5 + 3) || sɔ̂ŋ náánì (5 + 4) || tâŋ |- | Susu-Yalunka || Susu || kérén [kɛ́rɛ̃́] || fìrín [fìrĩ́] || sàxán [sàxã́] || náání || súlí || sénní [sẽní] (5 + 1) || sólófèré (5 + 2) || sólómásàxán (5 + 3) || sólómánáání (5 + 4) || fuú |- | Susu-Yalunka || Yalunka (1) || kèdé || fìríŋ || sàkáŋ || nànì || sùlù || sènì (5 + 1) || fòlófɛ̀rɛ́ (5 + 2) || fòlòmàsàkáŋ (5 + 3) || fòlòmànànì (5 + 4) || fù |- | Susu-Yalunka || Yalunka (Jalonke) (2) || keden || fidin || saxan || naani || suuli || sɛnni (5 + 1) || solofɛdɛ (5 + 2) || solomasɛɡɛ (5 + 3) || solomanaani (5 + 4) || fuu |- | Kpelle || Guinea Kpelle || tááŋ || hvèèlɛ̌ / hvèèlɛ́ || hààbǎ / hààbá || nááŋ́ || lɔ́ɔ́lí || mɛ̀í dà (5 + 1) || mɛ̀ì hvéélɛ̀ (5 + 2) || mɛ̀ì háábà (5 + 3) || mɛ̀ì nááŋ́ (5 + 4) || pòǔ |- | Kpelle || Liberia Kpelle || taaŋ / tɔnɔ / dɔnɔ || feerɛ || saaɓa || náaŋ || nɔ́ɔlu / lɔ́ɔlu || mɛi da (5 + 1) || mɛi feerɛ (5 + 2) || mɛi saaɓa (5 + 3) || mɛi náaŋ (5 + 4) || puu |- | Mende-Loma || Looma (Toma) (1) || ɡílàɡ || félé(ɡɔ̀) || sáwà(ɡɔ̀) || náánĩ̀(ɡɔ̀) || dɔ́ɔ́lù̀(ɡɔ̀) || dòzìtà (5 + 1) || dɔ́fèlà (5 + 2) || dɔ́sáwà (5 + 3) || tàwù̀(ɡɔ̀) (10–1) ? || pù̀(ɡɔ̀) |- | Mende-Loma || Loma (2) || ɡila || feleɡɔ || saaɡɔ || naaɡɔ || dooluo || dɔzita (5 + 1) || dɔfela (5 + 2) || dɔsava (5 + 3) || taawu (10–1) ? || puu |- | Mende-Loma || Bandi (1) || ìtá(ŋ), hítà(ŋ) || fèlé(ŋ) || sàwá(ŋ), sàá(ŋ) || náánì(ŋ) || ndɔ̀ɔ́lú(ŋ) || nɡɔ̀hítá(ŋ) (5 + 1) || ŋɡɔ̀félà(ŋ) (5 + 2) || ŋɡɔ̀hák͡pá(ŋ), ŋɡwahák͡pá(ŋ) (5+ 4) || tààwú(ŋ), tààvú(ŋ) (10–1) ? || pû(ŋ), púù(ŋ) |- | Mende-Loma || Bandi (2) || iitá || feelé || saawá || naáni || ndɔɔ́lu || nɡɔhíta (5 + 1) || nɡɔféla (5 + 2) || nɡwahák͡pa (5 + 3) || taávu (10–1) ? || púu |- | Mende-Loma || Loko (1) || íla(ŋ) || félé(ŋ), féé(ŋ) || sáwá(ŋ), cáwá(ŋ) || nááí(ŋ) || ńdɔu(ŋ) || ŋɡɔhita (5 + 1) || ŋɡɔfɛla (5 + 2) || ŋɡɔsaak͡pa || karaabu, raabu || puu(ŋ), kapuu(ŋ) |- | Mende-Loma || Loko (2) || ila || fele || itʃawa || naiŋ || ndɔu || nɡɔita (5 + 1) || nɡɔfla (5 + 2) || nɡɔsaɡ͡ba (5 + 3) || karabu (10–1) ? || kapu |- | Mende-Loma || Mende || yilá / itáá || felé || sawá || nááni || lɔ́ɔ́lu || wɔ́íta (5 + 1) || wɔ́fíla (5 + 2) || wáyák͡pá (5 + 3) || táálú (10–1) ? || puú |- | Samogo || Duungooma || sɔʔi || fíʔi || ʒiʔi || naai || nũ || tũmɛ̃ || ɲɛ̃ːnũ || ŋaai || kleːlo || ceũ |- | Samogo || Dzùùngoo || sōː ́ / sōːrē || fíː / fíːkí || ʒìːɡī ́ || nàːlẽ́ || nũ̀ || tsũ̀mɛ̃̄ ́ || ɲɛ̃̀ːnṹ || ŋáːlõ̀ || kjèːrṍ || tsjéù |- | Samogo || Jowulu (Jo) || tẽẽna || fuuli || bʒei || pʃɪrɛᶦ || tãã || tãmãnɪ (5 + 1) || dʒɔ̃mpʊn (3 + 4) || fulpʊn (2 x 4) || tẽmpʊn (5 + 4) || bʒĩĩ |- | Samogo || Seeku || swɛ̃̄ || fĩ́ || ʃwɛ̀ || nàà || nɔ̄ || tsìì || ɲɛ̀ɛ̀ || kàà || kùòmɛ̀ || tó |- | Soninke-Bobo || Konabéré || tálɪ̄ || pálà || sǎ || nìã̄ || kʊ̄ || kʊ̀tã́nɪ̀ (5 + 1) || kʊ̀rʊ̀párá (5 + 2) || kʊ̀rʊ̀sɔ̄ʊ̀ (5 + 3) || kʊ̀rʊ̀nɔ̂ŋ (5 + 4) || m̥ḿ̩ |- | Soninke-Bobo || Southern Bobo Madare || tèlé || plá || sáà || náà || kóò || kònálá (5 + 1) || kòk͡pùrá (5 + 2) || kórósɔ̃̌ (5 + 3) || kórónɔ̃̌ (5 + 4) || fʊ̃̀ |- | Soninke-Bobo || Hainyaxo Bozo (Kelenga) || sâ:nà || fíenù || sí:yù || ná:nà || kɔ́lɔ́hɔ̀ || tú:mì || dʒíenì || sɛ́kì || káfì || tã̄ |- | Soninke-Bobo || Tièmà-Cièwè Bozo || sàn:á || pẽ̀ːndé || sì:yé || nà:rá || kɔ̀lɔ́ || tù:mì || dʒiènĩ́ || tʃèkí || kìáwí || tá |- | Soninke-Bobo || Tiéyaxo Bozo (Tigemaxo) (1) || sáná || fẽ́:ndè || sí:yò || kɔ́lɔ̀ || kɔ́lɔ̀ || tú:mĩ̀ || dʒê:nì || sɛ̄kī || kìáwì || tã́ |- | Soninke-Bobo || Tiéyaxo Bozo (2) || sanna / kuɔn || fendeen / pendeen || siiyon || naaran || kɔlɔn || tuumi || jeeni || sekiin || kiawi || tan |- | Soninke-Bobo || Jenaama Bozo (1) || sànːá || pẽ̀ndéː || síkɛ̃̀ũ || nàtã́ || kɔ̀ːɡṍ || tǔːmí || yíèní || sèkːí || kàpːí || tʃɛ́mí |- | Soninke-Bobo || Jenaama Bozo (2) || sanna || pende || sikɛũ / siɡɛũ || nataũ || kɔɡõ || tuumi || yeeni || seki || kapi || tʃɛmi / tʃami |- | Soninke-Bobo || Soninke || bàanè || fíllò / filːi || síkkò / sikːi || náɣátò / naɣati || káráɡò / karaɡi || tṹmù / tũmi || ɲérù / ɲeri || séɡù / seɡi || kábù / kabi || tã́mú / tãmi |}
== Proto-language == Proto-Mande is the reconstructed hypothetical ancestor of all the modern Mande languages, which number over 60. The reconstruction of Proto-Mande is an ongoing effort, and it has not yet reached the same level of comparative depth as some other proto-languages, such as Proto-Bantu. The time depth of the Mande family is estimated to be over 5,500 years.<ref name="Vydrin" />
The following is a recently proposed tentative consonant system:<ref>{{cite web | last1=Smith | first1=Casey Roche | title=Mande and Atlantic-Congo: Lexical and Phonological Parallels (Revised and Abridged Draft) | date=2025 | url=https://www.academia.edu/143885947 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Proto-Mande Consonants |- ! colspan="2" | ! scope="col" | Labial ! scope="col" | Coronal ! scope="col" | Palatal ! scope="col" | Velar ! scope="col" | Labial-velar |- ! scope="row" rowspan="2" | Plosive ! scope="row" | <small>voiceless (fortis)</small> | {{IPA|*p}} || {{IPA|*t}} || || {{IPA|*k}} || {{IPA|*kp}} |- ! scope="row" | <small>voiced (lenis)</small> | {{IPA|*b}} || {{IPA|*d}} || || {{IPA|*g}} || {{IPA|*gb}} |- ! scope="row" colspan="2" | Implosive | {{IPA|*ɓ}}<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|*ɗ}}<sup>1</sup> || || || |- ! scope="row" rowspan="2" | Fricative ! scope="row" | <small>voiceless (fortis)</small> | {{IPA|*f}} || {{IPA|*s}} || || || |- ! scope="row" | <small>voiced (lenis)</small> | || {{IPA|*z}} || || || |- ! scope="row" colspan="2" | Approximant | || {{IPA|*l}} || {{IPA|*j}}<sup>2</sup>|| {{IPA|*w}}<sup>2</sup> | |}
# /ɓ/ and /ɗ/ became [m] and [n] next to nasal vowels. # /j/ and /w/ became [ɲ] and [ŋ] next to nasal vowels.
Proto-Mande had a consonant inventory that included stops, implosives, fricatives, and approximants. It likely lacked phonemic nasal consonants, instead having them as allophones of other sounds. The phonetic nasals [m] and [n] are analyzed as allophones of the implosives /ɓ/ and /ɗ/, while [ɲ] and [ŋ] were allophones of the approximants /j/ and /w/.<ref name="Vydrin3"/> These nasal allophones occurred when positioned next to nasalized vowels.
Nasals are broadly phonemic in modern Mande languages, but they tend to be allophonic in the Southern group; Vydrin argues this system is preserved from Proto-Mande. The proto-language's lack of phonemic nasal stops helps explain the absence or rarity of combinations of nasals with semi-closed vowels (e.g., *me, *ne, *ɲe, *mo, *no, *ɲo) in many Western Mande languages.<ref name="Vydrin3"/>
Below are the ancestral vowels, adapted from a reconstruction by Vydrin:<ref>{{cite web | last1=Smith | first1=Casey Roche | title=Mande and Atlantic-Congo: A Preliminary Investigation in Phonology and Lexicon | date=January 2024 | url=https://www.academia.edu/126121513 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Proto-Mande Vowels |- ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | Front ! colspan="2" | Central ! colspan="2" | Back |- ! <small>Oral</small> ! <small>Nasal</small> ! <small>Oral</small> ! <small>Nasal</small> ! <small>Oral</small> ! <small>Nasal</small> |- ! Close | *i || *ĩ | colspan="2" | | *u || *ũ |- ! Near-close | *ɪ || | colspan="2" | | *ʊ || |- ! Close-mid | *e || *ẽ | colspan="2" | | *o || *õ |- ! Open-mid | *ɛ || | colspan="2" | | *ɔ || |- ! Open | colspan="2" | | *a || *ã | colspan="2" | |}
Proto-Mande had 9 oral vowels, 5 nasal vowels, and a syllabic nasal, marked in the data as *N. Vowel length was likely contrastive as well. Proto-Mande, like its descendants, was certainly tonal, with a system that included two tones. Many modern languages have developed more than two tones, particularly the Southern Mande languages.
For a preliminary list of reconstructed lexical items, see List of Proto-Mande reconstructions.
==See also== *List of Proto-Mande reconstructions (Wiktionary) *List of Proto-West Mande reconstructions (Wiktionary) *Manding languages *Mandé *Mende language
==References== {{reflist}}
==Further reading== *{{cite book |last=Delafosse |first=Maurice |year=1904 |title=Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de soixante langues ou dialectes parlés à la Ivory Coast et dans les régions limitrophes, avec des notes linguistiques et ethnologiques |location=Paris |publisher=Leroux}} *{{cite book |last1=Halaoui |first1=Nazam |last2=Tera |first2=Kalilou |last3=Trabi |first3=Monique |year=1983 |title=Atlas des langues mandé – sud de Ivory Coast |location=Abidjan |publisher=ACCT-ILA}} *{{cite journal |last1=Perekhvalskaya |first1=Elena |last2=Vydrin |first2=Valentin |title=Numeral systems in Mande languages |journal=Mandenkan |volume=61 |year=2019 |pages=47–111 |url=https://llacan.cnrs.fr/PDF/Mandenkan61/61perekhvalskaya_vydrin.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418140615/https://llacan.cnrs.fr/PDF/Mandenkan61/61perekhvalskaya_vydrin.pdf |archive-date=2022-04-18}} *{{cite book |last=Steinthal |first=Heymann |year=1867 |title=Die Mande-Negersprachen, psychologisch und phonetisch betrachtet |location=Berlin |publisher=Schade}} *{{cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Terrence D. |year=2004 |orig-date=1983 |title=A preliminary report of existing information on the Manding languages of West Africa: Summary and suggestions for future research |series=SIL Electronic Survey Report |location=Dallas |publisher=SIL International |url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/9088}} *{{cite book |last1=Vydrin |first1=Valentin |last2=Bergman |first2=T.G. |last3=Benjamin |first3=Matthew |year=2000 |title=Mandé language family of West Africa: Location and genetic classification |series=SIL Electronic Survey Report |location=Dallas |publisher=SIL International |url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/9019}} *{{cite book|last1=Williamson|first1=Kay|last2=Blench|first2=Roger|chapter=Niger-Congo|title=African Languages: An Introduction|editor-first=Bernd |editor-last=Heine |editor-first2=Derek |editor-last2=Nurse|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000}}
==External links== *[http://mandelang.kunstkamera.ru/index/langues_mande/ LANGUES MANDE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223161349/http://mandelang.kunstkamera.ru/index/langues_mande/ |date=2016-02-23 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120426022147/http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Mande.aspx Mande page of the Journal of West African Languages] *[http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/fichiers/Mandenkan/index.html Journal Mandenkan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104083238/http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/fichiers/Mandenkan/index.html |date=2011-01-04 }} ([http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/pub_mandenkan_en.php introduction)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127075613/http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/pub_mandenkan_en.php |date=2021-01-27 }}
{{Mande languages}} {{Language families}} {{Niger-Congo branches}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Mande languages Category:Language families Category:Niger–Congo languages Category:Languages of Africa Category:Tone (linguistics)