Malays (ethnic group)

{{Short description|Austronesian ethnic group}} {{About|the ethnic group|the race concept|Malay race|the Dravidian ethnolinguistic group|Malayalis}}{{Distinguish|Malaysians}}{{For|other meanings|Malays (disambiguation)|Malay (disambiguation)}} {{EngvarB|date=April 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Malays | native_name = ''Orang Melayu'' {{Script/Arabic|اورڠ ملايو}} | image = Malay couple.jpg | image_upright = 1.2 | caption = A Malay couple in traditional attire after their marriage ceremony (''[[Islamic marital practices#The Malay Archipelago|akad nikah]]''). The groom is wearing a ''[[baju melayu]]'' with ''[[songkok]]'' and ''[[songket]]'', while the bride wears ''[[baju kurung]]'' with a ''[[tudong]]''. | pop = '''30 million'''+ | region1 = '''[[Malay world]]''' | pop1 = 30 million{{refn|group=Note|The definition of the Malay ethnicity can be different in every country, especially between those of Malaysia and Singapore, which are nearly the same, and that of Indonesia.}} | ref1 = | region2 = {{MYS}} | pop2 = [[Malaysian Malays#Definition of a Malay|17,600,000]]{{refn|group=Note|For definition of Malays in Malaysia, see [[Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia|Article 160]]}} | ref2 = <ref name="2021 pop">{{cite web|url=https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2022/01/17/minister-census-shows-malaysias-oldest-man-and-woman-aged-120-and-118-preli/2035636|title=Minister: Census shows Malaysia's oldest man and woman aged 120 and 118; preliminary census findings to be released in Feb 2022|date=17 January 2022 |publisher=Malaymail|access-date=17 January 2022}}</ref> | region3 = {{IDN}} | pop3 = [[Malay Indonesians|8,553,791]]{{refn|group=Note|This number only provides the ethnic group population that lies under the term "Malay" ({{lang|id|Melayu}}) according to the Indonesian government criterion, namely Melayu Asahan, Melayu Deli, Melayu Riau, Melayu Langkat, Melayu Palembang, Asahan, Melayu, Melayu Lahat, and Melayu Semendo in some part of Sumatra.}} | ref3 = {{sfn|Ananta|Arifin|Hasbullah|Handayani|2015|p=119}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indonesia.go.id/profil/suku-bangsa|title=Ethnic Group (eng)|author=|date=2017|website=indonesia.go id|publisher=Indonesian Information Portal|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=21 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421175944/https://indonesia.go.id/profil/suku-bangsa}}</ref> | region4 = {{THA}} | pop4 = [[Thai Malays|2,150,950]] | ref4 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Thailand|year=2022|website=World Population Review|url=http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/thailand-population/|access-date=5 May 2015|archive-date=20 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420040210/http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/thailand-population/|url-status=live}}</ref> | region5 = {{SGP}} | pop5 = [[Malay Singaporeans|545,498]]{{refn|group=Note|This refers to persons of Malay or Indonesian origin, such as [[Javanese people|Javanese]], [[Boyanese]], [[Bugis]], etc. }} | ref5 = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Census of Population 2020{{!}}Population|url=https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/cop2020sr1.pdf}}</ref> | region6 = {{BRN}} | pop6 = [[Bruneian Malays|314,560]] | ref6 = <ref>"CIA (B)"</ref> | region9 = [[Arab world]] | pop9 = ~50,000 | ref9 = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.utusan.com.my/rencana/agama/jejak-melayu-di-bumi-anbiya-1.437075|title=Jejak Melayu di bumi anbiya|work=Utusan Online |access-date=1 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915002357/http://www.utusan.com.my/rencana/agama/jejak-melayu-di-bumi-anbiya-1.437075|archive-date=15 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ww1.kosmo.com.my/kosmo/content.asp?y=2017&dt=0126&pub=Kosmo&sec=Rencana_Utama&pg=ru_02.htm|title=Jabal Ajyad perkampungan komuniti Melayu di Mekah|work=Kosmo Online |access-date=1 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915001838/http://ww1.kosmo.com.my/kosmo/content.asp?y=2017&dt=0126&pub=Kosmo&sec=Rencana_Utama&pg=ru_02.htm|archive-date=15 September 2018}}</ref> | region10 = {{LKA}} | pop10 = [[Sri Lankan Malays|40,189]] | ref10 = <ref>{{cite web|title=A2: Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|work=Census of Population & Housing, 2011|publisher=Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka}}</ref> | region11 = {{AUS}} | pop11 = [[Cocos Malays|33,183]] | ref11 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://profile.id.com.au/australia/ancestry|title=Australia – Ancestry|website=.id community|access-date=28 December 2015|archive-date=3 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103081623/https://profile.id.com.au/australia/ancestry/|url-status=live}}</ref> | region12 = {{UK}} | pop12 = ~33,000{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}} | ref12 = | region13 = {{USA}} | pop13 = 29,431 | ref13 = <ref name="Access (DADS) 2010">{{cite web|title=Data Access Dissemination Systems (DADS): Results|website=[[United States Census Bureau]]|date=5 October 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/|access-date=2 December 2018|archive-date=27 December 1996|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19961227012639/https://www.census.gov/|url-status=live}}{{verify source|date=August 2020|reason=URL does not return info referenced and it is not apparent how to obtain it.}}</ref> | region14 = {{MYA}} | pop14 = [[Burmese Malays|27,000]]{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}} | ref14 = | region15 = {{CAM}} | pop15 = 18,000{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}} | ref15 = | region16 = {{CAN}} | pop16 = 16,920 | ref16 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=&Code2=&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1|title=Census Profile, 2016 Census|date=8 February 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada|access-date=23 March 2018|archive-date=23 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923095917/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=&Code2=&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1|url-status=live}}</ref> | region17 = {{JPN}} | pop17 = 11,287 | ref17 = <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.moj.go.jp/isa/policies/statistics/toukei_touroku_gaiyou.html?hl=ru | title=在留外国人統計(旧登録外国人統計) 結果の概要 | 出入国在留管理庁 }}</ref> | languages = '''Native:''' [[Malay language|Malay]] '''Also:''' [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (in Indonesia)<ref>{{cite book |page=146-79 |chapter=Malay in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore: Three Faces of a National Language |first=Peter |last=Lowenberg|title=With Forked Tongues: What are National Languages Good For? |date=1988 |publisher=Karoma |isbn=978-0-89720-084-4 |location= Ann Arbor, MI |editor-first=Florian |editor-last=Coulmas |editor-link=Florian Coulmas }}</ref> · [[Thai language|Thai]] · (in Thailand) · [[English language|English]] · [[Arabic]] (religious only) · [[List of languages|Other]] | religions = Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]] | related = Other [[Austronesian peoples]] | footnotes = }} '''Malays'''{{refn|group=Note|{{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|l|eɪ}} {{respell|mə|LAY}}}} ([[Malay language|Malay]]: ''Orang Melayu'', [[Jawi script]]: {{Script/Arabic|اورڠ ملايو}}) are an [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[ethnoreligious group]] native to the [[Malay Peninsula]], eastern [[Sumatra]], coastal [[Borneo]], and the smaller islands that lie between these locations known as [[Riau Archipelago]]. These locations are today part of the countries of [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] (eastern and southern [[Sumatra]], [[Bangka Belitung Islands]], [[West Kalimantan]], [[Riau Islands]], and the coast of [[East Kalimantan]]), the southern part of [[Thailand]] ([[Pattani Province|Pattani]], [[Satun Province|Satun]], [[Songkhla Province|Songkhla]], [[Trang Province|Trang]], [[Krabi Province|Krabi]], [[Yala Province|Yala]], and [[Narathiwat Province|Narathiwat]]), [[Singapore]], [[Brunei Darussalam]], and the southern tip of [[Myanmar]] ([[Tanintharyi Region|Tanintharyi]]).

There is considerable linguistic, cultural, artistic and social diversity among the many Malay subgroups, mainly due to hundreds of years of immigration and assimilation of various regional ethnicity and tribes within [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. Historically, the Malay population is descended primarily from the earlier [[Malayic languages|Malayic]]-speaking Austronesians and [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] tribes who founded several ancient maritime trading states and kingdoms, notably [[History of Brunei|Brunei]], [[Kedah Kingdom|Kedah]], [[Langkasuka]], [[Gangga Negara]], [[Chi Tu]], [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom|Nakhon Si Thammarat]], [[Old Pahang Kingdom|Pahang]], [[Melayu Kingdom|Melayu]], and [[Srivijaya]].{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=24, 33}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7 & 60}}

The advent of the [[Malacca Sultanate]] in the 15th century triggered a major revolution in Malay history, the significance of which lies in its far-reaching political and cultural legacy. Common definitive markers of [[Malayness]]—the religion of [[Islam]], the [[Malay language]] and traditions—are thought to have been promulgated during this era, resulting in the [[ethnogenesis]] of the Malay as a major [[ethnoreligious group]] in the region.{{sfn|Melayu Online|2005}} In literature, architecture, [[Malay cuisine|culinary traditions]], traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts and royal court traditions, Malacca set a standard that later Malay sultanates emulated. The golden age of the [[Malay sultanate]]s in the [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Sumatra]] and [[Borneo]] saw many of their inhabitants, particularly from various tribal communities like the [[Batak]], [[Dayak people|Dayak]], [[Orang Asli]], and the [[Orang Laut]] become subject to [[Islamisation]] and [[Malayisation]].{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=200, 232}} In the course of history, the term "Malay" has been extended to other ethnic groups within the "[[Malay world]]"; this usage is nowadays largely confined to Malaysia and Singapore,{{sfn|Milner|2010|p=10 & 185}} where descendants of immigrants from these ethnic groups are termed as ''[[anak dagang]]'' ("traders") and who are predominantly from the [[Indonesia|Indonesian archipelago]], such as the [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]], [[Banjar people|Banjarese]], [[Bawean people|Bawean]], [[Bugis]], [[Mandailing people|Mandailing]], [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], and [[Javanese people|Javanese]].

Throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics.{{sfn|Milner|2010|p=131}}{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7, 32, 33 & 43}} They [[Trans-cultural diffusion|absorbed]], [[Intercultural communication principles|shared]] and [[Cultural learning|transmitted]] numerous cultural features of other local ethnic groups, such as those of Minangkabau and Acehnese.

==Etymology== [[File:Candi Muaro Jambi dengan langit biru.jpg|thumb|[[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds]] in [[Jambi]], historically linked to the pre-Islamic [[Melayu Kingdom]]. The Melayu-Srivijayans were known to construct complex building system in its capital, major cities and important urban centres.]] [[File:Bukit Seguntang Tombs.jpg|thumb|[[Bukit Seguntang]] in [[Palembang]]. According to ''[[Sejarah Melayu]]'', the hill recorded the advent of [[Sang Sapurba]], a legendary [[progenitor]] for various Malay royal houses in Sumatra, Malay Peninsula and Borneo.]] The epic literature the ''[[Malay Annals]]'' associates the etymological origin of "Melayu" to a small river named {{lang|ms|Sungai Melayu}} ({{gloss|Melayu river}}) in [[Sumatra]], Indonesia. The epic incorrectly stated that the river flowed to the [[Musi River (Indonesia)|Musi River]] in [[Palembang]], while in reality it flowed to the [[Batang Hari River]] in [[Jambi]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Anthony |date=October 2001 |title=Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source of Diverse Modern Identities |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=295–313|doi=10.1017/S0022463401000157 |pmid=19192500 }}</ref>{{rp|298}} The term is thought to be derived from the [[Malay language|Malay]] word ''melaju'', a combination of the verbal [[prefix]] 'me' and the [[root word]] 'laju', meaning "to accelerate", used to describe the accelerating strong current of the river.{{sfn|Melebek|Moain|2006|pp=9–10}}

=== As a place name (toponym) === Prior to the 15th century, the term "Melayu" and its similar-sounding variants appear to apply as an old [[toponym]] to the [[Strait of Malacca]] region in general.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=3}} * '''''Malaya Dwipa''''', "Malaya [[Dvipa]]", is described in chapter 48, [[Vayu Purana]] as one of the provinces in the eastern sea that was full of gold and silver. Some scholars equate the term with [[Sumatra]],{{sfn|Deka|2007|p=57}} but several Indian scholars believe the term should refer to the mountainous [[Malay Peninsula]], while Sumatra is more correctly associated with [[Suvarnabhumi|Suvarnadvipa]].{{sfn|Pande|2006|p=266}}{{sfn|Gopal|2000|p=139}}{{sfn|Ahir|1995|p=612}}{{sfn|Mukerjee|1984|p=212}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1970|p=8}} * '''''Maleu-kolon''''' – a location in the [[Golden Chersonese]], from [[Ptolemy]]'s work, [[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]].{{sfn|Gerini|1974|p=101}} * '''''Mo-lo-yu''''' – mentioned by [[I Ching (monk)|Yijing]], a [[Tang dynasty]] [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] monk who visited the Southeast Asia in 688–695. According to Yijing, the ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' kingdom was located at a distance of 15 days sailing from Bogha (Palembang), the capital of Sribhoga ([[Srivijaya]]). It took a 15-day sail as well to reach Ka-Cha ([[Kedah]]) from Mo-lo-yu; therefore, it can be reasoned that Mo-Lo-Yu would lie halfway between the two places.{{sfn|I Ching|2005|p=xl–xli}} A popular theory relates ''Mo-Lo-Yu'' with the [[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds|Jambi]] in Sumatra,{{sfn|Melayu Online|2005}} however the geographical location of Jambi contradicts with Yi Jing's description of a "half way sail between ''Ka-Cha'' (Kedah) and ''Bogha'' (Palembang)". In the later [[Yuan dynasty]] (1271–1368) and [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644), the word ''Ma-La-Yu'' was mentioned often in Chinese historical texts – with changes in spelling due to the time span between the dynasties – to refer to a nation near the southern sea. Among the terms used was "Bôk-lá-yù", "Mók-là-yū" (木剌由), Má-lì-yù-er (麻里予兒), Oō-laì-yu (巫来由) — traced from the written source of monk [[Xuanzang]]) and Wú-laī-yû (無来由). * '''''Malaiyur''''' – mentioned in the [[Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world#Tanjore Inscription|Tanjore inscription]]. It was described as a kingdom that had "a strong mountain for its rampart" that fell to the Chola invaders during [[Rajendra Chola I]]'s campaign in the 11th century. It may have been situated in Sumatra, between Pannai and Srivijaya (Palembang),<ref>{{Cite book |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |location=Singapore |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay}}</ref>{{rp|77–78, 170}} possibly in the [[Muaro Jambi Regency|Muaro Jambi]] archaeological site.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Miksic|first=John M.|year=2013|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-558-3|author1-link=John N. Miksic}}</ref>{{rp|405}} * '''''Malai''''' – mentioned by the 12th century Arab geographer [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] in [[Tabula Rogeriana]], it described the Malay peninsula as a long island and called it Malai, bordering the Qmer ([[Khmer Empire|Khmer]]) and lying 12 days sail from Sanf ([[Champa]]).<ref>[https://www.sg/sgbicentennial/the-bicentennial-experience/map/al-idrisis-a-guide-to-pleasant-journeys-into-faraway-lands/ al-Idrisi's A guide to Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands]. Singapore Bicentennial Office. November 2019.</ref><ref>Gerini, G. E., & Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain). (1909). [https://books.google.com.my/books?id=FKYcAAAAMAAJ&vq=malai&pg=PA535#v=onepage&q=malai&f=false Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay Archipelago) (Asiatic Society monographs)]. Royal Asiatic society, Royal geographical society. p. 535.</ref> * '''''Bhūmi Mālayu''''' – (literally "Land of Malayu"), a transcription from [[Padang Roco Inscription]] dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana.{{sfn|Muljana|1981|p=223}} The term is associated with [[Dharmasraya]] kingdom. * '''''Ma-li-yu-er''''' – mentioned in the chronicle of [[Yuan dynasty]], referring to a nation of the Malay Peninsula that faced the southward expansion of [[Sukhothai Kingdom]], during the reign of [[Ram Khamhaeng]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chronicle of Mongol Yuan |website=guoxue.com |language=zh |url=http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-date=27 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827214255/http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/yuanshi/yuas_210.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The chronicle stated: "''..Animosity occurred between [[Thai people|Siam]] and Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other ...''". In response to the Sukhothai's action, a Chinese envoy went to the Ram Khamhaeng's court in 1295 bearing an imperial decree: "Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er".{{sfn|Hall|1981|p=190}} * '''''Malauir''''' – mentioned in [[Marco Polo]]'s [[Travels of Marco Polo|account]] as a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula,{{sfn|Cordier|2009|p=105}}{{sfn|Wright|2004|pp=364–365}} possibly similar to the one mentioned in Yuan chronicle. * '''''Malayapura''''' – (literally "city of Malaya" or "fortress of Malaya"), inscribed on the [[Amoghapasa inscription]] dated 1347 CE. The term was used by [[Adityawarman]] to refer to [[Dharmasraya]].

Other suggestions include the [[Javanese language|Javanese]] word ''mlayu'' (as a verb: to run, participle: fugitive), or the Malay term ''melaju'' (to steadily accelerate), referring to the high mobility and migratory nature of its people. De Barros (1552) mentioned that [[Iskandar Shah]] named the ''Malaios'' (Malays) so because of the banishment of his father from his country. Albuquerque explained that [[Parameswara (king)|Parameswara]] fled (''malayo'') from the kingdom of Palembang to Malacca.{{sfn|Crawfurd|1856|p=[https://archive.org/details/adescriptivedic00crawgoog/page/n254/mode/2up 244]}}

=== As an ethnic name (ethnonym) === {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 420 | image1 = Malays from the Malacca Sultanate Codice Casanatense.jpg | alt1 = Malays of Malacca | caption1 = Portuguese watercolour of Malayan people of Malacca, circa 1540, featured in the [[Códice Casanatense]] | image2 = A Malay couple RBSeite93.jpg | alt2 = A Malay couple | caption2 = An illustration of a Malay couple, from ''Reise nach Batavia'', between 1669 and 1682 | image3 = JogetUNISEL.jpg | alt3 = Joget dance | caption3 = [[Joget]] dance from the [[Malacca Sultanate]]; many aspects of Malay culture are derived from the Malaccan court }}

The word "Melayu" as an [[ethnonym]], to allude to a clearly different ethnological cluster, is assumed to have been made fashionable throughout the integration of the Malacca Sultanate as a regional power in the 15th century. It was applied to report the social partialities of the Malaccans as opposed to foreigners as of the similar area, especially the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] and [[Thai people|Thais]].{{sfn|Barnard|2004|p=4}} This is evidenced from the early 16th century Malay word-list by [[Antonio Pigafetta]] who joined the [[Timeline of Magellan's circumnavigation|Magellan's circumnavigation]], that made a reference to how the phrase ''chiara Malaiu'' ('Malay ways') was used in the [[maritime Southeast Asia]], to refer to the ''al parlare de Malaea'' ([[Italian language|Italian]] for "to speak of Malacca").{{sfn|Milner|2010|pp=22}}

Classical Malay literature described the Malays in a narrower sense than the modern interpretation. ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'' (ca. 1700, manuscript ca. 1849) only identifies the Malay people as the subject of Malacca Sultanate; Brunei, at that time, is not considered Malay. ''Hikayat Patani'' (manuscript: 1876) for example, does not call Patani and Brunei as Malay, that term is only used for [[Johor]]. Kedah is not included as Malay in the Kedah chronicle/[[Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa]] (ca. 1821). ''Hikayat Aceh'' (ca. 1625, manuscript ca. 1675) linked Malay ethnicity with Johor, but certainly not Aceh or Deli.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sACaolB0FpkC&q=liberally |title=The Malays |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4443-9166-4 |pages=91–92 |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331160702/https://books.google.com/books?id=sACaolB0FpkC&q=liberally |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>For the dating of the manuscripts, see [https://mcp.anu.edu.au/Q/texts.html Malay Concordance Project]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809133732/https://mcp.anu.edu.au/Q/texts.html|date=9 August 2022}}.</ref>

==Origins== [[File:Baju Melayu.jpg|thumb|A group of men from [[Brunei Darussalam]] in the ''Cekak Musang'' type, worn together with the [[songket]] (far left) and ''[[Sarong|kain sarong]]'']]

===Proto-Malay models=== {{Further-text|[[Austronesian peoples#Prehistory|History of Austronesian peoples]], [[Austronesian languages#Homeland|Homeland of Austronesian languages]]}} Also known as ''Melayu asli'' (aboriginal Malays) or ''Melayu purba'' (ancient Malays), the [[Proto-Malay]]s are of [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] origin and thought to have migrated to the [[Malay Archipelago]] in a long series of migrations between 2500 and 1500 BCE.{{sfn|Ryan|1976|pp=4–5}} Notable [[Proto-Malay]]s of today are [[Moken]], [[Jakun people|Jakun]], [[Orang Kuala]], [[Temuan people|Temuan]] and [[Orang Kanaq]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Orang Asli Population Statistics |publisher=Center for Orang Asli Concerns |url= http://www.coac.org.my/codenavia/portals/coacv2/code/main/main_art.php?parentID=11374494101180&artID=11432750280711 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110722233738/http://www.coac.org.my/codenavia/portals/coacv2/code/main/main_art.php?parentID=11374494101180&artID=11432750280711 |archive-date=22 July 2011}}</ref> ''The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early History'', has pointed out a total of three theories of the origin of Malays: * The [[Yunnan]] theory (published in 1889) – The theory of Proto-Malays originating from Yunnan approximately 4,000 to 6,000 years ago. The theory is supported by R.H Geldern and his team who theorised that their migration occurred from the Mekong River to the Malay Peninsula. Other evidence that supports this theory includes stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago being analogous to Central Asian tools, which shows the similarity of Malay and [[Assamese people|Assamese]] customs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Parthipan |first1=Shalini |last2=Mirianti Ishar |first2=Seri |date=2022 |title=Perspective on Ancestral Lineages and Genetic Markers of Malay Population in Peninsular Malaysia |url=http://journalarticle.ukm.my/19571/1/49021-177065-2-PB.pdf |journal=Journal Sains Kesihatan Malaysia |volume=20 |issue=1 |page=86 |via=Journalarticle.ukm.my |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=16 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016080144/http://journalarticle.ukm.my/19571/1/49021-177065-2-PB.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> * The New Guinea/Seafarers theory (published in 1965) – The migration of seafarers with strong oceanographic skills who travelled from island to island between New Zealand and Madagascar. The theory claims the Malay's morphology at the time were similar to that of Negroids.<ref name=":0" /> * The [[Taiwan]] theory (published in 1997) – The migration of a group of people from [[Southern China]] occurred 6,000 years ago, some moved to Taiwan (today's [[Taiwanese aborigines]] are their descendants), then to the [[Philippines]] and later to [[Borneo]] (roughly 4,500 years ago) (today's [[Dayak people|Dayak]] and other groups). These ancient people also split with some heading to [[Sulawesi]] and others progressing into [[Java]], and [[Sumatra]], all of which now speak languages that belong to the Austronesian Language family. The final migration was to the Malay Peninsula roughly 3,000 years ago. A sub-group from Borneo moved to Champa in modern-day Central and South Vietnam roughly 4,500 years ago. There are also traces of the [[Dong Son culture|Dong Son]] and [[Hoabinhian]] migration from Vietnam and Cambodia. All these groups share DNA and linguistic origins traceable to the island that is today Taiwan, and the ancestors of these ancient people are traceable to southern China.{{sfn|Barnard|2004}}

====Deutero-Malays==== [[File:Women from Palembang in Ikat weave, Wanita di Indonesia p29 (Ministry of Information).jpg|thumb|Ladies from [[Palembang]] clad in their traditional attire, known as [[Baju Kurung]] made from [[Songket]]. The dress is commonly associated with women of Malay extraction.]] The Deutero-Malays are an [[Iron Age]] people descended partly from the subsequent [[Austronesian peoples]] who came equipped with more advanced farming techniques and new knowledge of metals.{{sfn|Murdock|1969|p=278}}{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA495 495]}}{{sfn|Anderbeck|2002}} The Deutero-Malay settlers were not [[nomadic]] like their predecessors: instead they settled and established [[kampung]]s which serve as the main units in society. These kampungs were normally situated on the riverbanks or coastal areas and generally self-sufficient in food and other necessities. By the end of the 1st century BCE, these kampungs were beginning to engage in some trade with the outside world.{{sfn|Jamil Abu Bakar|2002|p=39}} The Deutero-Malays are considered the direct ancestors of the present-day Malay people.{{sfn|TED|1999}}

====Expansion from Sundaland model==== A more recent theory holds that rather than being populated by expansion from the mainland, the [[Last Glacial Period|Ice Age]] populations of the Malay Peninsula, neighbouring Indonesian Archipelago, and the then-exposed continental shelf ([[Sundaland]]) instead developed locally from the first human settlers and expanded to the mainland. Proponents of this theory hold that this expansion gives a far more parsimonious explanation of the linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological evidence than earlier models, particularly the Taiwan model.{{sfn|Oppenheimer|2006}} This theory also draws support from recent genetic evidence by [[Human Genome Organisation]] suggesting that the primary peopling of Asia occurred in a single migration through Southeast Asia; this route is held to be the modern Malay area and that the diversity in the area developed mainly in-place without requiring major migrations from the mainland. The expansion itself may have been driven by [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] at the end of the Ice Age.{{sfn|Abdulla et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Soares, et al.|2008}}

Proponent [[Stephen Oppenheimer]] has further theorised that the expansion of peoples occurred in three rapid surges due to rising sea levels at the end of the Ice Age, and that this diaspora spread the peoples and their associated cultures, myths, and technologies not just to mainland Southeast Asia, but as far as India, the Near East, and the Mediterranean. Reviewers have found his proposals for the original settlement and dispersal worthy of further study, but have been sceptical of his more [[diffusionist]] claims.{{sfn|Razak|2012}}{{sfn|Terrell|1999}}{{sfn|Baer|1999}}

=== Genetic evidence === Malays are an Austronesian-speaking ethnic group of [[Insular Southeast Asia]], and the [[Malay Peninsula]]. According to a 2015 study, Malays from Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and Sri Lanka have 4 major ancestral components, including Austronesian (17%–62%), Proto-Malay (15%–31%), East Asian (4%–16%) and South Asian (3%–34%). But the Austronesian and Southeast Asian aboriginal components were more significant for Malays from Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia than East Asian and South Asian. In contrast, Malays from Sri Lanka possessed about 34% South Asian ancestry in their genetic makeup, making them relatively distinct.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Deng |first1=Lian |last2=Hoh |first2=Boon-Peng |last3=Lu |first3=Dongsheng |last4=Saw |first4=Woei-Yuh |display-authors=3 |date=2015 |title=Dissecting the genetic structure and admixture of four geographical Malay populations |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=5 |article-number=14375 |doi=10.1038/srep14375 |pmid=26395220 |pmc=4585825 |bibcode=2015NatSR...514375D }}</ref>

A study in 2021 concluded that a distinctive [[East Asian people|Basal-East Asian]] lineage (sometimes termed as '''East- and Southeast Asian lineage''<nowiki/>' (ESEA), which is ancestral to modern East and Southeast Asians, Polynesians, and Siberians, originated in [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] at ~50,000 BCE, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Basal-East Asian ancestry, as well as later [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]-associated ancestry, spread into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] prior to the Austronesian expansion. Austronesian-speakers themselves are suggested to have arrived on [[Geography of Taiwan|Taiwan]] and the northern Philippines between 10,000 and 7,000 BCE from coastal southern China, and spread from there throughout Insular Southeast Asia. The authors concluded that the Austronesian expansion into Insular Southeast Asia and [[Polynesia]] was outgoing from the Philippines rather than Taiwan, and that modern Austronesian-speaking peoples, such as the Malays, have largely ancestry from the earliest Basal-East Asians, Austroasiatic migrants from Mainland Southeast Asia, and Austronesian-speaking seafarers from the Philippines, without much admixture from previous groups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larena |first1=Maximilian |last2=Sanchez-Quinto |first2=Federico |last3=Sjödin |first3=Per |last4=McKenna |first4=James |last5=Ebeo |first5=Carlo |last6=Reyes |first6=Rebecca |last7=Casel |first7=Ophelia |last8=Huang |first8=Jin-Yuan |last9=Hagada |first9=Kim Pullupul |last10=Guilay |first10=Dennis |last11=Reyes |first11=Jennelyn |date=30 March 2021 |title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=118 |issue=13 |article-number=e2026132118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8020671 |pmid=33753512|bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Melinda A. |date=6 January 2022 |title=A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia |url=http://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/2/1/0001/html |journal=Human Population Genetics and Genomics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–32 |article-number=0001 |doi=10.47248/hpgg2202010001 |issn=2770-5005 |doi-access=free |access-date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516110501/http://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/2/1/0001/html |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2026 study stated that Malays were genetically closer to East Asians than to the indigenous inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula. They have a 'consistent' genetic profile consisting of East Asian (58%), North Bornean-related Austronesian (24%) and indigenous Semang-related (11%) ancestries. Gene flow between Malays and South Asians was also detected.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saw |first=Woei-Yuh |last2=Yew |first2=Chee Wei |last3=Rahman |first3=Thuhairah Abdul |last4=Hoque |first4=Mohammad Zahirul |display-authors=3 |date=2026 |title=Genetic Diversity and Historical Divergence of Malays and Indigenous Populations in Peninsular Malaysia and Northern Borneo |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ahg.70036?saml_referrer |journal=Annals of Human Genetics |via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>

==History== ===Indian influence=== {{Further|Greater India}} [[File:Nakhon Si Thammarat Chedi Phra Baromathat.jpg|thumb|left|''Chedi Phra Borommathat'', a [[stupa]] located in [[Nakhon Si Thammarat]], [[Thailand]]. The temple witnessed the rise and fall of [[Tambralinga]], a powerful Buddhist kingdom that managed to conquer [[Jaffna kingdom]] in [[Sri Lanka]].]]

There is no definite evidence which dates the first [[India]]n voyages across the [[Bay of Bengal]] but conservative estimates place the earliest arrivals on Malay shores at least 2,000 years ago. The discovery of jetty remains, iron smelting sites, and a clay brick monument dating back to 110 CE in the [[Bujang Valley]], shows that a maritime trading route with South Indian [[Tamil Nadu|Tamil kingdoms]] was already established since the second century.{{sfn|Devan|2010}}

The growth of trade with India brought coastal people in much of maritime Southeast Asia into contact with the major religions of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]]. Throughout this area a most profound in influence has been exerted by India which seems to have introduced into it architecture, sculpture, writing, monarchy, religion, iron, cotton and a host of elements of higher culture. Indian religions, cultural traditions and [[Sanskrit]] began to spread across the land. [[Hindu temple]]s were built in the Indian style, local kings began referring to themselves as "[[raja]]" and more desirable aspects of Indian government were adopted.<ref name="zaki1">{{harvnb|Zaki Ragman|2003|pp=1–6}}</ref>

The beginning of the Common Era saw the rise of Malay states in the coastal areas of the [[Sumatra]] and [[Malay Peninsula]]; [[Srivijaya]], [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom]], [[Gangga Negara]], [[Langkasuka]], [[Bujang Valley|Kedah]], [[Old Pahang Kingdom|Pahang]], the [[Melayu Kingdom]] and [[Chi Tu]]. Between the 7th and 13th centuries, many of these small, often prosperous peninsula and Sumatran maritime trading states, became part of the [[Mandala (Southeast Asian political model)|mandala]] of Srivijaya,<ref>{{cite web |last=Sabrizain |title=Early Malay kingdoms |url=http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/early.htm |website=Sejarah Melayu |access-date=21 June 2010 |archive-date=2 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002004651/http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/early.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> a great confederation of city-states centred in [[Sumatra]].{{sfn|Munoz|2006|p=171}}{{sfn|Miksic|Goh|2017}}{{pn|date=May 2024}}{{sfn|Munoz|2006|p=171}} Early during this period, the earliest known mention of the word "Malayu" was used in Chinese sources in 644 CE. Later in the mid-14th century, the word Malay was already recognised as a collective people sharing similar lineage, culture and lingua.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aljunied |first=Syed Muhd. Khairudin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I7emDwAAQBAJ |title=Islam in Malaysia: An Entwined History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2019 |page=27 |isbn=978-0-19-092519-2 |language=en}}</ref>

Srivijaya's influence spread over all the coastal areas of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, western [[Java]] and western [[Borneo]], as well as the rest of the [[Malay Archipelago]]. Enjoying both Indian and Chinese patronage, its wealth was gained mostly through trade. At its height, the [[Old Malay language]] was used as its official language and became the [[lingua franca]] of the region, replacing Sanskrit, the language of Hinduism.<ref name="zaki1" /> The Srivijayan era is considered the golden age of Malay culture.

The glory of Srivijaya however began to drastically wane after the series of raids by the Tamil [[Chola dynasty]] in the 11th century. After the fall of Srivijaya in 1025 CE, the Melayu kingdom of Jambi in Sumatra, became the most dominant Malay state of the region.{{sfn|Miksic|Goh|2017|p=359, 397, 398}} By the end of the 13th century, the remnants of the Malay empire in Sumatra was finally destroyed by the [[Javanese people|Javanese invaders]] during the [[Pamalayu expedition]] (''Pamalayu'' means "war against the Malays").{{sfn|Miksic|Goh|2017|p=464}}

In 1299, through the support of the loyal servants of the empire, the [[Orang laut]], a Malay prince of Palembang origin, [[Sang Nila Utama]] established the [[Kingdom of Singapura]] in [[Temasek]].{{sfn|Ministry of Culture|1973|p=9}} His dynasty ruled the island kingdom until the end of the 14th century, when the Malay polity once again faced the wrath of Javanese invaders. In 1400, his great-great-grandson, [[Parameswara (king)|Parameswara]], headed north and established the [[Malacca Sultanate]].{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|pp=245–246}} The new kingdom succeeded Srivijaya and inherited much of the royal and cultural traditions, including a large part of the territories of its predecessor in Palembang.{{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=8 & 126}}{{sfn|Stearns|2001|p=138}}{{sfn|Wolters|1999|p=33}}

[[File:Srivijayan Expansion.gif|thumb|The timeline of [[Srivijaya]]n expansion from [[Palembang]] between the 7th and 13th centuries; the state would subsequently be known as [[Melayu Kingdom]] before its demise. By the 14th century, a Palembangese-born prince, [[Parameswara (king)|Parameswara]], would later establish the [[Malacca Sultanate|Kingdom of Malacca]], bringing the old Palembangese courts traditions and identity into the newfound state.]] In the north of the peninsula, the power vacuum left by the collapse of Srivijaya was filled by the growth of the kingdom of [[Tambralinga]] in the 12th century. Between the 13th and early 14th centuries, the kingdom succeeded to incorporate most of the Malay Peninsula under its mandala. The campaign led by [[Chandrabhanu Sridhamaraja]] (1230–1263) managed to capture [[Jaffna kingdom]] in [[Sri Lanka]] between 1247 and 1258. He was eventually defeated by the forces of the [[Pandyan dynasty]] from Tamil Nadu in 1263 and was killed by the brother of Emperor [[Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I]].{{sfn|Pande|2006|p=286}} The invasion marked an unrivaled feature in the [[history of Southeast Asia]], it was the only time there was an armed maritime expedition far beyond the boundaries of the region.

The cultivation of Malay polity system also diffused beyond the proper Sumatran-Peninsular border during this era. The age avowed by exploration and migration of the Malays to establish kingdoms beyond the traditional Srivijayan realm. Several exemplification are the enthronement of a Tambralingan prince to reign the [[Lavo Kingdom]] in present-day [[Central Thailand]] and the establishment of the [[Tanjungpura Kingdom]] in what is now [[West Kalimantan]], [[Borneo]].

===Islamisation=== {{Further|Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia|Malayisation}} [[File:Patung Dayak Melayu.jpg|thumb|left|The "Dayak-Malay" brotherhood monument in West Kalimantan Provincial Museum, [[Pontianak]], Indonesia]]

The period of the 11th until 15th centuries saw the arrival of [[Islam]] and the rise of the great port-city of Malacca on the southwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula<ref name="W&IP1">{{harvnb|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1174}}</ref> — two major developments that altered the course of Malay history.

The Islamic faith arrived on the shores of what are now the states of [[Kedah]], [[Perak]], [[Kelantan]] and [[Terengganu]], from the beginning of 12th century.{{sfn|Hussin Mutalib|2008|p=25}} The earliest archaeological evidence of Islam from the Malay Peninsula is the [[Terengganu Inscription Stone]] dating from the 14th century found in [[Terengganu]] state, [[Malaysia]].<ref name="W&IP1" /> Islam became a defining component of Malay identity from the 13th century onward, and its development in the region was historically shaped by trade, scholarship, and interactions with diverse communities across Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Islamic world {{!}} History, Population, & Map {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260206164421/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world |archive-date=6 February 2026 |access-date=19 February 2026 |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref>

By the 15th century, the Malacca Sultanate, whose hegemony reached over much of the western [[Malay Archipelago]], had become the centre of [[Islamisation]] in the east. As a Malaccan state religion, Islam brought many great transformation into the Malaccan society and culture, and It became the primary instrument in the evolution of a classical Malay identity. The Malaccan era witnessed the close association of Islam with Malay society and how it developed into a definitive marker of Malay identity.{{sfn|Barnard|2004|pp=7 & 60}}{{sfn|Andaya|Andaya|1984|p=55}}{{sfn|Mohd Fauzi Yaacob|2009|p=16}}{{sfn|Abu Talib Ahmad|Tan|2003|p=15}} Over time, this common Malay cultural idiom came to characterise much of the Malay Archipelago through the [[Malayisation]] process. The expansion of Malaccan influence through trade and [[Dawah]] brought with it together the [[Classical Malay]] language,{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=74}} the Islamic faith,{{sfn|Milner|2010|p=47}} and the Malay Muslim culture;{{sfn|Esposito|1999}} the three core values of ''Kemelayuan'' ("Malayness").{{sfn|Mohamed Anwar Omar Din|2011|p=34}}

In 1511, the Malaccan capital fell into the hands of [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[conquistadors]]. However, Malacca remained an institutional prototype: a paradigm of statecraft and a point of cultural reference for successor states such as [[Johor Sultanate]] (1528–present), [[Perak|Perak Sultanate]] (1528–present), [[Pahang Sultanate]] (1470–present), [[Siak Sri Indrapura Sultanate]] (1725–1946), Pelalawan Sultanate (1725–1946) and [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate]] (1824–1911).<ref name="Harper1">{{harvnb|Harper|2001|p=15}}</ref>

[[File:Malacca Sultanate en.svg|thumb|right|The extent of the Malaccan Sultanate in the 15th century, the legacy of the Malaccan court can be strongly witnessed in the construction of the Malay [[Sociocultural evolution|sociocultural]] framework until today.]] Across the [[South China Sea]] in the 14th century, another Malay realm, the [[Bruneian Empire]] was on the rise to become the most powerful polity in [[Borneo]]. By the middle of the 15th century, Brunei entered into a close relationship with the Malacca Sultanate. The sultan married a Malaccan princess, adopted Islam as the court religion, and introduced an efficient administration modelled on Malacca.{{sfn|Europa Publications Staff|2002|p=203}} Brunei profited from trade with Malacca but gained even greater prosperity after the great Malay port was conquered by the Portuguese in 1511. It reached its golden age in the mid-16th century when it controlled land as far south as present day [[Kuching]] in [[Sarawak]], north towards the [[Philippine Archipelago]].{{sfn|Richmond|2007|p=32}} The empire broadened its influence in [[Luzon]] by defeating Datu Gambang of the [[Kingdom of Tondo]] and by founding a [[satellite state]], [[Kota Seludong]] in present-day [[Manila]], setting up the Muslim Rajah, [[Rajah Sulaiman I]] as a vassal to the Sultanate of Brunei. Brunei also expanded its influence in Mindanao, [[Philippines]] when Sultan Bolkiah married Leila Macanai, the daughter of the [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sultan of Sulu]]. However, states like the [[Caboloan|kingdom of Pangasinan]], [[Rajahnate of Cebu]] and [[Kedatuan of Madja-as]] tried to resist Brunei's and Islam's spread into the Philippines. Brunei's fairly loose river based governmental presence in Borneo projected the process of [[Malayisation]].

Other significant Malay sultanates were the [[Kedah Sultanate]] (1136–present), [[Kelantan|Kelantan Sultanate]] (1411–present), [[Pattani Kingdom|Patani Sultanate]] (1516–1771), [[Reman Kingdom]] (1785–1909) and Legeh Kingdom (1755–1902) that dominated the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. [[Jambi Sultanate]] (1460–1907), [[Palembang Sultanate]] (1550–1823) and Indragiri Sultanate (1298–1945) controlled much of the southeastern shores of Sumatra. [[Deli Sultanate]] (1632–1946), [[Serdang Sultanate]] (1728–1948), [[Langkat Sultanate]] (1568–1948) and [[Asahan Sultanate]] (1630–1948) governed eastern Sumatra. While West Borneo observed the rise of [[Pontianak Sultanate]] (1771–1950), Mempawah Sultanate (1740–1950) and Matan Sultanate (1590–1948), Sanggau Sultanate, Sintang Sultanate, and Sekadau Sultanate.

===Colonisation by foreign powers=== [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Portret van de Sultan van Lingga Riouw met zijn gevolg Batavia TMnr 60003185.jpg|thumb|left|The reigning elite of the [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate]] in 1867, predominantly of [[Bugis-Malay]] descent. The sultanate would be abolished almost half a century later in 1911 by the Dutch powers, following its strong independence movement against the [[Dutch East Indies|colonial government]].]]

Between 1511 and 1984, numerous Malay kingdoms and sultanates fell under direct [[colonisation]] or became the [[protectorate]]s of different foreign powers, from European colonial powers like [[Portugal|Portuguese]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[United Kingdom|British]], to regional powers like [[Aceh Sultanate|Aceh]], [[Siam]] and [[Japan]]. In 1511, the [[Portuguese Empire]] [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|captured]] the capital city of the [[Malacca Sultanate]]. The victorious Portuguese however, were unable to extend their political influence beyond the [[A Famosa|fort of Malacca]]. The Sultan maintained his overlordship on the lands outside Malacca and established the [[Johor Sultanate]] in 1528 to succeed Malacca. [[Portuguese Malacca]] faced several unsuccessful retaliation attacks by Johor until 1614, when the combined forces of Johor and the [[Dutch Empire]], [[Battle of Malacca (1641)|ousted]] the Portuguese from the peninsula. As per agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch later took control of Malacca.{{sfn|Hunter|Roberts|2010|p=345}}

[[File:Reman.jpg|thumb|right|Tuan Lebeh (seated, in the middle), the ''Long Raya'' or ''Raja Muda'' ([[crown prince]]) of the [[Kingdom of Reman]] in 1899. The State of [[Reman]] was abolished by the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]] alongside various other [[Patani Malay]] kingdoms that revolted for independence in the early 1902 including [[Pattani Sultanate|Pattani]], Saiburi, Nongchik, Yaring, Yala, Legeh and Teluban.]] Historically, [[Malay states]] of the peninsula had hostile relations with the [[Thai people|Siamese]]. The Malacca Sultanate Itself fought two wars with the Siamese while the northern Malay states came intermittently under Siamese dominance for centuries. In 1771, the [[Thonburi Kingdom|Kingdom of Siam]] under the new [[Chakri dynasty]] abolished the [[Pattani Kingdom|Patani Sultanate]] and later annexed a large part of [[Kedah Sultanate]]. Earlier, the Siamese under [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] have had already absorbed [[Tambralinga]] and overrun the [[Singgora Sultanate]] in the 17th century. Between 1808 and 1813, the Siamese imposed a new administrative structure and created the [[Satellite state|semi-independent]] Malay kingdoms of [[Pattani Kingdom|Patani]], [[Sai Buri District|Saiburi]], [[Nong Chik District|Nongchik]], [[Yaring District|Yaring]], [[Yala Province|Yala]], [[Reman]] and [[Rangae]] from [[Pattani Province|Greater Patani]] and similarly obtained [[Ranong province|Rundung]], [[Takua Pa District|Kupa]], [[Phuket province|Tongkah]], [[Trang Province|Terang]] while carving [[Setul Kingdom|Setul]], Langu, [[Perlis]], [[Kubang Pasu Kingdom|Kubang Pasu]] from the [[Kedah Kingdom]] in 1839.{{sfn|Andaya|Andaya|1984|pp=62–68}}{{sfn|Ganguly|1997|p=204}} In 1902, the Siamese stripped the political powers of all the 7 kingdoms of Patani following a planned revolt for independence against the central government. The [[coup de grâce]] was cultivated by 1906, when the Siamese [[National boundary delimitation|redraw]] the border of the Patani territories and installed a new governance and administrative system.{{sfn|Mohd. Zamberi A. Malek.|1994|pp=6}}{{sfn|Ramli|1999|pp=35–74}}{{sfn|Ali|2010}}

In 1786, the island of [[Penang]] was leased to [[East India Company]] by [[Kedah Sultanate]] in exchange of military assistance against the Siamese. In 1819, the company also acquired [[Singapore]] from [[Johor Empire]], later in 1824, [[Dutch Malacca]] from the Dutch, followed by [[Straits Settlements#Dindings and Province Wellesley|Dindings]] from [[Perak]] by 1874 and finally [[Labuan]] from [[Brunei]] in 1886. All these trading posts officially known as [[Straits Settlements]] in 1826 and became the crown colony of [[British Empire]] in 1867. Additionally, the Straits Settlements would also encompass the [[Indian Ocean]] islands of [[Christmas Island]] and the [[Cocos Islands]] in 1886. British intervention in the affairs of Malay states was formalised in 1895, when [[Malay rulers]] accepted [[British Resident]]s in administration, and the [[Federated Malay States]] was formed. In 1909, [[Kedah]], [[Kelantan]], [[Terengganu]] and [[Perlis]] were [[Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909|handed over]] by Siam to the British. These states along with [[Johor]], later became known as [[Unfederated Malay States]]. During the [[World War II]], all these [[British possessions]] and [[British protectorate|protectorates]] that collectively known as [[British Malaya]] were occupied by the [[Empire of Japan]].

[[File:Castilian War.jpg|thumb|left|Scene from the [[Castilian War]] (1578–1580) as [[Brunei Empire|Brunei]] defended its sovereignty against European expansion]] The twilight of the vast Bruneian Empire began during the [[Castille War]] against the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] conquistadors who arrived in the Philippines from Mexico. The war resulted in the end of the empire's dominance in the present-day [[Philippine Archipelago]]. The decline further culminated in the 19th century, when the Sultanate lost most of its remaining territories in [[Borneo]] to the [[White Rajah]]s of [[Sarawak]], [[North Borneo Chartered Company]] and its [[Kalimantan|lower Borneo]] vassals to [[Dutch East India Company]]. Brunei was a British protectorate from 1888 to 1984.<ref name="CIA (B)">{{cite book |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brunei/ |title=CIA World Factbook |year=2022 |chapter=Brunei |access-date=28 February 2014 |archive-date=21 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721102115/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bx.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Following the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824]] which divided the [[Malay Archipelago]] into a British zone in the north and a Dutch zone in the south, all Malay sultanates in [[Sumatra]] and [[Kalimantan|Southern Borneo]] became part of the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Though some of Malay sultans maintain their power under Dutch control,{{sfn|Lumholtz|2004|p=17}} some were abolished by the Dutch government under the accusation of retaliation against the colonial rule, like the case of Palembang Sultanate in 1823, Jambi Sultanate in 1906 and [[Riau Sultanate]] in 1911.

In the late 19th century, Germany sought to establish a naval base in [[Langkawi]], requesting its lease from Siam, influenced by Grand Admiral [[Alfred von Tirpitz]]'s vision of using the island as a hub for a global submarine cable network.{{sfn|Herwig|1980}} With its deep natural harbour, Langkawi was strategically positioned between German territories in China and the Pacific, facilitating warship restocking and enhancing commercial interests for German investors. In October 1899, Behn, Meyer & Co approached Kedah's Crown Prince to lease the island for 50 years, but the plan faltered due to Siam's refusal, as dictated by the Secret Siamese Treaty of 1897, which required British consent for territorial concessions.{{sfn|Amin|1995}} A subsequent attempt in 1900 to acquire Pulau Lontar was similarly dismissed, prompting British concerns over potential German expansion in the region and its implications for their economic and political dominance.

The prospect of a German annexation of the northern peninsula and the potential of its involvement for a [[Thai Canal|commercial canal]] or railway network across the [[Isthmus of Kra]], posed a serious threat to the British economic interest and political dominance in the region. Severely alarmed, the British and the Siamese entered the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, partitioning the peninsula between the British and the Siamese jurisdiction. [[File:Sultans at the first Malayan Durbar.jpg|thumb|The [[Malay Rulers]] and nobilities of Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak and Selangor with [[British Malaya|British colonial officers]] during the first [[Conference of Rulers|Durbar]] in Istana Negara, [[Kuala Kangsar]], [[Perak]], [[Federated Malay States]], 1897]] The Anglo-Siamese Treaty attested that the Siamese to control the [[Southern Thailand|upper portion]] of the peninsular while the lower region was to be held under the [[British Empire|British dominance]]. The British originally planned for the inclusion of [[Kingdom of Reman|Reman]], Legeh and [[Kingdom of Setul|Setul]] under their dominion together with a cluster of northern Malay states. Nonetheless, they only managed to secure [[Kedah]], [[Kelantan]], [[Terengganu]] and [[Perlis]] under the agreement. The treaty also witnessed the state of Kedah being reduced the most, with [[Tarutao National Park|Tarutao]], [[Tarutao National Park|Butang islands]] groups, [[Sadao District|Sendawa]], [[La-ngu District|Langgu]] and the principality of [[Setul Kingdom|Setul]] were all being divorced into the Siamese hands, a similar fate was also followed in northeastern coast of Kelantan that was demanded to renounced their right on the [[Tak Bai District|Tabal district]], including [[Su-ngai Kolok District|Sungai Golok]] and [[Su-ngai Padi District|Sungai Padi]]; while [[Perlis]] lost its Pujoh district. Then-British controlled [[Federated Malay States|Federated Malay State]] of [[Perak]] however, saw an enlargement of their land area, with [[Hulu Perak|southern territories]] of [[Reman]] being transferred into the state and additionally Kelantan received [[Jeli District|Jeli]] from Legeh (which had been under Siamese jurisdiction since 1902). The Siamese then [[abdicated]] Tunku Baharuddin, the [[Kingdom of Setul Mambang Segara|King of Setul]], the sole Malay kingdom remained under Siamese territory in 1916. The treaty nonetheless, manage to seal the fate of the Malay states of [[Kedah]], [[Kelantan]], [[Terengganu]] and [[Perlis]] to retain a degree of their sovereign powers under the [[British Malaya|British colonial government]], a legacy that can be witnessed today in the Malaysian administrative system.

Later during the [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies]], [[Japanese occupation of Malaya|British Malaya]] and [[Japanese occupation of British Borneo|Borneo]], the Japanese maintained a favourable relationship with the Sultans and other Malay leaders, this is partially composed to foster the trust of the Malay public that was generally loyal towards the sultan. Nonetheless, in a series of massacres known as [[Pontianak incidents]], the Japanese assassinated virtually all of the [[West Kalimantan]] Malay sultans, including a large numbers of Malay intelligentsias after they have been falsely accused of planning an uprising and [[coup d'etat]] against the Japanese. It was believed that West Kalimantan took two generations to recover from the near-total collapse of the Malay ruling class in the territory.

===Malay nationalism=== [[File:Hang Tuah, Muzium Negara - img 01.jpg|thumb|The bronze mural of the legendary Malay warrior, [[Hang Tuah]] with his renowned quote ''Ta' Melayu Hilang Di-Dunia'' ([[Malay language|Malay]] for "Never shall the Malays vanish from the face of the earth") written on the top. The quote is a famous rallying cry for [[Malay nationalism]].{{sfn|Tan|1988|p=14}}{{sfn|Chew|1999|p=78}}]] {{main|Malay nationalism|Malay supremacy}}

{{see also|South Thailand insurgency|Early Malay nationalism in Riau}} Despite the widespread distribution of the Malay population throughout the Malay Archipelago, modern Malay nationalism was only significantly mobilised in the early twentieth century [[British Malaya]] i. e. the [[Malay Peninsula]]. In the [[Netherlands Indies]], the struggle against colonisation was characterised by the trans-ethnic nationalism: the so-called "[[Indonesian National Awakening]]" united people from the various parts of the Dutch colony in the development of a national consciousness as "Indonesians".{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=163–164}} In Brunei, despite some attempt made to arouse Malay political consciousness between 1942 and 1945, there was no significant history of ethnic-based nationalism. In Thailand however, [[Southern Thailand insurgency|Pattani separatism]] against Thai rule is regarded by some historians as a part of the wider sphere of peninsular Malay nationalism. A similar [[secession movement]] can be witnessed in modern-day Indonesia, where both autochthonously-Malay provinces of [[Riau]] and [[Riau Islands]] sought to gain independence under the name of Republic of Riau. Nevertheless, what follows is specific to the peninsula Malay nationalism that resulted in the formation of the [[Federation of Malaya]], later reconstituted as Malaysia.

The earliest and most influential instruments of Malay national awakening were the [[periodical]]s which politicised the position of the Malays in the face of colonialism and alien immigration of non-Malays. In spite of repressions imposed by the British colonial government, there were no less than 147 journals and newspapers published in [[British Malaya|Malaya]] between 1876 and 1941. Among notable periodicals were ''Al-Imam'' (1906), ''Pengasuh'' (1920), ''Majlis'' (1935) and ''[[Utusan Melayu]]'' (1939). The rise of [[Malay nationalism]] was largely mobilised by three nationalist factions – the radicals distinguishable into the Malay left and the Islamic group which were both opposed to the conservative elites.<ref name="Leo Suryadinata">{{harvnb|Suryadinata|2000|pp=133–136}}</ref>

[[File:Malaya stamp.png|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Federation of Malaya's commemorative stamp issued in 1957. The semi-independent federation was formed in 1948 from nine [[Malay states]] and two British [[Straits Settlements]]. It [[Independence Day (Malaysia)|achieved independence]] in 1957.]] The Malay [[leftist]]s were represented by [[Kesatuan Melayu Muda]], formed in 1938 by a group of Malay intelligentsia primarily educated in [[Sultan Idris Training College]], with an ideal of ''[[Greater Indonesia]]''. In 1945, they reorganised themselves into a political party known as Partai Kebangsaan Melayu Malaya (PKMM). The [[Islamist]]s were originally represented by ''Kaum Muda'' consisted of Middle east – educated scholars with [[Pan-Islamism|Pan-Islamic]] sentiment. The first Islamic political party was ''Partai Orang Muslimin Malaya'' (Hizbul Muslimin) formed in March 1948, later succeeded by [[Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party|Pan-Malayan Islamic Party]] in 1951. The third group was [[Conservatism|the conservatives]] consisted of the westernised elites who were bureaucrats and members of royal families that shared a common English education mostly at the exclusive [[Malay College Kuala Kangsar]]. They formed voluntary organisations known as ''Persatuan Melayu'' ('Malay Associations') in various parts of the country with the primary goals of advancing and protecting the interests of Malays. In March 1946, 41 of these Malay associations formed [[United Malays National Organisation]] (UMNO), to assert [[Malay dominance]] over Malaya.<ref name="Leo Suryadinata"/>

The Malay and [[Malayness]] has been the fundamental basis for Malay ideology and Malay nationalism in Malaysia. All three Malay nationalist factions believed in the idea of a ''Bangsa Melayu'' ('Malay Nation') and the position of Malay language, but disagreed over the role of Islam and Malay rulers. The conservatives supported [[Malay language]], [[Malay Islamic identity|Islam]] and [[Malay rulers|Malay monarchy]] as constituting the key pillars of Malayness, but within a secular state that restricted the political role of Islam. The leftists concurred with the [[secular state]] but wanted to end [[feudalism]], whereas the Islamic group favoured ending royalty but sought a much larger role of [[Islam]].{{sfn|Barrington|2006|pp=47–48}}

Since the foundation of the [[Republic of Indonesia]] as a [[unitary state]] in 1950, all traditional Malay monarchies in Indonesia were abolished,{{sfn|He|Galligan|Inoguchi|2007|p=146}} and the Sultans positions reduced to [[titular head]]s or [[pretender]]s. The violent demise of the sultanates of [[Sultanate of Deli|Deli]], [[Sultanate of Langkat|Langkat]], [[Sultanate of Serdang|Serdang]], [[Asahan Sultanate|Asahan]] and other Malay principalities in [[East Sumatra]] during the "[[East Sumatra revolution|Social revolution]]" of 1946 orchestrated by the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]], drastically influenced their Malayan counterparts and politically motivating them against the PKMM's ideal of [[Greater Indonesia]] and the Islamists' vision of [[Islamic Republic]].

In March 1946, UMNO emerged with the full support of the Malay sultans from the [[Conference of Rulers]]. The new movement forged a close political link between rulers and subjects never before achieved. It generated an excited Malay public opinion which, together with the surprising political apathy of the non-Malays, led to Britain's abandonment of the radical [[Malayan Union]] plan. By July, UMNO succeeded in obtaining an agreement with the British to begin negotiations for a new constitution. Negotiations continued from August to November, between British officials on the one hand, and the Sultans' representatives and UMNO and the other.{{sfn|Tirtosudarmo|2005}}

Two years later the semi independent [[Federation of Malaya]] was born. The new constitutional arrangement largely reverted to the basic pattern of pre-war colonial rule and built on the supremacy of the individual Malay states. Malay rights and privileges were safeguarded. The traditional [[Malay rulers]] thus retained their prerogatives, while their English-educated descendants came to occupy positions of authority at the centre, which was being progressively decolonised. In August 1957, the [[Federation of Malaya]], the West's last major dependency in Southeast Asia, attained independence in a [[peaceful transition of power|peaceful transfer of power]].{{sfn|Tirtosudarmo|2005}} The federation was reconstituted as [[Malaysia]] with the addition in 1963 of [[Singapore]] (separated in 1965), [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]].

==Culture== ===Language=== [[File:Prasasti Kedukan Bukit 3.jpg|thumb|The [[Kedukan Bukit Inscription]] written in [[Vatteluttu|Pallava script]]. Dating back from 683, it is one of the oldest surviving Malay written artefact.]] {{Main|Malay language}} {{See also|Jawi alphabet}} The Malay language is one of the most prominent languages of the world, especially of the [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] family. Variants and dialects of Malay are used as an official language in [[Brunei]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Singapore]]. The language is also spoken in southern [[Thailand]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands|Cocos Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Sri Lanka]]. It is spoken natively by approximately 33 million people throughout the [[Malay Archipelago]] and is used as a second language by an estimated 220 million.{{sfn|Wright|2007|p=492}}

The oldest form of Malay is descended from the [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language]] spoken by the earliest [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] settlers in Southeast Asia. This form would later evolve into [[Old Malay]] when Indian cultures and religions began penetrating the region. Old Malay contained some terms last until today, but remained unintelligible to modern speakers, while the modern language is already largely recognisable in written [[Classical Malay]], which the oldest form dating back to 1303 CE.{{sfn|Teeuw|1959|p=149}} Malay evolved into Classical Malay through the gradual influx of numerous Arabic and Persian vocabulary when Islam made its way to the region, changing significantly in the process. Initially, Classical Malay was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Malay kingdoms of Southeast Asia. One of these dialects, that was developed in the literary tradition of the Malacca Sultanate in the 15th century, eventually became predominant.

The Malaccan era was marked with the transformation of the Malay language into an Islamic language, in similar fashion to Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Swahili. An adapted Arabic script called [[Jawi script|Jawi]] was used replacing the Kawi script, Islamic religious and cultural terminologies were abundantly assimilated, discarding many Hindu-Buddhist words, and Malay became the language of Islamic medium of instruction and dissemination throughout Southeast Asian region. At the height of Malacca's power in the 15th century, the Classical Malay spread beyond the traditional Malay speaking world<ref name="Sneddon 2003 59">{{harvnb|Sneddon|2003|p=59}}</ref> and resulted in a ''[[lingua franca]]'' that was called ''Bahasa Melayu pasar'' ("Bazaar Malay") or ''Bahasa Melayu rendah'' ("Low Malay") as opposed to the ''Bahasa Melayu tinggi'' ("High Malay") of Malacca.{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=84}} It is generally believed that [[Malay trade and creole languages|Bazaar Malay]] was a pidgin and the most important development, however, has been that pidgin creolised, creating several new languages such as the [[Ambonese Malay#Ambonese Malay|Ambonese Malay]], [[Manado Malay]] and [[Betawi language]].{{sfn|Sneddon|2003|p=60}}

European writers of the 17th and 18th centuries, such as [[Jean-Baptiste Tavernier|Tavernier]], [[Louis Thomassin|Thomassin]] and [[Anthony Abraham Werndly|Werndly]] describe Malay as "''language of the learned in all the Indies, like [[Latin language|Latin]] in Europe''".{{sfn|Sweeney|1987}} It is also the most widely used during British and Dutch colonial era in the Malay Archipelago.{{sfn|Van der Putten|Cody|2009|p=55}} The reversed was seen in the [[Spanish East Indies]], where mass [[Romanization (cultural)|latinisation]] of the archipelago during the colonial years resulted the historical [[coup de grâce]] of the Malay language in the Philippines.

The dialect of [[Johor Sultanate]], the direct successor of Malacca, became the standard speech among Malays in [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]], and it formed the original basis for the standardised [[Indonesian language]].<ref name="Sneddon 2003 59"/>{{sfn|Wong|1973|p=126}}{{sfn|Clyne|1992|p=413}}{{sfn|Brown|Ogilvie|2009|p=678}}

Apart from the standard Malay, developed within the Malacca-Johor sphere, various local [[Malayan languages|Malay dialects]] exist. For example, the [[Bangka language|Bangkanese]], the [[Brunei Malay|Bruneian]], the [[Jambi Malay|Jambian]], the [[Kelantanese]], the [[Kedah Malay|Kedahan]], the [[Negeri Sembilan Malay language|Negeri Sembilanese]], the [[Musi language|Palembangnese]], the [[Pattani Malay|Pattanese]], the [[Sarawak Malay|Sarawakian]], the [[Terengganu Malay|Terengganuan]], and many others.

The Malay language was historically written in [[Pallava script|Pallawa]], [[Kawi script|Kawi]] and [[Rencong script|Rencong]]. After the arrival of Islam, [[Arabic script|Arabic]]-based [[Jawi script]] was adopted and is still in use today as one of the two official scripts in Brunei and as an alternative script in [[Malaysia]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kedah MB defends use of Jawi on signboards |work=The Star |year=2008 |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/8/26/nation/22168989&sec=nation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029105406/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F8%2F26%2Fnation%2F22168989&sec=nation |archive-date=29 October 2012 }}</ref> Beginning from the 17th century, as a result of British and Dutch colonisation, Jawi was gradually replaced by the Latin-based [[Rumi script]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Malay (Bahasa Melayu / بهاس ملايو) |website=Omniglot |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626115200/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> which eventually became the official modern script for Malay language in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia, and co-official script in Brunei.

===Literature=== [[File:Hkyt merong mahawgsa.jpg|thumb|[[Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa]] in [[Jawi script|Jawi]] text. Also known as the Kedah Annals, it is an ancient Malay literature that chronicles the bloodline of [[Merong Mahawangsa]] and the foundation of [[Early history of Kedah|Kedah]].]] {{Main|Malaysian literature{{!}}Malay literature|Malay folklore}}

The rich oral literature and classical literature of the Malays contain a great number of portraits of the people, from the [[servant]] to the minister, from the judge to the [[Raja]]s, from the ancient to the very contemporary periods, which together form the amorphous identity of the Malays.{{sfn|Littrup|1996|p=192}}

Considering the softness and mellifluence of the Malay language, which lends itself easily to the requirements of rhyme and rhythm, the originality and beauty in Malay literature can be assessed in its poetical elements. Among the forms of poetry in Malay literature are – the [[Pantun]], [[Syair]] and [[Gurindam]].

The earliest form of Malay literature was the [[oral literature]] and its central subjects are traditional [[folklore]] relating to [[nature]], animals and people. The classical Malay folklore is composed of traditional songs and music, heroic poems, animal fables, ghost stories, past events, fairy tales, symbolic lore, myths and bardic tales. Each of the stories possessed its own energy in terms of character, spirit, backdrop and storytelling and was largely crafted with the intend of happiness, guidance, educating, reminiscing, explaining, among few. The folklore were memorised and passed from one generation of storytellers to the next. Many of these tales were also written down by ''penglipur lara'' (storytellers) for example: ''[[Hikayat Malim Dewa]]'', ''Hikayat Malim Deman'', ''Hikayat Raja Donan'', ''Hikayat Anggun Cik Tunggal'', and ''[[Hikayat Awang Sulung Merah Muda]]''.

When Indian influences made their way to the Malay Archipelago around 2000 years ago, Malay literature began incorporating Indian elements. Literature of this time is mostly translations of [[Sanskrit literature]] and romances, or at least some productions inspired by such, and is full of allusions to [[Hindu mythology]]. Probably to this early time may be traced such works as ''[[Hikayat Seri Rama]]'' (a free translation of the ''[[Ramayana]]''), ''[[Hikayat Bayan Budiman]]'' (an adaptation of [[Śukasaptati]]) and ''[[Hikayat Panca Tanderan]]'' (an adaptation of ''[[Hitopadesha]]'').<ref name="popular science 1899">{{harvnb|Ford|1899|pp=379–381}}</ref>

The era of classical Malay literature started after the arrival of Islam and the invention of [[Jawi script]] (Arabic based Malay script). Since then, Islamic beliefs and concepts began to make its mark on Malay literature. The [[Terengganu Inscription Stone]], which is dated to 1303, is the earliest known narrative Malay writing. The stone is inscribed with an account of history, law, and [[romance (love)|romance]] in Jawi script.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish 2007 1218">{{harvnb|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1218}}</ref> At its height, the Malacca Sultanate was not only the center of Islamisation, but also the center of Malay cultural expressions including literature. During this era, notable [[Islamic literature|Middle Eastern literary works]] were translated and religious books were written in Malay language. Among famous translated works are ''[[Hikayat Muhammad Hanafiah]]'' and ''[[Hikayat Amir Hamzah]]''.

The rise of Malay literature during the period was also penned by other homegrown literary composition coloured by mystical [[Sufi]]sm of the middle-east, the notable works of [[Hamzah Fansuri]] such as ''Asrar al-Arifin'' (''Rahsia Orang yang Bijaksana;'' The Secret of the Wise), ''Sharab al-Asyikin'' (''Minuman Segala Orang yang Berahi;'' The Drink of All the Passionate) and ''Zinat al-Muwahidin'' (''Perhiasan Sekalian Orang yang Mengesakan;'' The Ornament of All the Devoted) can be seen as the [[Masterpiece|magna opera]] of the era.

[[File:Wayang Kulit Kelantan-Patani.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|A Kelantan-Patani styled [[Wayang Kulit]] ([[Shadow play]]) that narrated the heroic tale of [[Hikayat Seri Rama]]]] The most important piece of Malay literary works is perhaps the famed [[Malay Annals]] or Sulalatus Salatin. It was called "the most famous, distinctive and best of all Malay literary works" by one of the most prominent scholars in Malay studies, [[Richard Olaf Winstedt|Sir Richard O. Winstedt]].{{sfn|Boyd|1999|p=756}} The exact date of its composition and the identity of its original author are uncertain, but under the order of [[Alauddin Riayat Shah III|Sultan Alauddin Riaayat Shah III]] of Johor in 1612, [[Tun Sri Lanang]] oversaw the editorial and compilation process of the Malay Annals.{{sfn|Jaaffar|Hussain|Ahmad|1992|p=260}}

In the 19th century, the Malay literature received some notable additions, including ''Kitab Ilmu Bedil'' (Book of Traditional Weaponry) that provides valuable details of traditional Malay ammunition and weaponry. The era also witnessed the wider usage of Malay [[General medical journal|medical journals]], known as ''Kitab Tib''. These works are indeed important as it serve as references to the Malay knowledge and technology during the classical era.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kitab Ilmu Bedil – Book of Malay Traditional Weaponry (2016) |date=10 July 2016 |website=The Memory of the World Committee for Asia and the Pacific |url=http://www.mowcapunesco.org/register/kitab-ilmu-bedil-ms-101-or-book-of-malay-traditional-weaponry-2016/ |access-date=3 December 2017 |archive-date=3 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203224429/http://www.mowcapunesco.org/register/kitab-ilmu-bedil-ms-101-or-book-of-malay-traditional-weaponry-2016/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Other 19th century Malay texts were written in Sumatra, these include the ''Kitab Pengetahuan Bahasa'' (Book of Linguistic Knowledge) by Raja Ali Haji and ''Perhimpunan Gunawan bagi Laki-Laki dan Perempuan'' (A Compendium of Charms for Men and Women) by Khatijah Terung, a wife of Raja Haji Abdullah bin Raja Hassan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Mohd Faizal |date=2021 |title=Transcripts of Gender, Intimacy, and Islam in Southeast Asia: The "Outrageous" Texts of Raja Ali Haji and Khatijah Terung |journal=Religions |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |page=219 |doi=10.3390/rel12030219 |issn=2077-1444|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The same century also witnessed a monumental shift in the Malay literature through writings of [[Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir]], a famous [[Malacca]]-born [[munshi]] of [[Singapore]].<ref name="popular science 1899" /> Abdullah is regarded as the most cultured Malay who ever wrote,<ref name="popular science 1899" /> one of the greatest innovators in Malay letters<ref name="Sneddon 2003 59"/> and the father of modern Malay literature.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish 2007 1218"/> His most important works are the ''[[Hikayat Abdullah]]'' (an autobiography), ''[[Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Kelantan]]'' (an account of his trip for the government to [[Kelantan]]), and ''[[Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Mekah]]'' (a narrative of his [[hajj|pilgrimage]] to [[Mecca]] 1854). His work was an inspiration to future generations of writers and marks an early stage in the transition from classical Malay literature to modern Malay literature.<ref name="Sneddon 2003 59"/>

===Religion=== {{see also|Malay Islamic identity}} [[File:Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque 02.jpg|thumb|[[Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque]] in [[Brunei]] on the eve of [[Ramadhan]]. The wealthy kingdom adopted [[Melayu Islam Beraja]] (''Malay Islamic Monarchy'') as the national philosophy since its independence in 1984.]] The early Malay communities were largely [[animist]]s, believing in the existence of ''semangat'' (spirits) in everything.<ref name="zaki1" /> Around the opening of the [[common era]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] were introduced by South Asian traders to the Malay Archipelago, where they flourished until the 13th century, just before the arrival of Islam brought by Arab, South Asian and Chinese Muslim traders.

In the 15th century, Islam of the orthodox [[Sunni]] sect flourished in the Malay world under the Malacca Sultanate. In contrast with Hinduism, which superficially transformed early Malay society, Islam can be said to have been fully integrated into the daily life of the population.<ref name="Syed">{{harvnb|Syed Husin Ali|2008|p=57}}</ref> Since this era, the Malays are considered as [[ethnoreligious group]] and traditionally had a close identification with Islam{{sfn|Johns|Lahoud|2005|p=157}} and they have not changed their religion since.<ref name="Syed" /> This identity is so strong that it is said to become Muslim was to ''[[Malayisation|masuk Melayu]]'' (to enter Malayness).{{sfn|Andaya|Andaya|1984|p=55}}

Nevertheless, the earlier beliefs having deeper roots, they have maintained themselves against the anathemas of Islam – and indeed [[Sufism]] [[mysticism]] have become intertwined among the Malays, with the spirits of the earlier animistic world and some elements of Hinduism.{{sfn|Winstedt|1925|p=125}} Following the 1970s, [[Islamic revival]] (also referred as re-[[Islamisation]]{{sfn|Burgat|2003|p=54}}) throughout the [[Muslim world]], many traditions that are regarded as contravene the teachings of Islam and contain elements of [[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]] were abandoned by the Malays in Malaysia, whereas in among Malays in Indonesia, these traditions are not considered as superstitious and containing elements of [[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]. Among these traditions was the ''[[Mandi (bath)|mandi]] safar'' festival ([[Safar]] bath), a bathing festival to achieve spiritual purity, which can be discerned features similar to some of those of the [[Durga Puja]] of India.{{sfn|Bolton|Hutton|2000|p=184}}

A vast majority of modern ethnic Malays are the adherents of [[Sunni]] Islam<ref>{{cite web |title=The Malay of Malaysia |publisher=Bethany World Prayer Center |url=http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |access-date=28 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010191042/http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/p_code3/1892.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> and the most important Malay festivals are those of [[Muslim holidays|Islamic origin]] — ''[[Eid ul-Fitr|Hari Raya Aidilfitri]]'', ''[[Eid al-Adha|Hari Raya Aidiladha]]'', ''[[Islamic New Year|Awal Muharram]]'', and ''[[Mawlid|Maulidur Rasul]]''. It is considered [[apostasy]] for Malays to convert out of Islam in Malaysia and Brunei. However, there are a number of ethnic Malays living outside of these countries have also embraced other religions legally under the law.

===Architecture=== {{See also|Rumah Melayu}} [[File:Malacca Sultanate Palace Museum 1.jpg|thumb|Replica of the [[Malacca Sultanate]]'s Palace, which was built from information and data obtained from the [[Malay Annals]]. This historical document had references to the construction and the architecture of palaces during the era of [[Mansur Shah of Malacca|Sultan Mansur Shah]], who ruled from 1458 to 1477.]] Various cultural influences, notably [[Culture of China|Chinese]], Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming Malay architecture.{{sfn|Henket|Heynen|2002|p=181}} Until recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malay traditional buildings.<ref name="MC1219">{{harvnb|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1219}}</ref> However, numerous stone structures were also discovered particularly the religious complexes from the time of [[Srivijaya]] and ancient [[Kra Isthmus|isthmian]] Malay kingdoms.

[[Candi Muara Takus]] and [[Candi Muaro Jambi]] in [[Sumatra]] are among the examples that associated with the architectural elements of Srivijaya Empire. However, Srivijayan architecture was mostly represented at [[Chaiya]] (now a province in [[Thailand]]) in the Malay Peninsula, which was an important centre during the Srivijaya period.{{sfn|Chihara|1996|p=213}}{{sfn|Van Beek|Invernizzi|1999|p=75}} The type of structure consists of a cell-chamber to house the [[Buddha image]] and the summit of structure was erected in the form of ''[[stupa]]'' with successive, superimposed terraces which is the best example at ''Wat Pra Borom That'' of Chaiya.{{sfn|Jermsawatdi|1989|p=65}}

There is also evidence of Hindu shrines or ''[[Candi of Indonesia|Candi]]'' around south [[Kedah]] between the [[mount Jerai]] and the [[Muda River]] valley, an area known as [[Bujang Valley]]. Within an area of about 350 square kilometres, 87 early historic religious sites have been reported and there are 12 ''candis'' located on mountain tops, a feature which suggests may derive from pre-historic Malay beliefs regarding sanctity of high places.{{sfn|O'Reilly|2007|p=42}}

[[File:Pintu Istana Setul Mambang Segara.jpg|thumb|A wall panel adorned with various floral motives from the [[Kingdom of Setul Mambang Segara|Setul Mambang Segara]] palatial residence as seen in the [[National Museum (Malaysia)|Muzium Negara]]. Setul was a historical Malay kingdom that existed between 1808 and 1915 in the northern Malay Peninsula.]] Early reference on Malay architecture in the Malay Peninsula can be found in several Chinese records. A 7th-century Chinese account tells of Buddhist pilgrims calling at [[Langkasuka]] and mentioned the city as being surrounded by a wall on which towers had been built and was approached through double gates.{{sfn|Jamil Abu Bakar|2002|p=59}} Another 7th-century account of a special Chinese envoy to [[Red Earth Kingdom]] in the Malay Peninsula, recorded that the capital city had three gates more than a hundred paces apart, which were decorated with paintings of Buddhist themes and female spirits.{{sfn|Mohamad Tajuddin Haji Mohamad Rasdi|2005|p=19}}

The first detailed description of Malay architecture was on the great wooden ''[[wikt:istana#Noun 3|Istana]]'' of [[Mansur Shah of Malacca]] (reigned 1458–1477).<ref name="MC1219" /> According to [[Sejarah Melayu]], the building had a raised seven bay structures on wooden pillars with a seven tiered roof in cooper shingles and decorated with gilded spires and Chinese glass mirrors.{{sfn|Mohamad Tajuddin Haji Mohamad Rasdi|2005|p=24}}

The traditional [[Malay houses]] are built using simple [[Timber framing|timber-frame]] structure. They have pitched roofs, [[porch]]es in the front, high ceilings, many openings on the walls for [[ventilation (architecture)|ventilation]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmad |first=A. Ghafar |title=Malay Vernacular Architecture |url= http://www.hbp.usm.my/conservation/malayvernacular.htm |access-date=24 June 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100610190114/http://www.hbp.usm.my/conservation/malayvernacular.htm |archive-date=10 June 2010 }}</ref> and are often embellished with elaborate [[wood carvings]]. The beauty and quality of Malay wood carvings were meant to serve as visual indicators of the social rank and status of the owners themselves.{{sfn|Noor|Khoo|2003|p=47}} The [[Salinger House]], which won the 1998 Aga Khan Architectural Award, is a modern example of this traditional design.<ref name="Steele 187-188">{{cite book |last1=Steele |first1=James |url=https://archive.org/details/greenwoodencyclo0000stee/page/186/mode/2up?q=%22salinger+house%22 |title=The Greenwood encyclopedia of homes through world history: Volume 3 |date=2009 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-33791-8 |pages=187–188 |access-date=19 July 2025}}</ref><ref name="Jantan et. al. 16-17">{{cite book |last1=Jantan |first1=Amer Hamzah |url=https://archive.org/details/malaysiasingapor0000mala/page/16/mode/2up?q=%22Rudinara%22 |title=Malaysia, Singapore, and ASEAN in an age of globalisation |last2=Said |first2=Hassan |last3=Bajunid |first3=Ibrahim Ahmad |last4=Ismail |first4=Ibrahim |last5=Talib |first5=Shaharil |last6=Ahmad |first6=Shamsulbahriah Ku |date=2002 |publisher=Asia-Europe Institute, University of Malaya |isbn=983-2085-42-X |pages=16–17 |access-date=19 July 2025}}</ref>

Throughout many decades, the traditional Malay architecture has been influenced by [[Bugis]] and [[Joglo|Java]] from the south, [[Architecture of Thailand|Siamese]], [[Architecture of the United Kingdom|British]], [[Islamic architecture|Arab]] and [[Architecture of India|Indian]] from the north, [[Architecture of Portugal|Portuguese]], [[Architecture of the Netherlands|Dutch]], [[Rumah Aceh|Aceh]] and [[Rumah Gadang|Minangkabau]] from the west and [[Chinese architecture|Southern Chinese]] from the east.<ref>{{cite web |title=For Sale – CountryHeights |work=The Art of Living Show |date=22 March 2011 |via=YouTube |url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ZCHUMYs2CM |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/7ZCHUMYs2CM| archive-date=12 December 2021 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

===Visual art=== [[File:Burung Petala Indera I.png|thumb|[[Burung Petala Indra]], a giant mythical bird constructed for the grand [[circumcision]] parade of the [[Kelantan]]ese prince]] Wood carving is a part of classical Malay [[visual arts]]. The Malays had traditionally adorned their monuments, boats, weapons, tombs, musical instrument, and utensils by motives of flora, calligraphy, geometry and cosmic features. The art is done by partially removing the wood using sharp tools and following specific patterns, composition and orders. The art form, known as ''ukir'', is hailed as an act of devotion of the craftsmen to the creator and a gift to his fellowmen.{{sfn|Said|2005}}

The art form is mainly attributed to the abundance of timber on the [[Malay Archipelago]] and also by the skilfulness of the woodcarvers that have allowed the Malays to practice woodcarving as a craft. The natural tropical settings where flora and fauna are abundant has inspired the motives to be depicted in abstract or stylised form into the timber board. With the coming of Islam, geometric and [[Islamic calligraphy]] form were introduced in the wood carving. The woods used are typically from tropical hardwood species which is known to be durable and can resist the attacks of fungi, power-boots beetles and termites.{{sfn|Said|2002}}

A typical Malay traditional houses or mosque would have been adorned with more than 20 carved components. The carving on the walls and the panels allow the air breeze to circulate effectively in and out of the building and can let the sunlight illuminate the interior of the structure. At the same time, the shadow cast by the panels would also create a shadow based on the motives adding the beauty on the floor. Thus, the carved components perform both functional and aesthetic purposes.

===Pottery=== [[File:Sayong.jpg|thumb|An ebony-coloured ''[[Labu Sayong]]'', a classic Malay [[jar]] from [[Kuala Kangsar]], [[Perak]], Malaysia]] Under the Malay culture, [[pottery]] is not solely witnessed as a mere household [[List of eating utensils|utensil]]. It is perceived as a work of [[art]], a paradigm of talent, embroidered with aesthetic, legacy, perseverance and religious devotion. The Malay earthen is usually unglazed, with the ornamental designs were carved when the pottery is semi-dried during its construction process.<ref name="Travel Malaysia 2012">{{cite web |title= Malaysian Handicraft – Pottery |website= Go2Travelmalaysia.com |url= http://go2travelmalaysia.com/tour_malaysia/pottery.htm |access-date= 22 November 2017 |archive-date= 21 November 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171121031048/http://go2travelmalaysia.com/tour_malaysia/pottery.htm |url-status= live }}</ref>

According to several studies,<ref name="Azmi Arifin 2015">{{harvnb|Azmi Arifin|2015}}</ref> the native Malay pottery industry has developed indigenously from the period of great antiquity and has since encapsulates a high-level of culture sophistication. It also has been noted that the design features of the Malay pottery suggested the absence of the [[globalisation|foreign influence]] prior to the 19th century, a paradox considering the vast cultural contact between the Malays and the outside world.<ref name="Azmi Arifin 2015"/>

Among the renowned traditional Malay pottery includes ''Mambong'' of [[Kelantan]], moulded from clay and identified with the colour of [[terracotta]]. It is usually assumed the form as cooking utensils. In the west coast, the raven-coloured ''[[Labu Sayong]]'' of [[Kuala Kangsar]] is honoured for gourd-formed jars. There are also several variants of ''Labu'', including ''Labu Tela, Labu Kepala, Labu Gelugor Tela'' and ''Labu Gelugor Kepala''.<ref name="Travel Malaysia 2012"/>

Other forms of Malay traditional pottery are: The ''Belanga'', commonly in a wide rim and a round base, the pot usually mobilised to cook [[curries]]. It is held that the structure of the earthen would aid the heat to be evenly distributed, correlating to its round base. A smaller version of the ''Belanga'' is called ''periok'', used for [[rice]]-preparation; The ''Buyong'', commonly defined by a straight collar and a spherical body, oftentime used as a water jar; The ''Terenang'', the angular ''Terenang'' is used as a canister, especially in the coastal Malay regions of [[Kelantan]], [[Pattani Province|Patani]] and [[Terengganu]]; The ''Bekas Bara'', a small container, usually crafted for the use of [[incense]]; The ''Jambangan'', a traditional Malay [[vase]], usually for aesthetic purposes and ''Geluk'', a small water storage.{{sfn|Cikgu Paklong|2017}}

===Cuisine=== {{Main|Malay cuisine}}

[[File:ASAM PEDAS IKAN PARI.jpg|thumb|''[[Asam pedas]]'', a sour and spicy ''[[gulai]]'']] Malay cuisine is characterised by the extensive use of aromatic spices, coconut milk, fermented ingredients and fresh herbs, resulting in dishes with complex and robust flavour profiles. Representative components of the cuisine include ''[[gulai]]'' (spiced coconut-based stews), ''[[asam pedas]]'' (sour and spicy stews), ''[[ketupat]]'' (compressed rice cakes commonly associated with festive consumption), ''[[nasi minyak]]'' (spiced rice dish prepared with ghee), ''[[rendang]]'' (slow-cooked spiced meat), ''[[sambal]]'' (chilli-based condiments), ''[[Krupuk|keropok]]'' (fish or shrimp crackers), traditional ''[[kuih]]'' (bite-sized cakes and sweets), ''[[dodol]]'' (sweet coconut-based confections) and fermented preparations such as ''[[Pekasam|perkasam]]''.

While sharing a common culinary foundation, regional Malay cuisines exhibit considerable variation shaped by geography, local agricultural resources, trade networks and historical interactions. Distinct regional specialities include ''[[nasi dagang]]'', ''[[nasi kerabu]]'' and ''[[keropok lekor]]'' in [[Patani (historical region)|Pattani]], [[Terengganu]] and [[Kelantan]]; [[Pahang]] and [[Perak]] for its [[durian]]-based cuisine, ''[[gulai]] [[tempoyak]]''; [[Kedah]] and [[Penang]] for their northern-style ''[[asam laksa]]'' and ''[[Pasembur|rojak]]''; [[Satun]] and [[Perlis]] for its ''bunga kuda'' dessert; [[Negeri Sembilan]] for its ''lemak''-based dishes; [[Malacca]] for their spicy ''[[cincalok]]''; [[Singapore]] for their ''[[rojak bandung]]'' and ''[[roti prata]]''; [[Riau]] for its ''ikan patin'' (''[[Pangasius]]'' fish) dishes, ''[[gulai]] [[Pangasius|ikan patin]]'' and ''[[asam pedas]] [[Pangasius|ikan patin]]''; [[Riau Islands]] for their ''sup ikan''; Deli Malays of [[North Sumatra]] for their ''[[nasi goreng]] [[Anchovy|teri]] medan'' and ''[[gulai]] [[Crab#Cookery|ketam]]'';{{sfn|Winarno|2010}} [[Jambi]] for its ''ikan mas panggang'' and ''[[tempoyak]]''; [[Palembang people|Palembangese Malays]] of [[South Sumatra]] for their ''[[pempek]]'', ''[[Mie celor|mi celor]]'' and ''[[nasi minyak]]''; [[Bangka Belitung]] for its ''[[Laevistrombus canarium|siput gonggong]]'' and ''[[apam balik|terang bulan]]''; [[West Kalimantan]] and [[Sarawak]] for its ''[[bubur pedas]]'' and ''[[ayam pansuh]]''; and [[Brunei]] for their [[Nasi katok]] and unique ''[[ambuyat]]'' dish.

The main characteristic in traditional Malay cuisine is undoubtedly the generous use of spices. [[Coconut milk]] is also important in giving the Malay dishes their rich, creamy character. The other foundation is ''[[belacan]]'' (shrimp paste), which is used as a base for ''sambal'', a rich sauce or condiment made from belacan, [[Chili pepper|chillies]], onions and garlic. Malay cooking also makes plentiful use of [[lemongrass]] and [[galangal]].{{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=58}}

Nearly every Malay meal is served with rice, the [[staple food]] in many other East Asian cultures. Although there are various type of dishes in a Malay meal, all are served at once, not in courses. Food is eaten delicately with the fingers of right hand, never with the left which is used for personal ablutions, and Malays rarely use utensils.{{sfn|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1222}} Because most of Malay people are Muslims, Malay cuisine follows Islamic [[halal]] dietary law rigorously. Protein intake are mostly taken from beef, water buffalo, goat, and lamb meat, and also includes poultry and fishes. Pork and any non-halal meats, also alcohol is prohibited and absent from Malay daily diet.

[[Nasi lemak]], rice cooked in rich [[coconut milk]] probably is the most popular dish ubiquitous in Malay town and villages. Nasi lemak is considered as [[Malaysia]]'s [[national dish]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Nasi Lemak |website= Malaysia.com |url= http://www.malaysia.com/nasi-lemak-food.html |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150511161416/http://malaysia.com/nasi-lemak-food.html |archive-date=11 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> While ''Nasi Minyak'' and ''Nasi Hujan Panas'', rice broiled with ghee and spices is hailed as a ceremonial dish for special occasions, especially during the traditional Malay weddings.

===Performing arts=== [[File:KITLV - 3676 - Lambert & Co., G.R. - Singapore - Mahjong dance and drama at Penang Island - circa 1903.tif|thumb|A troupe of [[Thai Malays|Siamese Malay]] dancers performing the [[Mak Yong]] (c. 19th century). In 2005, it received recognition as being among the [[Intangible cultural heritage|masterpieces of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity]] by [[UNESCO]].]] The Malays have diverse kinds of music and dance which are fusions of different cultural influences. Typical genres range from traditional Malay folk dances dramas like [[Mak Yong]] to the Arab-influenced [[Zapin]] dances. Choreographed movements also vary from simple steps and tunes in [[Dikir barat]] to the complicated moves in [[Joget]] [[Gamelan]].

Traditional Malay music is basically percussive. Various kinds of [[gongs]] provide the beat for many dances. There are also drums of various sizes, ranging from the large ''rebana ubi'' used to punctuate important events to the small ''jingled-rebana'' ([[frame drum]]) used as an accompaniment to vocal recitations in religious ceremonies.{{sfn|Moore|1998|p=48}}

[[Royal Regalia of Malaysia#Nobat|Nobat]] music became part of the [[Royal Regalia]] of Malay courts since the arrival of Islam in the 12th century and only performed in important court ceremonies. Its orchestra includes the sacred and highly revered instruments of ''nehara'' ([[kettledrums]]), ''gendang'' (double-headed drums), ''nafiri'' (trumpet), ''serunai'' ([[oboe]]), and sometimes a knobbed [[gong]] and a pair of [[cymbals]].{{sfn|Marshall Cavendish|2007|p=1220}}

Indian influences are strong in a traditional [[shadow play]] known as [[Wayang Kulit]] where stories from Hindu epics; [[Ramayana]] & [[Mahabharata]] form the main repertoire. There are four distinctive types of shadow puppet theatre that can be found in Malay Peninsula; ''Wayang Gedek'', ''Wayang Purwa'', ''Wayang Melayu'' and ''Wayang Siam''.{{sfn|Srinivasa|2003|p=296}}{{sfn|Ghulam Sarwar Yousof|1997|p=3}}{{sfn|Matusky|1993|pp=8–11}} Nonetheless, the art and the storytelling of ''Wayang Purwa'' and ''Wayang Siam'' denote a regional influence in fused with the Javanese and Siamese respectively, while ''Wayang Melayu'' and ''Wayang Gedek'' narrated a more autochthonously Malay form and fashion.

Other well-known Malay performing arts are; ''[[Bangsawan]]'' theatre, ''[[Dondang Sayang]]'' love ballad and ''[[Mak Inang]]'' dance from Malacca Sultanate, ''[[Jikey]]'' and ''[[Mek Mulung]]'' theatre from [[Kedah]], ''[[Asyik]]'' dance and ''[[Menora (dance)|Menora]]'' dance drama from [[Patani (historical region)|Patani]] and [[Kelantan]], ''[[Ulek mayang]]'' and ''[[Rodat (dance)|Rodat]]'' dance from Terengganu, ''[[Boria (theatre)|Boria]]'' theatre from [[Penang]], ''Canggung'' dance from [[Perlis]], ''Mukun'' narrative songs from [[Brunei]] and [[Sarawak]],{{sfn|Marzuki bin Haji Mohd Seruddin|2009}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Seni Bermukun Semakin Malap |website=Mysarawak.org |date=20 April 2009 |url= http://www.mysarawak.org/2009/04/20/seni-bermukun-semakin-malap.html |access-date=15 June 2012 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120906041730/http://www.mysarawak.org/2009/04/20/seni-bermukun-semakin-malap.html |archive-date=6 September 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Ahmad Salehuddin 2009">{{harvnb|Ahmad Salehuddin|2009}}</ref> [[Gending Sriwijaya]] from [[Palembang]], ''Serampang Dua Belas'' dance from [[Sultanate of Serdang|Serdang]].<ref name="Ahmad Salehuddin 2009"/>[[Zapin Api|Zapin Api firedance]] from [[Riau]] and [[Dikir barat Singapura]] from [[Singapore]].

===Traditional dress=== [[File:HariRayaMalaykids.jpg|thumb|right|Malay children wearing traditional dress during [[Eid al-Fitr]]]] {{Main|Baju Melayu|Baju Kurung}}

The traditional Malay apparel and textile has been continuously morphed since the time of antiquity. Historically, the ancient Malays were chronicled to incorporate various natural materials as a vital source for fabrics, clothing and attire. The common era however, witnessing the early arrivals the merchants from east and west to the harbours of Malay Archipelago, together they bought new luxurious items, including fine cotton and silks. The garments subsequently become a source of high Malay fashion and acquired a cultural role as the binding identity in the archipelago, especially in the peninsula, Sumatra and the coastal areas of Borneo.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

In Malay culture, clothes and textiles are revered as symbols of beauty, power and status. Numerous accounts in [[List of Hikayat|Malay hikayats]] stressed the special place occupied by textiles.{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=2}} The Malay handloom industry can be traced its origin since the 13th century when the eastern trade route flourished under [[Song dynasty]]. Mentions of locally made textiles as well as the predominance of weaving in the [[Malay Peninsula]] were made in various Chinese and Arab accounts.{{sfn|Maznah Mohammad|1996|p=19}} Among well-known Malay textiles are [[Songket]], [[Malaysian batik|Batik]], ''Telepok'', ''Limar'', ''Tenun'', ''Kelingkam'', ''Cindai'', ''Pelangi'' and ''Tekad''.

Classical Malay dress varies between different regions, but the most profound traditional dress in modern-day are Baju Kurung (for women) and Baju Melayu (for men), which both recognised as the national dress for Malaysia and Brunei, and also worn by Malay communities in Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Myanmar and Thailand.

The word ''Baju Kurung'', literary defined as "encase the body" of the wearer is tailored based on the Islamic principles of modesty, decency and humility. The practice is parallel to the [[Judaeo-Christian]] religious doctrine, as flaunting the [[Intimate parts in Islam|intimate body parts]] is considered as forbidden in Islam. The interpretation was then absorbed to the Malay way of dressing and cultural perspective, this can be strongly witnessed upon the rule of [[Mansur Shah of Malacca]] in the 15th century, the sultan prohibited his female Muslim subjects in the public from wearing only a sarong from the bust downwards. Throughout the ages, The Malay Baju Kurung went into several reincarnation before assuming its current form. Due to the vastness of various Malay kingdoms in the [[Malay Archipelago|archipelago]], local and distinct forms of the Baju Kurung design patterns can also be witnessed in the region, including Bengkulu, Kedah, Jambi, Johor-Riau, Pahang and Palembang.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

The corresponding mode of Baju Kurung for men is known as "Baju Melayu". The upper part of the garment was made with the geometrical design almost similar with Baju Kurung and commonly paired with woven cloth known as the sarong. The pattern of the sarong may possessed a symbol of the person's marital status or the rank in the classical Malay society.{{sfn|Hassan|2016}}

Other common classical Malay attire for men consists of a ''baju'' (shirt) or ''tekua'' (a type of a long sleeve shirt), ''baju rompi'' (vest), ''kancing'' (button), a small leg ''celana'' (trousers), a [[sarong]] worn around the waist, ''capal'' (sandal), and a ''tanjak'' or ''tengkolok'' ([[headgear]]); for the aristocrats, the ''baju sikap'' or ''baju layang'' (a type of coat) and ''pending'' (ornamental belt buckle) are also synonymous to be worn as a formal attire. It was also common for a ''pendekar'' (Malay warrior) to have a [[Kris]] tucked into the front fold of sarong.

In contrast to Baju Melayu which continued to be worn as ceremonial dress only, Baju Kurung is worn daily throughout the year by a majority of Malay women. Sighting of female civil servants, professional workers and students wearing Baju Kurung is common in Malaysia and Brunei.

===Festivals and celebrations=== [[File:Majlis Tujuh Likor Pasang Pelita.jpg|thumb|Rows of Pelita ([[oil lamps]]) lighted during ''Malam Tujuh Likur'' (the 27th night of [[Ramadhan]]), the oil lamps are traditionally used to illuminate homes and the streets during the Ramadhan. Seen here in [[Muar town|Muar]], Johor, Malaysia.]] The rise of [[Islam]] managed to [[ethnogenesis|redefine]] the [[Malayness|Malay identity]] by the 15th century. Thus, resulting most of the Malay festivals and celebrations to run parallel with the [[Islamic calendar]], albeit deeply ingrained with a strong sense of [[Malayisation|Malay character]]. The biannual [[Hari Raya]] (lit "the Great Day") observance of [[Aildifitri]] and [[Aidiladha]] are hailed as the grand celebrations universally across the Malay community. The two holidays are instrumental to commentate two major events and philosophy in the Islamic teaching and beliefs. The former signifies the triumph as a Muslim after a month of [[Fasting in Islam|fasting]] and patience in [[Ramadan]], while the latter is to observe the sacrifice made by [[Abraham in Islam|Ibrahim]] (Abraham) under the name of [[Allah]].

The ''Raya'' holidays usually commenced during the [[wikt:homecoming|homecoming]] event known as [[Balik Kampung]] or ''Balik Raya'' which occurred a few days before the festival. During the Hari Raya, the Malays would celebrated by performing the [[Eid prayers]], holding a grand feast and visiting friends, relatives and neighbours. A visit to the grave of the departed loved ones is also essential, as a sign of respect, love and honour.

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Plechtigheden bij de kroning van de Sultan van Deli in 1925 op de troon de sultan en zijn echtgenote met aan weerszijden de rijkssieraden TMnr 10001572.jpg|thumb|The coronation ceremony between Tengku Otteman, as the ''Tengku Mahkota'' (Crown Prince) of [[Sultanate of Deli|Deli Sultanate]], [[Dutch East Indies]]; with his wife, Raja Amnah, a member of [[Perak Sultanate|Perak Royalty]] as ''Tengku Puan Indera'' in 1925]] Other major liturgical and religious ceremonies celebrated by the Malays include [[Ramadhan]], a month-long holy month devoted by daytime fasting and various religious activities; [[Maulidur Rasul]], a special grand procession to honour the birth of [[Muhammad]]; [[Ashura]], remembrance of [[Muharram]] where the Malays would solemnly prepared a special dish, known as ''Bubur Ashura''; [[Nisfu Syaaban]], the Mid-[[Sha'ban]] observance, a special day of [[fasting]] for forgiveness; [[Nuzul Quran]], the first revelation of the [[Quran]]; [[Israk dan Mikraj]], the ascension of Muhammad to the heavens and [[Awal Muharram]], the Islamic New Year; the latter three celebrations are usually observed by holding a special ''sunat'' prayers, religious lectures and Islamic discussions in the [[mosque]].

There are also a plethora of domestic regional cultural festivals and social events within different the Malay spheres. The coastal areas were historically known to observed the ''Mandi Safar'' or ''Puja Pantai'' ceremony, a purifying bath during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of [[Safar]], originally emulated from the ancient pre-Islamic Malay holy cleansing rituals, akin to the [[Belimau]] tradition before Ramadan; and ''Pesta Menuai'', a [[harvest festival]] celebrated by the inland and agrarian Malay communities by traditional games, theatre, [[Joget]] and other repertoire of dance-play. However, both of the practice is gradually extinct owing from various social and economic revolution engineered in the Malay community in the 20th century. Additionally, many Malays are also known to participate in the imperial celebrations to honour the royal courts of their respective kingdoms.

The Islamic features also strongly embroidered the Malay celebrations in the individual level, a juxtaposition bonded to the spiritual [[rite of passage]] as a Muslim. The Malays would usually organised ''kenduri'', a religious ceremonial banquet to celebrate or to seek blessing for an event. There are several philosophical variations of kenduri, raging from ''Doa Selamat'' (asking for divine favour and protection), ''Kesyukuran'' (for thanksgiving and gratitude), ''Melenggang Perut'' (ceremonial massage for a mother who is pregnant with her first child), ''Aqiqah'' and ''Cukur Jambul'' (newborn ceremony, for celebrating a new life), ''Bertindik'' (the first piercing ceremony for a female child), ''Khatam'' (a graduation ceremony, after a child's first full-reading of the [[Quran]]), ''Khatan'' ([[circumcision]]), ''Kahwin'' ([[wedding]]), ''Arwah'' or ''Tahlil'' (prayers for a deceased person), among few. The event is usually organised by the family and was traditionally aided by the community in a social gathering known as ''Rewang'' or ''Gotong-royong''. During this ceremony, the whole family would be assisted by their neighbours and relatives, delegating various tasks raging from food preparations, venue management, logistic assembly and other technical control. Nevertheless, following the rise of [[urbanism]] in the contemporary Malay community, the practice of ''Rewang/Gotong-Royong'' is gradually superseded by hired-[[catering|caterer]] services by the family.

===Martial arts=== [[File:Singaporean female pesilat - 20080222.jpg|thumb|A female silat practitioner from [[Singapore]]]] {{Main|Silat|Silat Melayu}}

Silat and its variants can be found throughout the Malay world: the [[Malay Peninsula]] (including [[Singapore]]), the [[Riau Islands]], [[Sumatra]] and coastal areas of [[Borneo]]. Archaeological evidence reveals that, by the 6th century, formalised combat arts were being practised in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.{{sfn|James|1994|p=73}} The earliest forms of Silat are believed to have been developed and used in the armed forces of the ancient Malay kingdoms of [[Langkasuka]] (2nd century){{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=225}}{{sfn|Abd. Rahman Ismail|2008|p=188}} and Srivijaya (7th century).

The influence of the Malay sultanates of Malacca, [[Johor Sultanate|Johor]], [[Pattani Kingdom|Pattani]] and [[Brunei Sultanate|Brunei]] has contributed to the spread of this martial art in the Malay Archipelago. Through a complex maze of sea channels and river capillaries that facilitated exchange and trade throughout the region, Silat wound its way into the dense rainforest and up into the mountains. The legendary [[Laksamana]] [[Hang Tuah]] of Malacca is one of the most renowned ''pesilat'' (Silat practitioners) in history{{sfn|Green|2001|p=802}} and even considered by some as the father of Malay silat.{{sfn|Sheikh Shamsuddin|2005|p=195}} Since the classical era, [[Silat Melayu]] underwent great diversification and formed what is today traditionally recognised as the source of Indonesian [[Pencak Silat]] and other forms of Silat in Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Draeger|1992|p=23}}{{sfn|Farrer|2009|p=28}}

Apart from Silat, [[Muay Thai|Tomoi]] is also practised by Malays, mainly in the northern region of the Malay Peninsula. It is a variant of [[Indochina|Indo-Chinese]] forms of [[kickboxing]] which is believed to have been spread in the Southeast Asian mainland since the time of [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan Empire]] (68 CE).

===Metal working=== [[File:Bunga Mas (Muzium Negara).jpg|thumb|The [[Bunga Mas]], [[National Museum of Malaysia]]. The ''Bunga Mas'' was offered by the northern Malay states of [[Terengganu]], [[Kelantan]], [[Kedah]], [[Patani Kingdom|Pattani]], [[Nong Chik District|Nong Chik]], [[Yala Province|Yala]], [[Ra-ngae District|Rangae]], [[Kubang Pasu Darul Qiyam|Kubang Pasu]] and [[Kingdom of Setul Mambang Segara|Setul]] to the King of [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] ([[Siam]]) as a symbol of allegiance.]] Upon the turn of the 17th century, gold, silver, [[iron]] and [[brass]] have all been perfectly moulded to become part and parcel to the Malay society. The era witnessed the works of metal received a critical royal patronage. A multitude of Malay metalworks manifested as evidence of this era, raging from a peculiar Malay dagger known as [[Keris]] made of iron, down to the elaborate fine [[jewellery]] made from gold and silver. For the Malay nobles during this period, the works of pending (ornamental [[Belt buckle]] embellished with [[precious stones]]), ''keronsang'' (brooch) and ''cucuk sanggul'' (hairpins) were staged to become among the most sought item of fashion. The era also hosted a number of other prominent items in the Malay regalia cast in gold, including ceremonial box, ''Tepak sirih'' (Betel container) and parts of Keris. The art of working gold was predominantly done by [[repoussé]] and [[Granulation (process)|granulation]] techniques, in which the traditional methods can still be witnessed today. In the contemporary era, Malay gold jewels are mainly found in the form of anklets, bracelets, rings, necklaces, pendants and earrings.<ref name="Malaysia Handicrafts ~ Gold Silver & Brass 2011">{{cite web |title= Malaysia Handicrafts ~ Gold Silver & Brass |website= Go2Travelmalaysia.com |url= http://go2travelmalaysia.com/tour_malaysia/gold_silv.htm |access-date= 31 May 2018 |archive-date= 19 May 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180519135144/http://go2travelmalaysia.com/tour_malaysia/gold_silv.htm |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="Karyaneka 2013">{{cite web |last=Karyaneka |title=Metal Work |publisher=Syarikat Pemasaran Karyaneka Sdn. Bhd. |url= http://www.karyaneka.com.my/english/tablet/metal-work.html |access-date=31 May 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180324135832/http://www.karyaneka.com.my/english/tablet/metal-work.html |archive-date=24 March 2018 }}</ref>

For the Malay silverware, the works of silver are fairly known for its sophisticated and fine designs. It is usually crafted by repousse, [[filigree]] and [[niello]] techniques. The common traditional Malay items usually made of silver include pillow ends, belt buckles, matt corners, stoppers for water vessels, Keris sheaths and tobacco boxes. The ''Awan Larat'' (cloud patterns) and ''Kerawang'' (Vegetal motives) are among the popular designs for Malay decorative silver pillow ends and tobacco boxes.<ref name="Malaysia Handicrafts ~ Gold Silver & Brass 2011"/>

The usage of brassware transcends a plethora of classical Malay social classes, being used by the members of nobility and commoners alike. The popularity of brassware is heavily contributed due to its durability, quality and affordability to all. The brassware can be narrowed into two distinctions, yellow brass for functional items and white for [[Ornamental brassware|decorative purposes]]. It is often meticulously hammered and craved with various decorative designs in [[Islamic arts|religious]] and floral motives. The usage of brass however, is best known for [[Tepak Sireh]], a ceremonial tray for betel quid and for constructing certain musical instruments such as [[Gong]]s for the classical Malay [[Gamelan]] orchestra. Additionally, other prominent traditional Malay items made from metal includes flower vases, perfume sprinkles, serving trays, cooking pots, kettle and incense burners.<ref name="Malaysia Handicrafts ~ Gold Silver & Brass 2011"/><ref name="Karyaneka 2013"/>

===Weaponry=== [[File:Malay Keris.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A Malay Keris, with its sheath on the left. This particular dagger was historically belonged to a Malay aristocrat from [[Sumatra]].]] {{See also|Taming Sari|Bedil (term)}} The [[Keris]] is one of the most revered items of Malay weaponry. Originally developed by the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] down south, the spread of the kris to other nations such as Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines, was credited to the growing influence of the [[Majapahit]] Empire in Java around the year 1492.<ref name="JPostKris">{{cite news |author=Tantri Yuliandini |date=18 April 2002 |title=Kris, more than just a simple dagger |work=The Jakarta Post |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2002/04/18/kris-more-just-a-simple-dagger.html |access-date=30 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729203644/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2002/04/18/kris-more-just-a-simple-dagger.html |archive-date=29 July 2014}}</ref> By the time of [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malacca]] in the 15th century, the evolution of the Malay Keris was perfected and possession of a Keris came to be regarded as in integral part of Malay culture, becoming a philosophical symbol, juxtapositioned in prestige, craftsmanship, masculinity and honour.{{sfn|Niza|2016}}{{sfn|Zakaria|2016}}{{sfn|Angahsunan|2017}}

During the classical era, a Malay man was not seen without a Keris outside of his house. The absence of a Keris on a man was frowned upon, perceived as if he were parading naked to the public. Traditionally, a man of Malay extraction would own three types of Keris: ''Keris Pusaka'' (the Dynasty Keris, inherited from one generation to another), ''Keris Pangkat'' (the Status Keris, awarded in right of his position in Malay society) and ''Keris Perjuangan Dirinya'' (the Struggle Keris, literally defined as his personal Keris). There are many strict rules, regulations and taboos to be adhered to in owning a Keris.{{sfn|Angahsunan|2017}} The blade of a Kris is usually coated with poisonous arsenic, thus crafting an excruciatingly lethal blade for its prey.{{sfn|Zakaria|2016}} Traditionally, each Keris is also regarded as possessing a [[Spirit (animating force)|spirit]], known as ''semangat''. Special rituals were to be conducted to nurture, preserve and guard the "soul" of the weapon.{{sfn|Angahsunan|2017}} The spiritual approach is usually held every ''Malam Jumaat'' (Thursday night), with the blade is being purified with [[Lime (fruit)|lime]] and smoked with [[incense]], dedicated prayers and devoted mantras would be also recited upon to complement the mystic ritual.<ref name="Irma Musliana 2016">{{harvnb|Irma Musliana|2016}}</ref>

[[File:Istinggar Melayu.jpg|thumb|The [[Trigger (firearms)|trigger mechanism]] of an ''[[Istinggar]]'', a classical Malay [[matchlock]] gun as displayed in ''Muzium Warisan Melayu'' ([[Malay Heritage Museum]]), [[Seri Kembangan|Serdang]], [[Selangor]]]] The Malays and Javanese are abided by contrasting philosophical [[values]] pertaining to Keris-wearing. Traditionally, a Malay would embedded his Keris from the front, an honour that the weapon is more paramount compared to the wearer and a constant reminder that one is always equipped to combat the nemesis. The Javanese however, adhered to the principle that he should be more cautious and the Keris may solely be exercised during the time of need, thus cladding their Keris from behind. The Javanese also believed that by carrying their weapon that position, it would confuse the enemy.{{sfn|Angahsunan|2017}}

Paradoxically, both groups shared a similar ideology addressing the [[Kris#Hilt|hilt]] of the Keris. If the hilt faced up front, it serves as a testament that the man is prepared for a fight. Nevertheless, if the hilt is turned behind, it is an oath that the person is embracing for a [[Conflict resolution|reconciliation]].{{sfn|Angahsunan|2017}}

There are also a plethora of other forms of weaponry in the Malay arsenal, all were nevertheless equally revered in a correlating manner as the Keris. The Malays would classified the traditional weapons under 7 different structures: ''Tuju'' ("Direct", the large and heavy artillery, including the Malay [[cannons]] of ''Meriam'', ''[[Ekor lotong|Ekor Lotong]]'', ''[[Lela (cannon)|Lela]]'' and ''[[Rentaka]]''), ''Bidik'' ("[[Gun]]", a weapon with metal tube propelled by an [[ammunition]], with the Malay forms of ''[[Dragon (firearm)|Terakor]]'' and ''Istingar''), ''Setubuh'' ("A body", weapon in the similar dimension of a [[human body]], referred to the Malay [[spears]] of ''Tongkat Panjang'' and ''Lembing''), ''Selengan'' ("An arm", a large [[sabre]] from the length of the shoulders to the tips of the fingers, constituting the Malay sabre of ''Pedang'' and ''[[Sundang]]''), ''Setangan'' ("A hand", a sword with the diameter measured from the elbow to the 3 fingers, including ''Badik Panjang'' and ''Tekpi''), ''Sepegang'' ("A hold", smaller than the ''Setangan'', a [[dagger]] with ''Keris'' and ''Badik'' in the category) and ''Segenggam'' ("A grab", the smallest in the category, the hand-sized [[blade]], including ''Lawi Ayam'', ''[[Kerambit]]'', ''Kuku Macan'' and ''Kapak Binjai'').<ref>{{citation |last=Kerawang Merah |title=7 Kelas Senjata Alam Melayu |year=2017}}{{full citation needed|date=August 2020}}</ref> Other items in the traditional Malay weaponry includes ''sumpit'' ([[Blowgun|Blowpipe]]) and ''Busur dan Panah'' ([[Bow and Arrow]]), which are distinct from the seven class of armaments. Additionally, the Malays also would deploy ''Zirah'', a type of ''[[Baju Rantai|Baju Besi]]'' ([[armour]]) and ''Perisai'' ([[shield]]) as defence mechanisms during the [[armed conflict]].

===Traditional games=== {{See also|Galah panjang}}[[File:Finished wau and wau frame.JPG|thumb|right|A [[Wau bulan|Wau]]-maker's workshop in [[Kelantan]], Malaysia. This peculiar type of kite can be found in the northeast coast of the Malay Peninsula.]] Traditional Malay games usually require craft skills and manual dexterity and can be traced their origins since the days of Malacca Sultanate. ''[[Sepak Raga]]'' and [[kite flying]] are among traditional games that were mentioned in the [[Malay Annals]] being played by nobilities and royalties of the Malay sultanate.{{sfn|Leyden|1821|p=261}}{{sfn|Lockard|2009|p=48}}{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=1357}}

''[[Sepak Raga]]'' is one of the most popular Malay games and has been played for centuries. Traditionally, Sepak raga was played in circle by kicking and keeps aloft the rattan ball using any part of the body except the arms and hands. It is now recognised as [[Malaysia]]'s national sport{{sfn|Ziegler|1972|p=41}}{{sfn|McNair|2002|p=104}} and played in the international sporting events such as [[Asian Games]] and [[Southeast Asian Games]].

Other popular game is [[Spinning top|''Gasing'' spinning]] which usually played after the [[harvest]] season. A great skill of [[Artisan|craftsmanship]] is required to produce the most competitive ''Gasing'' (top), some of which spin for two hours at a time.<ref name="Alexander 2006 51">{{harvnb|Alexander|2006|p=51}}</ref>

Possibly the most popular Malay games is the ''[[Wau bulan|Wau]]'' (a unique kind of kite from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula) or kite flying. Wau-flying competitions take place with judges awarding points for craftsmanship (''Wau'' are beautiful, colourful objects set on bamboo frames), sound (all [[Malay kite]]s are designed to create a specific sound as they are buffeted about in the wind) and altitude.<ref name="Alexander 2006 51"/>

The Malays also have a variant of [[Mancala]] board game known as [[Congkak]]. The game is played by moving stones, marbles, beads or shells around a wooden board consisting of twelve or more holes. Mancala is acknowledged as the oldest game in the world and can be traced its origin since [[Ancient Egypt]]. As the game dispersed around the globe, every culture has invented its own variation including the Malays.{{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=52}}

===Names and titles=== {{Main|Malay names|Malay styles and titles}}

Malay personal names are complex, reflecting the hierarchical nature of the society, and titles are considered important. Naming has undergone tremendous change, evolving with the times to reflect the different influences that the Malays been subjected to over the ages. Although some Malay names still retain parts of their indigenous [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] influences, as Muslims, Malays have long favoured [[Arabic names]] as marks of their religion.

Malay names are [[patronymic]] and can consiste of up to four parts; a title, a given name, the family name, and a description of the individual's male parentage. Some given names and father's names can be composed of double names and even triple names, thereby generating a longer name. For example, one Malaysian national footballer has the full name [[Mohd Zaquan Adha Abdul Radzak]], where 'Mohd Zaquan Adha' is his triple given name and 'Abdul Radzak' is his father's double given name.

In addition to naming system, the [[Malay language]] also has an elaborate system of [[titles]] and [[honorifics]], which are still extensively used in [[Malaysia]] and [[Brunei]]. By applying these [[Malay titles]] to a normal Malay name, a more complex name is produced. The former [[Prime Minister of Malaysia]] has the full name [[Najib Tun Razak|Dato' Seri Mohd Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak]], where 'Dato' Seri' is a Malay title of honour, 'Mohd Najib' is his personal name, 'bin' is derived from an Arabic word Ibnu meaning "son of" if in case of daughter it is replaced with binti, an Arabic word "bintun" meaning "daughter of", introduces his father's titles and names, 'Tun' is a higher honour, 'Haji' denotes his father's [[Hajj]] pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], and 'Abdul Razak' is his father's personal name. The more extremely complex Malay names however, belong to the Malay royalty. The former [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong]] of [[Malaysia]] had the full regnal name [[Abdullah of Pahang|Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda Yang di-Pertuan Agong Al-Sultan Abdullah Ri'ayatuddin Al-Mustafa Billah Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Al-Musta'in Billah]], while the reigning [[Sultan of Brunei]] is officially known as [[Hassanal Bolkiah|Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Haji Omar 'Ali Saifuddien Sa'adul Khairi Waddien]].

==Sub-ethnic groups== {{see also|Malaysian Malays|Indonesian Malays|Thai Malays|Filipinos of Malay descent}} [[File:Indonesia Ethnic Groups Map - EN.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|The realm of Malays is depicted in green and other related sub-ethnic groups are rendered in darker or lighter green.]] Although only constituting 3.4% of the total population, ethnic Malays are one of the most widely distributed ethnicities in Indonesia. As shown on the map, outside the [[Indonesian Archipelago]], the Malay people inhabit the [[Malay Peninsula]], forming the dominant ethnic group in Peninsular Malaysia and a significant minority in [[Singapore]], Thailand and southern Myanmar. The corridor of Bornean Malay territories begins north from southwestern [[Sabah]], continues with the country of [[Brunei Darussalam]], coastal [[Sarawak]] and continues down to [[Kalimantan]].{{lower |0.4em|{{sfn|Yunos|Begawan|2011}}}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! style="text-align: center; background: #aacccc;"|Ethnic group ! style="text-align: center; background: #aacccc;"|Historical realms ! style="text-align: center; background: #aacccc;"|Regions with significant population |- valign="top" | [[Ampenan Malays]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mataramradio.com/2025/02/26/di-ampenan-burung-saja-berbahasa-melayu/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250705070259/https://mataramradio.com/2025/02/26/di-ampenan-burung-saja-berbahasa-melayu/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=5 July 2025|title=Di Ampenan, Burung Saja Berbahasa Melayu|website=mataramradio.com|publisher=Mataram Radio|language=id|access-date=5 July 2025|date=26 February 2025|first=Buyung S.|last=Muhlis}}</ref> | | * {{flagicon image|Flag of Mataram City.png}} [[Mataram (city)|Mataram City]] |- valign="top" | Bangka and Belitung Malays | | * {{Flag|Bangka Belitung Islands}} |- valign="top" | [[Bangkok Malays]]{{sfn|Umaiyah Haji Omar|2003}}{{sfn|Umaiyah Haji Omar|2007}} | | * {{flagicon image|Seal Bangkok.png}} [[Min Buri District|Min Buri]], [[Nong Chok District|Nong Chok]] {{flagicon image|Seal Pathum Thani.png}} [[Lam Luk Ka District|Lam Luk Ka]], [[Mueang Pathum Thani District|Mueang Pathum]] {{flagicon image|Seal Ayutthaya.png}} [[Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province|Ayutthaya Province]] |- valign="top" | [[Bengkulu Malays]] | | * {{Flag|Bengkulu}} |- valign="top" | [[Berau Malays]] | * Berau Sultanate (1377–1830) * Gunung Tabur Sultanate (1810–1945) * Sambaliung Sultanate (1810–1945) | * {{flagicon image|Coat of arms of Berau Regency.svg}} [[Berau Regency]] |- valign="top" | [[Bugis-Malays|Buginese-Malays]]<ref name="Karim">{{harvnb|Gulrose Karim|1990|p=74}}</ref><ref name="Joseph">{{harvnb|Joseph|Najmabadi|2006|p=436}}</ref>(assimilated Malay group of [[Buginese people|Buginese]] descent) | * [[Mempawah Kingdom]] (1740–1950)<ref>{{cite web |url= http://melayuonline.com/eng/history/dig/422/mempawah-sultanate |title=Mempawah Sultanate |website=Melaju Online |access-date=26 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160408190433/http://melayuonline.com/eng/history/dig/422/mempawah-sultanate |archive-date=8 April 2016 }}</ref> * [[Sultan of Selangor|Selangor Sultanate]] (1745–present) * [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate]] (1824–1911) | * {{Flag|Riau}}, {{Flag|Riau Islands}} * {{flag|Selangor}}, {{flag|Johor}}, {{flag|Pahang}} * {{flag|Singapore}} |- valign="top" | [[Burmese Malays]] | | * {{flagicon image|Flag of Tanintharyi Region (1974–2010).svg}} [[Tanintharyi Division]] |- valign="top" | [[Bruneian Malay people|Bruneian Malays]]{{sfn|IBP|2007|pp=151–152}}<ref name="Colling">{{harvnb|Colling|1973|p=6804}}</ref><ref name="Aris">{{harvnb|Othman|1983|pp=1–26}}</ref><ref name="Husain">{{harvnb|Husain|2007|pp=16, 33, 34}}</ref> | * [[Bruneian Empire]] (7th–15th century) * [[Brunei Sultanate]] (1363–present) | * {{flag|Brunei}} * {{flag|Labuan}}, {{flag|Sarawak}}, {{flag|Sabah}} |- valign="top" | [[Cocos Malays]] | | * {{flag|Christmas Island}}, {{flag|Cocos Islands}} * {{flag|Sabah}} |- valign="top" | [[Jambi Malays]] | * [[Jambi Kingdom]] (7th century) * [[Dharmasraya]] (1183–1347) * [[Jambi Sultanate]] (1460–1907) | * {{flag|Jambi}} |- valign="top" | Javanese-Malays<ref name="Karim" /><ref name="Joseph" /> (assimilated Malay group of [[Javanese people|Javanese]] descent) | * [[Palembang#Sultanate of Palembang|Palembang Sultanate]] (1550–1823) | * {{flag|South Sumatra}}, {{flag|North Sumatra}} * {{flag|Selangor}}, {{flag|Pahang}}, {{flag|Johor}} * {{flag|Singapore}} |- valign="top" | Johorean Malays<ref name="Colling" /><ref name="Aris" /><ref name="Husain" /> | * [[Johor Sultanate]] (1528–present) * [[Ali Iskandar of Johor|Muar Sultanate]] (1855–1877) | * {{flag|Johor}} |- valign="top" | [[Kedahan Malay people|Kedahan Malays]]<ref name="Colling" /><ref name="Aris" /><ref name="Husain" />{{sfn|Majlis Kebudayaan Negeri Kedah|1986|pp=19–69}} | * [[Bujang Valley]] [[Civilisation]] (1st century) * [[Langkasuka]] (2nd–14th century) * [[Kedah Kingdom]] (Kedah Tua) (7th– 12th century) * [[Kedah Sultanate]] (1136–present) * [[Setul Kingdom]] (1808–1916){{sfn|Halimi|Pitchai|2016}} * [[Kubang Pasu Kingdom]] (1839–1864) * [[Perlis|Perlis Kingdom]] (1842–present) | * {{flag|Kedah}}, {{flag|Perlis}}, {{flag|Penang}}, {{flag|Perak}} * {{flagicon image|Seal Satun.png}} [[Satun Province|Satun]], {{flagicon image|Seal Trang.png}} [[Trang Province|Trang]], {{flagicon image|Seal Krabi.png}} [[Krabi Province|Krabi]] |- valign="top" | [[Kelantanese Malay people|Kelantanese Malays]]<ref name="Colling" /><ref name="Aris" /><ref name="Husain" /> | * [[Red Earth Kingdom]] (1st–6th century) * [[Sultan of Kelantan|Kelantan Sultanate]] (1267–present) * Jembal Sultanate (1638–1720) | * {{flag|Kelantan}} * {{flag|Narathiwat}} * {{flagicon image|Flag of Besut, Terengganu.svg}} [[Besut]] (Terengganu) |- valign="top" | [[Lahat people|Lahat Malays]] | | * {{flag|South Sumatra}} |- valign="top" | [[Loloan Malays]] | | * {{flagicon image|Lambang Kab Jembrana.png}} [[Jembrana|Jembrana Regency]] |- valign="top" | Malaccan Malays<ref name="Colling" /><ref name="Aris" /><ref name="Husain" /> | * [[Malacca Sultanate]] (1402–1511) | * {{flag|Malacca}} |- valign="top" | Minangkabau-Malays<ref name="Karim" /><ref name="Joseph" /> (''assimilated Malay group of [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]] descent'') | * [[Dharmasraya]] (1183–1347) * [[Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura|Siak Sultanate]] (1725–1949) * [[Yamtuan Besar|Chiefdom of Negeri Sembilan]] (1773–present) | * {{flag|Riau}}, {{flag|Riau Islands}} * {{flag|Negeri Sembilan}}, {{flag|Selangor}}, {{flag|Johor}}, {{flag|Pahang}} * {{flag|Singapore}} |- valign="top" | [[Deli Malay people|Northeast Sumatran Malays]] | * [[Asahan Sultanate]] (1630–1946) * [[Bilah Sultanate]] (1630–1946) * [[Sultanate of Deli|Deli Sultanate]] (1632–1946) * [[Sultanate of Langkat|Langkat Sultanate]] (1568–1946) * [[Sultanate of Serdang|Serdang Sultanate]] (1728–1946) | * {{flag|North Sumatra}} |- valign="top" | [[Pahang Malay people|Pahang Malays]]<ref name="Colling" /><ref name="Aris" /><ref name="Husain" /> | * [[Old Pahang Kingdom]] (5th century–1454) * [[Pahang Sultanate|Old Pahang Sultanate]] (1470–1623) * [[Pahang Kingdom|Modern Pahang Kingdom]] (1770–1881) * [[Pahang|Modern Pahang Sultanate]] (1881–present) | * {{flag|Pahang}} |- valign="top" | [[Palembangese people|Palembang Malays]]<ref name="Konstruksi Hukum Adat Pernikahan Masyarakat Melayu Palembang Berdasarkan Syar'iat Islam">{{Cite web|title=Konstruksi Hukum Adat Pernikahan Masyarakat Melayu Palembang Berdasarkan Syar'iat Islam|language= Indonesian|date=August 2019|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334990443}}</ref><ref name="Tradisi Ruwahan pada Masyarakat Melayu Palembang">{{Cite web|title=Tradisi Ruwahan Masyarakat Melayu Palembang Dalam Perspektif Fenomenologis|language= Indonesian|date=December 2022|url=https://ejournal.uin-suska.ac.id/index.php/SosialBudaya/article/viewFile/19338/8602}}</ref><ref name="Akulturasi dalam Tradisi Kelahiran Orang Melayu Palembang">{{Cite web|title=Akulturasi dalam Tradisi Kelahiran Orang Melayu Palembang|language= Indonesian|date=December 2019|url=https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/506596-none-eb4c4768.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Budaya Politik Aristokrat Melayu Abad ke XVIII – XIX M : Analisis Kontekstual Manuskrip Sejarah Palembang - Dr. Komaruddin, ed al. Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN) Raden Fatah Palembang">{{Cite journal|title=Budaya Politik Aristokrat Melayu Abad ke XVIII – XIX M: Analisis Kontekstual Manuskrip Sejarah Palembang – Dr. Komaruddin, ed al. Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN) Raden Fatah Palembang|journal= Tamaddun: Jurnal Kebudayaan dan Sastra Islam|language= Indonesian|date=2022|volume= 18|issue= 2|pages= 69–86|doi= 10.19109/tamaddun.v18i2.2785|url=https://jurnal.radenfatah.ac.id/index.php/tamaddun/article/view/2785/1887|last1= Niswah|first1= Chirun|doi-access= free}}</ref> | * [[Srivijaya]] (7th–13th century) * [[Palembang Sultanate]] (1550–1823) | * {{flag|South Sumatra}} |- valign="top" | [[Pattani Malays]]<ref name="Colling" /><ref name="Aris" /><ref name="Husain" /> | * [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom|Negara Sri Dharmaraja Kingdom]] (1st Millennium–15th century) * [[Langkasuka]] (2nd–14th century) * [[Pattani Kingdom|Pattani Sultanate]] (1516–1902) * [[Singgora Sultanate]] (1603–1689) * [[Reman Kingdom]] (1785–1902) * Legeh Kingdom (1755–1902)<ref name="Anuar Nik Mahmud 1999 39">{{harvnb|Anuar Nik Mahmud|1999|p=39}}</ref> * Nong Chik Kingdom (1809–1902)<ref name="Anuar Nik Mahmud 1999 39"/> * Jalur Kingdom (1817–1902)<ref name="Anuar Nik Mahmud 1999 39"/> * Teluban Kingdom (1817–1902)<ref name="Anuar Nik Mahmud 1999 39"/> * Jering Kingdom (1817–1902)<ref name="Anuar Nik Mahmud 1999 39"/> | * {{flagicon image|Seal Pattani.png}} [[Pattani Province|Pattani]], {{flagicon image|Seal Yala.png}} [[Yala Province|Yala]], {{flagicon image|Seal Narathiwat.png}} [[Narathiwat Province|Narathiwat]], {{flagicon image|Seal Songkhla.png}} [[Songkhla Province|Songkhla]], {{flagicon image|Seal Phattalung.png}} [[Phattalung Province|Phattalung]] * {{flag|Kedah}}, {{flag|Kelantan}}, {{flag|Perak}} |- valign="top" | [[Perakian Malay people|Perakian Malays]]<ref name="Colling" /><ref name="Aris" /><ref name="Husain" /> | * [[Gangga Negara]] (2nd – 11th century) * [[Sultan of Perak|Perak Sultanate]] (1528–present) | * {{flag|Perak}} |- valign="top" | [[Riau Malays]] | * Kuntu Kampar Sultanate (1234–1933) * Indragiri Sultanate (1298–1945) * Rokan Sultanate (1569–1940) * Pelalawan Sultanate (1791–1946) * [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate]] (1824–1911) | * {{flag|Riau}}, {{flag|Riau Islands}}, {{flagicon image|Lambang Kabupaten Pasaman.png}} [[Pasaman Regency]], {{flagicon image|Lambang Kabupaten Lima Puluh Kota.png}} [[Lima Puluh Kota Regency]] |- valign="top" | Sarawakian Malays{{sfn|Said|2012}}{{sfn|Amanah Khairat Yayasan Melayu Sarawak|}} | * Santubong Kingdom (7th century) * Samarahan Kingdom (13th century) * Saribas Kingdom (15th century) * Banting Kingdom (16th century) * [[Sarawak Sultanate]] (1598–1641) | * {{flag|Sarawak}} |- valign="top" | Selangorean Malays | * [[Sultan of Selangor|Selangor Sultanate]] (1745–present) | * {{flag|Selangor}} |- valign="top" | [[Malay Singaporeans|Singaporean Malays]] | * [[Kingdom of Singapura]] (1299–1398) | * {{flag|Singapore}} |- valign="top" | Tamiang Malays | * Bukit Karang Kingdom (1023–1330) * Benua Tamiang Sultanate (1330–1528) | * {{flagicon image|Lambang Kabupaten Aceh Tamiang.png}} [[Aceh Tamiang Regency]] |- valign="top" | [[Terengganuan Malay people|Terengganuan Malays]]<ref name="Colling" /><ref name="Aris" /><ref name="Husain" /> | * [[Sultan of Terengganu|Terengganu Sultanate]] (1708–present) * [[Besut Kingdom]] (1780–1899) | * {{flag|Terengganu}} * [[Kuantan|Kuantan City]] (Pahang) |- valign="top" |West Kalimantan Malays | * [[Landak Kingdom]] (1292–1962) * Matan Kingdom (1590–1948) * [[Mempawah Kingdom]] (1740–1950) * [[Pontianak Sultanate]] (1771–1950) * [[Sultanate of Sambas|Sambas Sultanate]] (1675–1944) * Sanggau Kingdom (1310–1960) * Sintang Kingdom (1365–1950) * [[Tanjungpura Kingdom]] (880–1590) | * {{flag|West Kalimantan}} |}

==See also== {{Commons category|Malay people}} * [[Anti-Malay sentiment]], racial prejudice against ethnic Malays * [[Ketuanan Melayu]] (Malay Supremacy) * [[Malayness]] *[[Malay world]] *[[Malay diaspora]] * [[List of Malay people]] * [[Malay folklore]] * [[Malay Islamic Monarchy]], the national philosophy of [[Brunei]] * [[Malay tricolour]] * [[Malay units of measurement]] * [[Ghosts in Malay culture]]

== Notes == {{reflist|group=Note}}

==References== {{reflist}}

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==Further reading== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite web |title=Genetic 'map' of Asia's diversity |work=BBC News |date=11 December 2009 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8406506.stm}} * {{cite web |title=Pakaian Tradisi |trans-title=Traditional Clothing |publisher=Kementerian Kebudayaan, Belia dan Sukan [Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports] |url=http://www.kkbs.gov.bn/html/pakaian_tradisi.htm |access-date=20 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404150912/http://www.kkbs.gov.bn/html/pakaian_tradisi.htm |archive-date=4 April 2010 |language=ms}} * {{cite web |title=Royal and Palace Customs: Dresses For Ceremonies And Functions |website=Yang di-Pertuan Agong |publisher=Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia |url=http://www.malaysianmonarchy.org.my/malaysianmonarchy/?q=en/dress |access-date=20 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510081825/http://www.malaysianmonarchy.org.my/malaysianmonarchy/?q=en%2Fdress |archive-date=10 May 2011}} * {{cite conference |first1=Aris |last1=Ananta |first2=Evi Nurvidya |last2=Arifin |first3=M. Sairi |last3=Hasbullah |first4=Nur Budi |last4=Handayani |first5=Agus |last5=Pramono |title=Changing Ethnic Composition:Indonesia, 2000–2010 |book-title=XXVII IUSSP International Population Conference |publisher=International Union for the Scientific Study of Population |year=2013 |location=Busan, Korea |url=http://iussp.org/sites/default/files/event_call_for_papers/IUSSP%20Ethnicity%20Indonesia%20Poster%20Section%20G%202708%202013%20revised.pdf |access-date=10 January 2016}} * {{citation |last=Collins |first=Alan |title=Security and Southeast Asia: domestic, regional, and global issues |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2003 |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-230-4}} * {{citation |last1=Dewaele |first1=Jean-Marc |last2=Beardsmore |first2=Hugo Baetens |last3=Housen |first3=Alex |last4=Li |first4=Wei |title=Bilingualism: beyond basic principles |location=Clevedon |publisher=Multilingual Matters |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85359-625-4}} * {{cite journal |name-list-style=vanc |last1=Hatin |first1=Wan Isa |last2=Nur-Shafawati |first2=Ab Rajab |last3=Zahri |first3=Mohd-Khairi |last4=Xu |first4=Shuhua |last5=Jin |first5=Li |collaboration=The HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium |title=Population Genetic Structure of Peninsular Malaysia Malay Sub-Ethnic Groups |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=4 |article-number=e18312 |year=2011 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0018312 |pmid=21483678 |pmc=3071720 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...618312H |doi-access=free}} * {{cite web |last=Loh |first=Arnold |date=21 May 2016 |title=Experts disagree on religion practised at ruins older than Borobodur and Angkor Wat |work=The Star |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2016/05/21/debate-arises-over-bujang-valley-experts-disagree-on-religion-practised-at-ruins-older-than-borobodu/}} * {{Citation |last=Pogadaev |first=V.A. |title=Dunia Melayu (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapura): Kamus Lingua-Budaya |trans-title=Malay World (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore). Lingua-Cultural Dictionary |year=2012 |location=Moscow |publisher=Vostochnaya Kniga |isbn=978-5-7873-0658-3}} * {{cite web |ref={{harvid|Amanah Khairat Yayasan Melayu Sarawak}} |title=Sejarah Orang Melayu Sarawak |trans-title=The History of Sarawakian Malay |publisher=Amanah Khairat Yayasan Melayu Sarawak |url=https://melayusarawak.org.my/sejarah-orang-melayu-sarawak/ |access-date=22 June 2022 |language=ms}} {{refend}}

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