{{Short description|Type of postgraduate qualification}} {{Other uses|Master of Arts (disambiguation)}} {{Redirect|M.A.|other uses|MA (disambiguation)}} {{Multiple issues| {{More citations needed|date=July 2009}} {{Missing information|Master of Arts in other continents|date=April 2019}} }}
{{Infobox examination|name=Master of Arts|image_name=|image_size=315px|image_alt=|caption=A Master of Arts degree in Education from [[Antioch University]]|acronym=MA<br />AM|type=[[Master's degree]]|test_admin=|skills_tested=|purpose=|year_started=|year_terminated=<!-- {{End date|YYYY}} -->|duration=1 to 4 years (varies)|score_range=|score_validity=|offered=|attempt_restriction=|regions=|language=|test_takers=|prerequisite=|fee=|score_users=|qualification_rate=|website=|footnotes=|image=MAED degree.png}}
The '''Master of Arts''' ({{langx|la|Magister Artium}} or ''Artium Magister''; abbreviated '''MA''' or '''AM''') is a [[master's degree]] awarded by [[University|universities]] in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of [[Master of Science]]. Those admitted to the degree have typically studied subjects within the scope of the [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]], such as [[history]], [[economics]], [[literature]], [[languages]], [[linguistics]], [[public administration]], [[political science]], [[communication studies]], [[law]] or [[diplomacy]]; however, different universities have different conventions and may also offer the degree for fields typically considered within the [[natural sciences]] and mathematics. The degree can be conferred in respect of completing courses and passing examinations, research, or a combination of the two.
The degree of Master of Arts traces its origins to the teaching license or {{lang|la|Licentia docendi}} of the [[University of Paris]], designed to produce "masters" who were graduate teachers of their subjects.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Master of Arts}}</ref>
==Europe==
===Czech Republic and Slovakia===
Like all EU member states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia follow the [[Bologna Process]]. The Czech Republic and Slovakia both award two different types of master's degrees; both award a title of Mgr. or Ing. to be used before the name.
Prior to reforms for compliance with the Bologna process, a master's degree could only be obtained after five years of uninterrupted study. Under the new system, it takes only two years but requires a previously completed three-year bachelor's program (a Bc. title). Writing a thesis (in both master's and bachelor's programs) and passing final exams are necessary to obtain the degree. It is mostly the case that the final exams cover the main study areas of the whole study program, i.e. a student is required to prove their knowledge in the subjects they attended during the two resp. three years of their study. Exams also include the defence of a thesis before an academic board.
Ing. (Engineer) degrees are usually awarded for master's degrees achieved in the natural sciences or mathematics-heavy study programmes, whereas an Mgr. (Magister) is generally awarded for master's studies in social sciences or the humanities while an MgA. (Magister of Arts) is awarded for studies in the arts.
===Germany=== In Germany, the Master of Arts degree was called in [[Latin]] ''Magister Artium''. This degree, which usually required between four <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav#__bgbl__%2F%2F*%5B%40attr_id%3D%27bgbl187s1170.pdf%27%5D__1743183423253|title=Bundesgesetzblatt Jahrgang 1987 Teil I Nr. 25, ausgegeben am 23.04.1987, Seite 1170|date=9 April 1987|publisher=Bundesanzeiger|access-date=28 March 2025}}</ref> and four and a half <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav?start=%2F%2F*%5B%40attr_id%3D%27bgbl199s0018.pdf%27%5D#__bgbl__%2F%2F*%5B%40attr_id%3D%27bgbl199s0018.pdf%27%5D__1743183665482|title=Bundesgesetzblatt Jahrgang 1999 Teil I Nr. 3, ausgegeben zu Bonn am 27. Januar 1999|date=19 January 1999|publisher=Bundesanzeiger|access-date=28 March 2025}}</ref> years of studies, existed in the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and its successors, including the [[German Empire]] and the [[Federal Republic of Germany]], but not in the former [[East Germany]], where all degree courses led to a ''[[Diplom]]''. Traditional ''Magister'' degrees are granted in [[social science]]s and most of the humanities ([[international business]], [[European studies]] and [[economics]] included), with the exception of visual and performing arts such as music and theatre.
The ''Magister Artium'' held either a double major degree or a combination of one major and two minors. German postgraduate Master of Arts and Master of Science degrees were introduced in 2001. Therefore, the new Master of Arts and the old ''Magister Artium'' degrees have existed side by side, since 2010; ''Magister Artium'' degrees are still awarded by some universities, as of 2020. The new Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees together also require five years of studies, which is the reason the new Master of Arts and the old ''Magister Artium'' degrees are considered equivalent.
===Netherlands=== In the Netherlands, the Master of Arts and the Master of Science degrees were introduced in 2002. Until that time, a single program that led to the ''[[doctorandus]]'' degree (or the ''[[ingenieur]]'' degree in the case of technical subjects) was in effect, which comprised the same course-load as the bachelor's and master's programs put together. Those who had already started the ''doctorandus'' program could, upon completing it, opt for the ''doctorandus'' degree, which gave the title "Doctorandus" before their name, abbreviated to 'drs.'; in the case of ingenieur, this would be 'ir.'), or else opt for a master's degree as [[postnominals]] behind their name, in accordance with the new standard ('MA' or 'MSc'). A master's degree can take one or two years to complete.
===Poland=== The Polish equivalent of Master of Arts is "magister" (its abbreviation "mgr" is placed before one's name, like the title Dr). At the technical universities, a student is awarded with ''inżynier'' (engineer) after three years and then with "magister" after completing another two years of study and graduating. Such persons use titles "mgr inż". In the 1990s, the MA programs usually lasting five years were replaced by separate three-year bachelor's and two-year master's programs. The degree is awarded in the arts (visual arts, literature, foreign languages, filmmaking, theatre etc.), natural sciences, mathematics, computer science fields, and economics. The completion of a research [[thesis]] is required. All master's degrees in Poland qualify for a [[doctorate]] program.
===Nordic countries=== In Finland, Denmark and Norway, the master's degree is a combined taught/research degree, awarded after two years of studies after completing the bachelor's degree. The student is required to write a scientific thesis.
In Finland, this master's degree is called a ''filosofian maisteri'' (in Finnish) or ''filosofie magister'' (in Swedish), and it is abbreviated as ''FM'' or "fil.mag.".
In Sweden, there is still an intermediate degree between the bachelor's (''kandidat'') and master's called ''magister'' which only requires one year of studies, including a scientific thesis after completing the bachelor's degree. This fourth year typically constitutes the first half of a master's programme. If not, it may be supplemented by a fifth year and a master's thesis to obtain a master's degree in the field of study.
===United Kingdom and Ireland===
====Most universities==== Except at Aberdeen, Cambridge, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Oxford and St. Andrews (see below), the MA is typically a "taught" postgraduate degree, involving lectures, examination, and a dissertation based on independent research. Taught master's programmes involve one or two years of full-time study. Many can be done part-time as well. Until recently, both the undergraduate and postgraduate master's degrees were awarded without grade or class (like the class of an [[honours degree]]). Nowadays, however, master's degrees are normally classified into the categories of Fail, Pass, Pass with Merit, or Pass with Distinction. This education pattern in the United Kingdom is followed in Pakistan and many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth Nations]].
The [[Master of Laws]] (LLM) is the standard degree taught for law, but certain courses may lead to MA, MLitt, [[Master of Studies]] (MSt), and the [[Bachelor of Civil Law]] (BCL) at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. All of these degrees are considered substitutes to one another and are thus generally equivalent.
====Scotland==== In the [[ancient universities of Scotland]], the degree of Master of Arts is awarded in universities as a four-year undergraduate degree, see [[Master of Arts (Scotland)]].
The degree of Master of Arts is the first degree awarded in [[arts]], [[humanities]], [[theology]], and [[social sciences]]. However, some universities in Scotland award the degree of [[Master of Letters]] (MLitt) to students in the [[arts]], [[humanities]], [[divinity (academic discipline)|divinity]], and [[social sciences]].
====Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin==== {{Main|Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)}} At [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] and the [[University of Dublin]], the title of Master of Arts is conferred [[Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)|after a certain number of years]], without further examination, to those who have graduated as [[Bachelor of Arts]] and who have the requisite years' standing as members of the university or as graduates. This happens, in England, only at the universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], four years after completing a bachelor's degree, and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], six years after the first term of study. It is also the case at the University of Dublin. The abbreviated name of the university (Oxon, Cantab or Dubl) is therefore almost always appended in parentheses to the initials "MA" in the same way that it is to higher degrees, e.g. "John Smith, MA (Cantab), PhD (Lond)", principally so that it is clear (to those who are aware of the system) that these are nominal and unexamined degrees.<ref>Debretts Correct Form (2013 edn) – Academics</ref>
The MLitt is a research degree at the [[University of Cambridge]], where the [[Master of Philosophy]] (MPhil) is the name given to the standard one-year taught degree with a unique research element, in contrast to the use of MPhil at other institutions for a research degree.
=====Confusion===== Research in 2000 by the universities watchdog, the [[Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education]], showed that two-thirds of employers were unaware that the Oxford and Cambridge MA did not represent any kind of post-graduate achievement.<ref>{{cite news|title=Oxbridge students' MA 'degrees' under threat|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/8318460/Oxbridge-students-MA-degrees-under-threat.html |first1=Nick |last1=Collins |date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/8318460/Oxbridge-students-MA-degrees-under-threat.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=Daily Telegraph|access-date=2 January 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
In February 2011, the Labour Member of Parliament [[Chris Leslie (politician)|Chris Leslie]] sponsored a [[private member's bill]] in Parliament, the master's degrees (Minimum Standards) Bill, to "prohibit universities awarding master's degrees unless certain standards of study and assessment are met". The bill's supporters described the practice as a "historical anachronism" and argued that "unearned qualifications" should be discontinued to preserve the academic integrity of the taught MA. Further, they warned that the title gave Oxbridge graduates an unfair advantage in the job market. On 21 October 2011, the bill received its second reading, but it failed to complete its passage through Parliament before the end of the session, meaning it fell.<ref>{{cite web|title=Master's Degrees (Minimum Standards) Bill 2010-12 |url=http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2010-11/mastersdegreesminimumstandards.html|publisher=UK Parliament|access-date=2 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204143358/http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2010-11/mastersdegreesminimumstandards.html |archive-date= Feb 4, 2013 }}</ref>
== North America == {{Main|List of master's degrees in North America}} In Canada and the United States, the Master of Arts (''Magister Artium''), along with the [[Master of Science]] (''Magister Scientiæ''), is the basic graduate-level degrees in most subjects and may be course-based, research-based, or, more typically, a combination of the two.<ref>{{citation | url=http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/master.doc | publisher=International Affairs Office, [[U.S. Department of Education]] |date= February 2008 |title= Structure of the U.S. Education System: Master's Degrees |access-date=2010-02-25|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080509195645/https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/master.doc|archive-date=2008-05-09}}</ref>
Admission to a master's program is normally contingent upon holding a [[bachelor's degree]]. Some programs provide for a joint bachelor's and master's after about five years.<ref>See, for example, [http://www.cgu.edu/pages/623.asp the program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120727032004/http://www.cgu.edu/pages/623.asp |date=2012-07-27 }} run by [[Claremont Graduate University]] for graduates of the [[Claremont Colleges]]</ref> Some universities use the Latin degree name, such as ''Artium Magister'' (AM). For example, [[Harvard University]], [[Dartmouth College]], the [[University of Chicago]], the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], the [[University of Pennsylvania]], and [[Brown University]] use the abbreviations AM for some of their master's degrees.<ref>{{cite web|title=Degree Programs – The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences|url=http://www.gsas.harvard.edu/programs_of_study/degree_programs.php|publisher=Harvard University|access-date=13 June 2013|archive-date=10 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610211251/http://www.gsas.harvard.edu/programs_of_study/degree_programs.php|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Degree Abbreviations – Harvard University|url=http://www.harvard.edu/on-campus/commencement/degree-abbreviations|publisher=Harvard University|access-date=3 October 2015|archive-date=30 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030081032/http://www.harvard.edu/on-campus/commencement/degree-abbreviations|url-status=dead}}</ref> A Master of Arts may be given in a scientific discipline, common at [[Ivy League|Ivy League universities]].
Many universities offer Master of Arts programs, which are differentiated either as Thesis or Non-Thesis programs. Usually, the duration for a Non-Thesis option is one to two years of full-time study. The period for a Thesis option may last longer, depending also on the required level of courses and complexity of the [[thesis]]. Sometimes, qualified students who are admitted to a "very high research" Master of Arts might have to earn credits also at the PhD level, and they may need to complete their program in about three years of full-time candidature, e.g. at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] in the United States and [[McGill University|McGill]] in Canada.
A thesis must be a distinct contribution to knowledge. It must demonstrate ability to plan and carry out research, organize results, and defend the approach and conclusions in a scholarly manner. The research presented must meet current standards of the discipline. Finally, the thesis must clearly demonstrate how the research advances knowledge in the field.
==References== {{Reflist}}
{{Academic degrees}} {{Portal bar|Middle Ages|Schools}} {{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Master of Arts}} [[Category:Master's degrees|Arts (postgraduate)]]