Malaise era

{{short description|Period in American automotive history}} The '''malaise era''' was a period in the [[Automotive industry in the United States|U.S. automotive industry]] from roughly the early 1970s to the early to mid 1980s, characterized by ''[[malaise]]'', i.e., poor products and a generalized industry unease.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Martin |first=Murilee |date=14 August 2023 |title=What Defines the Malaise Era, and Will We Experience It Again? |url=https://www.capitalone.com/cars/learn/finding-the-right-car/what-defines-the-malaise-era-and-will-we-experience-it-again/2518 |access-date=22 August 2023 |website=Capital One Auto Navigator |language=en}}</ref>

Around this time, the U.S. federal government introduced, in quick succession, a triumvirate of increasingly strict and comprehensive [[Emission standard|emissions]], [[Corporate average fuel economy|fuel efficiency]] and [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration|safety]] standards,<ref name="CAFE" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-08 |title=Two years that changed cars forever: 1974 (bumpers) and '75 (smog) |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/opinion/the-hack-mechanic/two-years-that-changed-cars-forever-1974-bumpers-and-75-smog/ |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Hagerty Media |language=en-US}}</ref> — severely challenging the industry's ability to adapt, requiring massive diversion of spending and leading to a marked drop in vehicle performance, ambitious product downsizing and ill-resolved styling adaptations.

==Background== Following decades where the U.S. automotive industry had been almost completely unregulated by government mandates and could prioritize unrestrained horsepower,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tate |first=Robert |title=MotorCities - Muscle Car Review: The 1960s & 1970s |url=https://www.motorcities.org/story-of-the-week/2018/muscle-car-review-the-1960s-1970s |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=www.motorcities.org}}</ref> size and styling, the malaise era arose after the [[Clean Air Act of 1963]] began to codify a legislative response to serious national car-generated air quality concerns, and [[Ralph Nader]]'s 1965 ''[[Unsafe at Any Speed: The Designed-In Dangers of the American Automobile|Unsafe at Any Speed]]'' galvanized attention on U.S. automotive safety issues, calling for a range of safety features from critical occupant protection to car bumpers that could enable low-speed impact without damage to safety systems.<ref name=Billion>{{cite magazine| url= https://reason.com/1978/03/01/billion-dollar-bumpers/ |first=Jack |last=Solomon |title=Billion Dollar Bumpers |magazine=Reason |date=March 1978 |access-date=12 June 2022}}</ref> With an average fuel consumption across passenger cars from 1969-1974 of {{convert|13.5|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}},<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=27 September 2012 |title=U.S. Energy Information Administration - Independent Statistics and Analysis - Annual Energy Review |url=https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/annual/showtext.php?t=pTB0208 |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=www.eia.gov}}</ref> the period coincided with the industry's dependence on inexpensive foreign oil and spiking international fuel prices, culminating with the [[1973 oil crisis]].

In response, the U.S. federal government introduced successively more comprehensive emissions, fuel efficiency and safety standards. <ref name="CAFE" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-08 |title=Two years that changed cars forever: 1974 (bumpers) and '75 (smog) |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/opinion/the-hack-mechanic/two-years-that-changed-cars-forever-1974-bumpers-and-75-smog/ |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Hagerty Media |language=en-US}}</ref> These required huge automotive engineering investments in effectively new disciplines, testing the industry's ability to adapt.<ref name="popmech">{{cite web |last1=Stewart |first1=Ben |title=Performance Pretenders: 10 Malaise-Era Muscle Cars |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/g922/performance-pretenders-10-malaise-era-muscle-cars/ |website=Popular Mechanics |accessdate=22 December 2019 |date=10 September 2012}}</ref>

As a hallmark of the era, with automotive design budgets dominated by huge pragmatic investments in fuel efficiency, emissions controls and safety programs, the engine power of prominent sports and muscle cars of 1960s was decimated. Manufacturers often relied heavily on [[badge engineering]],<ref name="ref5">{{cite web |title=How a single magazine cover photo changed the course of auto design at GM in the Eighties |work=Hemmings |first=Daniel |last=Strohl |date=3 February 2021 |url= https://www.hemmings.com/stories/2021/02/03/how-a-single-magazine-cover-photo-changed-the-course-of-auto-design-at-gm-in-the-eighties}}</ref><ref name="forbes">{{cite web |title=Can't tell the Pontiacs from the Buicks? That's the problem |work=Automotive News |first=Amy |last=Wilson |date=14 September 2008 |url= https://www.autonews.com/article/20080914/OEM02/309149940/can-t-tell-the-pontiacs-from-the-buicks-that-s-a-problem}}</ref><ref name="curbside">{{cite web |title=1983 Fortune: Will Success Spoil General Motors |work=Curbside Classics |first=Paul |last=Niedermeyer |date=17 November 2012 |url= https://www.curbsideclassic.com/blog/1983-fortune-will-success-spoil-general-motors/}}</ref> and expedient styling tropes, in marked contrast to prior decades of unbound automotive power and styling. The era also highlighted the U.S. automotive industry's vulnerability to penetration by foreign manufacturers versed in the design of more space and fuel-efficient designs.

When [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] introduced the [[Ford Granada (North America)|Granada]] in North America in 1975, its advertising emphasized the padded vinyl roofing, opera windows, tufted velour interiors with imitation wood accents and stand up hood ornaments of its ostensible luxury. The engineering used a platform dating to the austere 1961 [[Ford Falcon (North America)|Falcon]] and offered a power-to-weight ratio of 48.46 lbs per hp, and a breathtakingly slow 0-60 time of 23.15 seconds.<ref name="granade">{{cite web |title = Automotive History/Vintage Review: 1975 Ford Granada Wins "The Most Malaise Car Ever" Award – A Triumph of (Imitative) Style Over Substance |publisher = Curbside Classics |author = Paul Niedermeyer |date = January 3, 2024 |url = https://www.curbsideclassic.com/automotive-histories/automotive-history-vintage-review-1975-ford-granada-250-six-wins-the-most-malaise-car-ever-award-a-triumph-of-imitative-style-over-substance/}}</ref>

== Etymology ==

The term ''malaise era'' has been widely used in an automotive context by news agencies and automotive sites, including ''[[Car and Driver]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sorokanich |first=Bob |date=15 December 2014 |title=Buy These: Malaise-Era American Iron Immortalized in Awesome 1:43 Scale |url=https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a15359209/buy-these-malaise-era-american-iron-immortalized-in-awesome-143-scale |access-date=22 June 2022 |website=Car and Driver |language=en-US}}</ref> ''Consumer Guide'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Appel |first=Tom |date=18 April 2022 |title=More Show than Go: Performance Car Ads from the Malaise Era |url=https://blog.consumerguide.com/performance-car-ads-from-the-malaise-era/ |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=Consumer Guide}}</ref> ''[[Forbes]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abuelsamid |first=Sam |title=2024 Ford Mustang EcoBoost, Mostly New, Mostly Better |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/samabuelsamid/2023/07/24/2024-ford-mustang-ecoboost-mostly-new-mostly-better/ |access-date=2023-07-31 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> ''[[Fox News]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2015 |title=5 sweet malaise era cars |url=https://www.foxnews.com/auto/5-sweet-malaise-era-cars |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Fox News |language=en-US}}</ref> ''[[Hagerty (insurance)|Hagerty]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Malaise Era Archives |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/tags/malaise-era/ |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=Hagerty Media |language=en-US}}</ref> ''[[Hemmings Motor News]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Strohl |first=Daniel |date=13 March 2013 |title=Ten reasons to love the Malaise Era |url=https://www.hemmings.com/stories/2013/03/13/ten-reasons-to-love-the-malaise-era |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=Hemmings}}</ref> ''[[Motor Trend]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 November 2020 |title=Malaise Memories: Forgotten 1970s Cars Worth Remembering |url=https://www.motortrend.com/features/malaise-memories-12-forgotten-1970s-cars-worth-remembering/ |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=MotorTrend |language=en}}</ref> ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'',<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Stewart |first=Ben |date=10 September 2012 |title=Performance Pretenders: 10 Malaise-Era Muscle Cars |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/news/pictures/performance-pretenders-10-malaise-era-muscle-cars |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Popular Mechanics |language=en-US}}</ref> ''[[Road & Track]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sorokanich |first=Bob |date=15 December 2014 |title=Malaise-era cars immortalized as awesome collectibles |url=https://www.roadandtrack.com/car-culture/car-accessories/news/a24512/scale-models-of-malaise-era-cars/ |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=Road & Track |language=en-US}}</ref> ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'',<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Berk |first=Brett |date=6 February 2012 |title=Four-Wheeled Future: The Return of the Affordable Japanese Sports Car |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2012/02/affordable-japanese-sports-cars-201202 |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Vanity Fair |language=en-US}}</ref> and the ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Alterman |first=Eddie |date=2008-09-25 |title=When Life Hands You Lemons, Race Them |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/28/automobiles/28LEMONS.html |access-date=2022-06-17 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

One of the first{{cn|date=February 2026}} known usages of the term in an automotive context was by Jacob M. Schlesinger in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' in December 1988. In an article discussing the increasing diversification of body styles of American vehicles in the late 1980s, Schlesinger wrote: "Car designers are also getting freer rein. In the malaise era, there was little variation. Virtually all cars adopted the same simple, square, chromeless, earthtone look. ... But no more. Competition in the auto industry is far keener now, and the car companies are doing more to exploit small niches, apply new technologies and stand out through design."<ref>{{cite news | last=Schlesinger | first=Jacob M. | date=December 7, 1988 | id={{ProQuest|398066525}} | title=Back to the Future: After Era of Blandness, Big and Glitzy Autos Are Making Comeback | work=The Wall Street Journal | publisher=Dow Jones & Company | page=1 | url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-chapel-hill-news-glitz-glamour-at-t/191413663/ | via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> The term was later used frequently by Murilee Martin, writing for the website ''[[Jalopnik]]'' in 2007.<ref>{{cite web | last=Radu | first=Vlad | date=January 26, 2025 | url=https://www.autoevolution.com/news/5-american-quarter-mile-kings-of-the-dreaded-malaise-era-246069.html | title=5 American Quarter-Mile Kings of the Dreaded Malaise Era | work=Autoevolution | publisher=SoftNews | archiveurl=https://archive.today/20260216072854/https://www.autoevolution.com/news/5-american-quarter-mile-kings-of-the-dreaded-malaise-era-246069.html | archivedate=February 16, 2026}}</ref>

The term recalls President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s 1979 [[malaise speech|Malaise Speech]], in which he discussed the [[1979 oil crisis|oil crisis following that year's Iranian Revolution]] and a wider "crisis of confidence" within the United States that had marked the late 1960s and 1970s. Outside of the discussion of automobiles, the term ''malaise era'' was earlier used by Texas Senator [[Phil Gramm]] in 1986, discussing [[John Evans (Idaho politician)|John Evans]]' race against [[Steve Symms]] in the [[1986 United States Senate election in Idaho|1986 Idaho Senate election]],<ref>{{cite news | last=Staff writer | date=September 23, 1986 | url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-idaho-statesman-leroy-says-andrus-tr/191413687/ | title=Leroy says Andrus tries to buy votes | work=The Idaho Statesman | page=3C | via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> and by Vice President [[George H. W. Bush]] in May 1988, challenging the policies of his Democratic opponents in the [[1988 United States presidential election|1988 presidential election]], for which he was the Republican nominee.<ref>{{cite magazine | last=((Associated Press writer)) | date=May 3, 1988 | url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-urbana-daily-citizen-bush-speaks-up/191413702/ | title=Bush speaks up on differences | work=The Urbana Daily Citizen | page=1 | via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>

Writing for ''Jalopnik'',<ref name=":6" /><ref name="roadkill">{{cite web |last1=Rood |first1=Eric |date=20 March 2017 |title=Tonnage: 10 Gigantic Malaise-Era Land Yachts |url=http://www.roadkill.com/tonnage-10-gigantic-malaise-era-land-yachts/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109165728/http://www.roadkill.com/tonnage-10-gigantic-malaise-era-land-yachts/ |archive-date=9 November 2019 |accessdate= |website=Roadkill}}</ref> writer Phil Greden, opined that era spanned from 1975 with U.S. government bumper regulations; to 1983, when the [[Ford Mustang]] saw a significant performance increase after almost a decade of low performance.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Martin |first=Murilee |date=2011-05-05 |title=What About the Malaise Era? More Specifically, What About This 1979 Ford Granada? |url=https://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2011/05/what-about-the-malaise-era-more-specifically-what-about-this-1979-ford-granada/ |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=The Truth About Cars |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Martin |first=Murilee |date=2021-06-02 |title=Malaise Era Childhood Gas Lines Left Their Mark, Forever |url=https://www.autoweek.com/car-life/columns/a36551014/malaise-era-childhood-gas-lines-left-their-mark-forever/ |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=Autoweek |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Government mandates== {{multiple image | direction = vertical | image1 = Catalyticconverter.jpg | width1 = 250 | caption1 = A [[catalytic converter|catalytic exhaust converter]] | image2 = Wdog MB 450 SLC.jpeg | width2 = 250 | caption2 = Prominent U.S. 5-mph bumpers on a 1977 [[Mercedes-Benz R107 and C107|Mercedes-Benz 450 SLC]] }} At the close of 1970, President [[Richard Nixon]] signed a series of amendments to the [[Clean Air Act (United States)|Clean Air Act]] into law.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OAR |date=2015-05-27 |title=Clean Air Act Requirements and History |url=https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/clean-air-act-requirements-and-history |access-date=2023-08-03 |website=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] |language=en}}</ref> The amendments established the [[National Ambient Air Quality Standards]] (NAAQS), [[New Source Performance Standard]]s (NSPS); and [[National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants]] (NESHAPs), and overall significantly strengthened federal enforcement authority, all toward achieving aggressive air pollution reduction goals. The amendments mandated a 90% reduction in [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[carbon monoxide]], and [[NOx|nitrogen oxides]] by 1975, relative to the 1970 standards, and instructed the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]](which had been formally founded just that month) to implement these standards.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Kaiser |first=Walter |date=2003 |title=Clean Air Act and American Automobile Industry |journal=Icon |volume=9 |pages=31–43 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Gerard |first1=David |last2=Lave |first2=Lester B.|author2-link=Lester Lave |date=2005 |title=Implementing technology-forcing policies: The 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments and the introduction of advanced automotive emissions controls in the United States |url=https://faculty.lawrence.edu/gerardd/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2014/02/18-TFSC-Gerard-Lave.pdf |journal=Technological Forecasting & Social Change |volume=72 |issue=7 |pages=761–778 |doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2004.08.003 |via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2020-10-07 |title=Fifty years ago, the government decided to clean up car exhaust. It's still at it. |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/magazine-features/fifty-years-ago-the-government-decided-to-clean-up-car-exhaust-its-still-at-it/ |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=Hagerty Media |language=en-US}}</ref>

The technology did not exist to meet these requirements in a way that allowed practical engines to continue making the same horsepower. The simplest way for manufacturers to meet these ambitious emissions cuts was to reduce power outputs in their vehicles and so, starting in 1971, horsepower ratings for many American automobiles began to drop markedly. However, it is important to note that a substantial part of these drops were merely on paper, caused by a concurrent legal change in how engine power was quoted. The change was from gross to net horsepower (aligning the U.S. with the rest of the world) which resulted in lower ''numbers'' being used to describe the ''same'' engine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Severson |first=Aaron |date=2008-04-16 |title=Understanding Gross Versus Net Horsepower Ratings |url=https://ateupwithmotor.com/terms-technology-definitions/gross-versus-net-horsepower/ |access-date=2022-06-13 |website=Ate Up With Motor |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Koscs |first=Jim |date=2013-08-13 |title=Muscle Car Horsepower – How Exaggerated Was It? |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/archived/horsepower/ |access-date=2022-07-04 |website=Hagerty Media |language=en-US}}</ref> For example, the 350 cu in (5.7 L) L48 engine of a 1971 [[Chevrolet Corvette (C3)|Chevrolet Corvette]] was rated at 270 (gross) horsepower, but the identical engine was rated at 200 (net) horsepower in 1972.<ref name="Corvette Black">{{cite book |last=Antonick |first=Mike |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9P-RNjfCeRYC&q=1962+Corvette |title=Corvette Black, Books 1953-2007 |publisher=MotorBooks International |year=2006 |isbn=978-0760328941}}</ref> However, emission-driven detuning resulted in notable real power cuts, starting from the 1971 [[model year]]. These changes were initially due to a reduction in [[compression ratio]]s to allow engines to run on lower [[Octane rating|octane]] unleaded [[gasoline]] rather than fuel using dangerous and polluting [[Tetraethyllead|lead additives]] (a move taken initially by [[General Motors]], but which all other major American automotive manufacturers adopted).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Flint |first=Jerry M. |date=1970-02-14 |title=G.M. Redesigning Auto Engines For Operation on Unleaded Fuel |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/02/14/archives/gm-redesigning-auto-engines-for-operation-on-unleaded-fuel-gm.html |access-date=2022-06-16 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morris |first1=W. E. |last2=Rogers |first2=J. D. |last3=Poskitt |first3=R. W. |date=1971-02-01 |title=1971 Cars and the "New" Gasolines |url=https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/710624/ |journal=SAE |series=SAE Technical Paper Series |volume=1 |language=English |doi=10.4271/710624 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chilton |first=Chris |date=13 November 2021 |title=Detroit Switched To Unleaded Fuel 50 Years Ago: Here's How Horsepower Took A Hit |url=https://www.carscoops.com/2021/11/detroit-switched-to-unleaded-fuel-50-years-ago-heres-how-horsepower-took-a-hit/ |access-date=16 June 2022 |website=Carscoops}}</ref> Many automotive manufacturers dropped horsepower ratings from their advertising, using cubic inch engine size instead.{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}}

More significant power reduction effects were caused by the adoption or increased use of emissions control procedures such as [[Secondary air injection|secondary air injectors]] (often called "smog pumps"), [[exhaust gas recirculation]], [[Ignition timing|retarded ignition]], and thermal reactors. For example, Pontiac's 455 cu. in. V8 peaked at 310 net horsepower in 1973, but was down to 200 net hp in its last year of use, in 1976. As these changes were legislative in nature rather than the result of voluntary developments by American car companies, as well as aggressive in scope and with a rapid deadline, the emission control technologies used were hastily implemented and initially resulted in reliability issues, creating stalls and reducing fuel economy over and above power drops.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

The new emission standards also spurred the deployment of the [[catalytic converter]], added to almost all new vehicles from the 1975 model year onward, which in turn resulted in the increasing adoption of unleaded gasoline, as the converters could not function if leaded gasoline was used.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Oldham |first=Scott |date=31 May 2018 |title=How Leaded Gas Came to Be and Why We Don't Miss It |url=https://www.caranddriver.com/features/a20970380/how-leaded-gas-came-to-be-and-why-we-dont-miss-it |access-date=2022-06-13 |website=Car and Driver |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Newell |first1=Richard G. |last2=Rogers |first2=Kristian |date=June 2003 |title=The U.S. Experience with the Phasedown of Lead in Gasoline |url=https://web.mit.edu/ckolstad/www/Newell.pdf |journal=Resources for the Future}}</ref>

In addition to new environmental standards, new design standards had a significant effect as well. Starting in 1971, the [[NHTSA|National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) promulgated [[Bumper (car)#First standards 1971|bumper regulations]] requiring specific bumper performance requirements in collisions from passenger vehicles (but not light duty trucks and motorcycles) at certain low speeds and angles. Specifically, this mandated the vehicle sustain no damage at {{cvt|5|mph|km/h|0}}, at an exact bumper height. Except for Canada, no other nation adopted this mandate.<ref name=cc>{{Cite web |last=Nidermeyer |first=Paul|date=27 October 2022 |url=https://www.curbsideclassic.com/vintage-reviews/from-the-january-1975-road-track-5-mph-impact-bumpers-are-the-really-saving-money/|title=From The January 1975 Road & Track: (5 mph) Impact Bumpers – Are They Really Saving Money?|access-date=5 October 2023}}</ref>

In 1982, the U.S. relaxed this rule to {{cvt|3|mph|km/h|1}} collision, where it remains.<ref name=cc/><ref name= Reason>{{Cite journal| url=https://reason.com/1978/03/01/billion-dollar-bumpers/| first = Jack | last = Solomon | title = Billion Dollar Bumpers| journal = Reason| date = March 1978}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Interpretation 1982-1.38|url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/interpretations/1982-138|publisher=United States Department of Transportation NHSTA|author=Berndt, Frank|date=2 April 1982|access-date=21 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=U.S. Agency Seeks Eased Auto Bumper Standards|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1981/10/01/us-agency-seeks-eased-auto-bumper-standards/fb9ede44-8f7d-4472-829c-ac91a541089a/|magazine=[[Washington Post]]| last =Burgess | first = John|date=1 October 1981}}</ref>

This increased bumper size and weight beginning with the 1973 model year, and these standards were further tightened for the 1974 model year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-08 |title=Two years that changed cars forever: 1974 (bumpers) and '75 (smog) |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/opinion/the-hack-mechanic/two-years-that-changed-cars-forever-1974-bumpers-and-75-smog/ |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=Hagerty Media |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=La Heist |first1=Warren G. |last2=Ephraim |first2=Frank G. |title=An Evaluation of the Bumper Standard - As Modified in 1982 - NHTSA Report Number DOT HS 807 072 |url=http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/regrev/evaluate/807072.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304122233/http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/regrev/evaluate/807072.html |archive-date=4 March 2009 |access-date=6 January 2014 |website=webcitation.org}}</ref>

The regulations specified bumper performance; they did not prescribe any particular bumper design. Nevertheless, similar to how emissions standards were tackled, automotive manufacturers often at first took the simplest path. {{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Cars were equipped with bulky, unsightly, protruding bumpers to be compliant.<ref name=cc/> This meant additional vehicle length and greater weight.<ref>{{cite book |last=Flammang |first=James M. |title=Cars of the Sensational '70s: A Decade of Changing Tastes and New Directions |publisher=Publications International |year=2000 |isbn=9780785329800}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Norbye |first=Jan P. |date=October 1973 |title=New bumpers have uniform height, take angle impacts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpiMSzja6W4C&q=New+bumpers+have+uniform+Ambassador&pg=PA90 |journal=Popular Science |volume=203 |issue=4 |pages=90–91 |access-date=12 June 2022 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

Bumpers today are designed very differently from those during the ''5-mph bumper'' era, in that they are made of foam to avoid the weight of rigid steel bars at vehicle extremities, prioritizing occupant ''[[crumple zone]]'' protection over insurance claims.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=What are Energy Absorbing Bumpers |url=https://romeorim.com/what-are-energy-absorbing-bumpers/|access-date=5 October 2023|language=en-US}}</ref>

==1973 oil crisis== [[File:Annual average crude oil prices.png|thumb|430x430px|Price of crude oil in 2014 U.S. dollars from 1900 to 2014]]The [[1973 oil crisis]] caused a sudden and marked increase in the cost of oil and, by extension, gasoline. By the end of the crisis, in March 1974, the [[price of oil]] had nearly quadrupled, from U.S. $3 per barrel (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|3|1973}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) to nearly $12 globally (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|12|1973}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}). U.S. prices were significantly higher.<ref name="USstate2ndCrisis">{{cite web |title=OPEC Oil Embargo 1973–1974 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/oil-embargo |publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]], [[Office of the Historian]] |accessdate=August 30, 2012}}</ref>

The result was a sudden switch in consumer taste from traditional domestic automobiles with high gas-consumption rates to more efficient compact cars.<ref name=AS13/> Announcements from insurers such as State Farm that an annual premium surcharge of 25% would be added for performance cars rated at over 300 horsepower further dampened consumer demand for traditional designs. <ref>{{Cite web|title=What Killed Horsepower In The 1970s And 1980s? {{!}} The Online Automotive Marketplace {{!}} Hemmings, The World's Largest Collector Car Marketplace|url=https://www.hemmings.com/stories/what-killed-horsepower-in-the-1970s-and-1980s/|website=The Online Automotive Marketplace|date=2025-04-21|access-date=2025-11-30|language=en-US|first=Bryan|last=McTaggart}}</ref>

The shift towards smaller, more efficient vehicles benefitted foreign manufacturers, who produced more of such vehicles. By 1975, 18.3% of U.S. sales were imported cars.<ref name=NYT760108>{{Cite news |date=1976-01-08 |title=New Car Sales Rose 31% in Dec. 21-30, But 1975's Volume Hit a 13-Year Low |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/01/08/archives/new-car-sales-rose-31-in-dec-2130-but-1975s-volume-hit-a-13year-low.html |access-date=2022-02-17 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> American brands had their slowest year since 1962, selling just 7,050,120 cars in 1975, down from 9.6 million cars sold in 1973.<ref name=NYT760108/> The success of Japanese brands can be traced to the greater selection of compact cars and the development of technologies to improve fuel efficiency. For example, Honda's [[CVCC]] technology allowed its cars to pass emission standards without a catalytic converter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introducing the CVCC / 1972 |url=https://global.honda/heritage/episodes/1972introducingthecvcc.html |access-date=17 June 2022 |website=Honda |language=en}}</ref>

Sales of larger domestic cars rebounded in 1977 and 1978, but the [[1979 oil crisis]] caused oil and gas prices to again increase significantly, doubling over 12 months, and there was a further shift in customer preference to smaller, more efficient vehicles.<ref name=AS13>{{Cite web |last=Sawyers |first=Arlena |date=13 October 2013 |title=1979 oil shock meant recession for U.S., depression for autos |url=https://www.autonews.com/article/20131013/GLOBAL/310139997/1979-oil-shock-meant-recession-for-u-s-depression-for-autos |access-date=17 June 2022 |website=Automotive News |language=en}}</ref>

The EPA began regulating for [[fuel efficiency]] in this period. The [[Corporate Average Fuel Economy]] (CAFE) standard was passed into law in 1975, requiring that the fuel economy of a manufacturer's entire output of passenger car and light truck models be averaged into a miles-per-gallon fuel economy standard, which was then used as the basis for further legislation. For example, in 1978 [[United States Congress|Congress]] mandated that manufacturers achieve a fleet average of 18 mpg by 1978, 19 mpg by 1979, and 20 mpg by 1980, rising to 27.5 mpg by 1985. Similarly, the 1978 [[Energy Tax Act]] levied a "gas-guzzler" tax to the sale of new vehicles that failed to meet CAFE standards, as an attempt to discourage the creation and purchase of inefficient vehicles.<ref name="CAFE">{{cite web |last1=Feigenbaum |first1=Baruch |last2=Morris |first2=Julian |date=26 January 2017 |title=CAFE Standards in Plain English |url=https://reason.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/pb137_cafe_standards.pdf |access-date=17 June 2022 |publisher=[[Reason Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=C A F E Overview |url=https://fbaum.unc.edu/lobby/_107th/126_CAFE_Standards_2/Agency_Activities/NHTSA/NHTSA_Cafe_Overview_FAQ.htm |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=fbaum.unc.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/info.shtml |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=www.fueleconomy.gov}}</ref> By the approximate close of the "malaise era" in 1983, average fuel efficiency for passenger cars had not met these targets, but had risen to {{convert|17.1|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":4" />

== Effects on automakers == [[File:1975 Ford Mustang II Ghia (34246548831).jpg|thumb|The [[Ford Mustang (second generation)|Ford Mustang II]], produced between 1974 and 1978, is sometimes cited as one of many vehicles that embodied the Malaise Era.]]The cumulative effect of these changes on the car lineups of American manufacturers was a series of redesigns and discontinuations of engine types and vehicle models and an overall lowering of performance. Safety regulations also led to a major shift away from the ornate styling that post-war American cars were known for in favor of sleeker, simpler designs with sharper edges that would be a staple of Malaise-era cars.

Ford, General Motors and Chrysler also called upon their European divisions who had the necessary expertise in designing smaller, more fuel efficient vehicles, and in some cases adapted their European designs for the US market. Ford for instance, imported the 1970 [[Mercury Capri]] and its first generation 1978 [[Ford Fiesta (first generation)|Fiesta]], whilst GM leveraged its [[Opel]] division to design the sub-compact/compact [[General Motors T platform (RWD)|T-body]] and [[General Motors J platform|J-body]] platforms. Chrysler opted to bring entire models drawn from its European subsidiaries [[Rootes Group|Rootes]] and [[Simca]], respectively the 1972 [[Hillman Avenger|Plymouth Cricket]] and the jointly developed [[Dodge Omni|Dodge Omni/Plymouth Horizon]].

The [[Ford Mustang (first generation)|first generation Mustang]] was cancelled after the 1973 model year, replaced with the [[Ford Mustang (second generation)|Ford Mustang II]], a platform which in its first year was over a foot shorter in length and some 800 pounds lighter, but also peaked at 105 net horsepower compared to the previous years' (already emission-reduced) maximum of 266 net horsepower.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dellis |first=Nick |date= |title=1973 Ford Mustang: Ultimate In-Depth Guide |url=https://www.mustangspecs.com/1973-ford-mustang/ |access-date=17 June 2022 |website=Mustang Specs |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dellis |first=Nick |date= |title=1974 Ford Mustang - Ultimate Guide |url=https://www.mustangspecs.com/1974-ford-mustang/ |access-date=17 June 2022 |website=Mustang Specs |language=en-US}}</ref> Some cars were redesigned to fit in entirely different automotive categories: the [[Mercury Cougar]] and the [[Dodge Charger]] were transformed from muscle cars to [[personal luxury car]]s for the 1974 and 1975 model years, respectively, while the [[Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova|Chevrolet Nova]] became a luxury-oriented [[Compact car|compact]]. Chevrolet continued to offer its [[Chevrolet Chevelle|Chevelle]], but discontinued its SS performance option after the 1973 model year,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seitz |first=Rick |date=15 November 2010 |title=A History of Chevy's Ultimate Muscle Car: The Chevelle Super Sport |url=https://www.chevyhardcore.com/features/car-features/a-history-of-chevys-ultimate-muscle-car-the-chevelle-super-sport/ |access-date=22 June 2022 |website=Chevy Hardcore |language=en-US}}</ref> while the [[AMC Javelin]], [[Dodge Challenger]], [[Plymouth Barracuda]], and [[Pontiac GTO]] were all cancelled entirely after the 1974 model year.

American automakers began introducing smaller, less powerful and more fuel efficient models to comply with new mileage requirements and compete against foreign manufacturers, particularly the Japanese offerings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Epp |first=Peter |date=4 November 2013 |title=Detroit's assumptions were overthrown 40 years ago |url=https://chathamthisweek.com/2013/11/04/detroits-assumptions-were-overthrown-40-years-ago |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=Chatham-Kent This Week |language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Klier |first=Thomas H. |date=2009 |title=From tail fins to hybrids: How Detroit lost its dominance of the U.S. auto market |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6309861.pdf |journal=Economic Perspectives |volume=2Q |via=Core}}</ref> Regardless, the sales of imports continued to climb. In 1978, GM sold over 5 million cars, but by 1982 they sold about 3.5 million, a decrease of 34.2%. Other American manufacturers saw similar losses; Ford sales fell 47% and Chrysler sales dropped 27% from 1978 to 1982. In the same years, Toyota sales increased from 441,800 cars to 527,128 cars, a 19.3% increase. [[Automotive industry in Japan|Japanese automakers]] [[Honda]] and [[Datsun]] saw increases of 33.1% and 39.1% respectively.<ref name=AS13/> A year after the onset of the 1979 oil crisis, Japanese manufacturers surpassed Detroit's production totals, becoming the world's largest automotive industry, a position it would retain for three decades. Indeed, the share of Japanese cars in U.S. auto purchases rose from 9% in 1976 to 21% in 1980.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.18647 |title=The Japanese Automotive Industry: Model and Challenge for the Future? | editor-first = Robert E. | editor-last = Cole | date=1981 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-939512-08-9 |doi=10.3998/mpub.18647|jstor=10.3998/mpub.18647 }}</ref>

==End of the era== As the industry adapted to new emissions, efficiency and safety demands and the fuel crisis receded, vehicle performance began to increase again as technologies matured: [[Engine control unit|onboard computers]], [[electronic fuel injection]], three-way [[catalytic converter]] and modern [[oxygen sensor]]s enabled greater raw performance and less hobbling emission controls.<ref name="Heavy">{{cite web |author=Sass |first=Rob |date=1 August 2013 |title=Heavier. Slower. Safer. |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/archived/heavier-slower-safer/ |publisher=The Hagerty Group, LLC.}}</ref> Writing for [[Hagerty (insurance)|Hagerty]], Rob Sass argues that the era ended between 1985—when American commercial sports cars such as the [[Ford Mustang (third generation)|Ford Mustang]] and [[Buick Regal]] reached the 200 hp mark again—and 1987, when the U.S. [[National Maximum Speed Law|national speed limit]] was raised from {{convert|55|mph|abbr=on}}, a fuel-saving measure enacted in 1974,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Phillips |first=Don |date=1995-11-29 |title=Federal Speed Limit, Set in 1974, Repealed |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/11/29/federal-speed-limit-set-in-1974-repealed/d64a0059-d32e-4daa-92f4-887c6785ca57/ |access-date=2022-06-16 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> to {{convert|65|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Heavy"/>

Design-wise, the "boxy" look characteristic of Malaise-era cars was gradually replaced by a more aerodynamic approach to styling beginning with the 1983 Buick and Pontiac lines, the success of the [[Ford Taurus]] marking a turning point in the mid-late 1980s. The last remnants of the Malaise-era look, the [[Ford LTD Crown Victoria]] and the [[Cadillac Brougham]], were discontinued after the 1991 and the 1992 model years, respectively.

==Legacy== Numerous journalists have reflected on the reduced performance and perceived aesthetic deficiencies of cars offered to Americans in this era.<ref>{{cite web |author=Gold |first=Aaron |date=10 April 2020 |title=The Ugliest Cars of the 1970s |url=https://www.automobilemag.com/news/ugliest-cars-of-the-1970s/ |access-date=17 June 2022 |website=Motor Trend |publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Hoover |first=Tyler |date=9 February 2017 |title=A Tale of Two Mercedes: When the Grey Market Made U.S.-Spec Cars Compete With Euro Models |url=https://www.autotrader.com/car-video/tale-two-mercedes-when-grey-market-made-us-spec-cars-compete-euro-models-261616 |publisher=Autotrader}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-08-01 |title=Heavier. Slower. Safer. |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/archived/heavier-slower-safer/ |access-date=2022-02-24 |website=Hagerty Media |language=en-US}}</ref> One journalist described this period of automotive history as the "worst era in car design".<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Was The Worst Era Of Car Design? |url=https://jalopnik.com/what-was-the-worst-era-of-car-design-1847109410 |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Jalopnik |date=16 June 2021 |language=en-us}}</ref> Another journalist wrote that cars of this era were "bloated, underpowered, and uninspired".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Duffy |first=Tyler |date=2020-05-23 |title=12 Malaise-Era Cars That Managed to Avoid Being Awful |url=https://gearpatrol.com/cars/a708895/best-cars-malaise-era-1970s/ |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Gear Patrol |language=en-US}}</ref>

Despite complaints against cars from this era and claims that they would never appreciate in value,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Teleky |first=Steven |date=2021-09-28 |title=Here is Why Malaise Cars Will Never Be Worth Anything |url=https://www.hotcars.com/here-is-why-malaise-cars-will-never-be-worth-anything/ |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=HotCars |language=en-US}}</ref> select vehicles from the 1970s and 1980s started becoming more popular in the late 2010s.<ref name="hagerty.com">{{Cite web |date=2018-05-02 |title=Once unwanted, many '70s and '80s cars are on the rise |url=https://www.hagerty.com/media/valuation/once-unwanted-many-70s-and-80s-cars-are-on-the-rise/ |access-date=2022-02-17 |website=Hagerty Media |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Florea |first=Ciprian |date=20 November 2021 |title=Five Malaise-Era Muscle Cars that Are Worth Collecting |url=https://www.autoevolution.com/news/five-malaise-era-muscle-cars-that-are-worth-collecting-174670.html |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=autoevolution |language=en}}</ref> Their increase in popularity led to the creation of car shows dedicated only to cars from this era.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Strohl |first=Daniel |date=2018-04-05 |title=A beige-ish bash: Malaise-era cars get their own show |url=https://www.hemmings.com/stories/2018/04/05/a-beige-ish-bash-malaise-era-cars-get-their-own-show |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Hemmings}}</ref> According to the Hagerty Price Guide, these cars have recently seen the greatest increase in value when compared to other used cars: 82% of used cars saw no increase in price in 2018, but cars from the 1970s and 1980s increased in value by 24% and 38% respectively in the same year.<ref name="hagerty.com"/>

==See also== {{Portal|1970s}} * [[Corporate average fuel economy]]

== References == {{Reflist}}

[[Category:1970s in transport]] [[Category:1980s in transport]] [[Category:1970s in economic history]] [[Category:1980s in economic history]] [[Category:1970s in the United States]] [[Category:1980s in the United States]] [[Category:Historical eras]] [[Category:Automotive industry in the United States]] [[Category:Cars by period]] [[Category:Conservation and restoration of vehicles]] [[Category:1973 oil crisis]]