{{Short description|Indiscriminate taking of goods by force}} {{Redirect2|Looted|Plunder|other uses|Loot (disambiguation){{!}}Loot|and|Plunder (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}} [[File:George Cruikshank, Seizing the Italian Relics, 1815.jpg|thumb|Cartoon mocking the [[Napoleonic looting of art]] by French troops]] {{war}} {{Criminal law}} '''Looting''' is the act of stealing, or the taking of goods by force, typically in the midst of a military, political, or other social crisis, such as [[war]],<ref name="BBC_Baghdad_protests">{{cite news | title = Baghdad protests over looting | work = BBC News | publisher = BBC | date = 12 April 2003 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2941733.stm | access-date = 22 October 2010}}</ref> [[natural disaster]]s (where law and civil enforcement are temporarily ineffective),<ref name="BBC_Americas_looting">{{cite news | title = World: Americas Looting frenzy in quake city |work = BBC News| date = 28 January 1999 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/262848.stm | access-date = 22 October 2010}}</ref> or [[riot]]ing.<ref name="BBC_Argentine">{{cite news | title = Argentine president resigns |work = BBC News| date = 21 December 2001 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1722584.stm | access-date = 22 October 2010}}</ref> The proceeds of all these activities can be described as '''booty''', '''loot''', '''plunder''', '''spoils''', or '''pillage'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/looting?s=t|title=the definition of looting|website=Dictionary.com|access-date=12 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/booty|title=Booty – Define Booty at Dictionary.com}}</ref> Throughout history, the practice of war looting was often considered a customary right of victorious armies until the development of modern international humanitarian law.<ref>Keegan, John. ''A History of Warfare''. Vintage, 1994, p. 327.</ref>
Looting by a victorious army during war has been a common practice throughout recorded history.<ref name=":0" /> In the wake of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and particularly after [[World War II]], norms against wartime plunder became widely accepted.<ref name=":0" /> In modern [[armed conflict]]s, looting is prohibited by [[international law]], and constitutes a [[war crime]].<ref name="ICRC">[https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule52 Rule 52. Pillage is prohibited.], ''Customary IHL Database'', [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] (ICRC)/[[Cambridge University Press]].</ref><ref>[[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907#Hague Convention of 1899|Hague Convention on the Law and Customs of War on Land]] (Hague II), [https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/hague02.asp article 28].</ref> The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 explicitly prohibited pillage and looting, codifying earlier efforts to restrain the practice in European warfare.<ref>Hague Convention IV (1907), Article 47.</ref>
==After disasters== During a disaster, [[police]] and [[military]] forces are sometimes unable to prevent looting when they are overwhelmed by humanitarian or combat concerns, or they cannot be summoned because of damaged communications infrastructure. Especially during natural disasters, many civilians may find themselves forced to take what does not belong to them in order to survive.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sawer|first=Philip Sherwell and Patrick|date=16 January 2010|title=Haiti earthquake: looting and gun-fights break out|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|language=en-GB|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/haiti/7005554/Haiti-earthquake-looting-and-gun-fights-break-out.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/haiti/7005554/Haiti-earthquake-looting-and-gun-fights-break-out.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=13 July 2020|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref> How to respond to that and where the line between unnecessary "looting" and necessary "[[Waste picker|scavenging]]" lies are often dilemmas for governments.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/136582.stm | work=BBC News | title=Indonesian food minister tolerates looting | date=21 July 1998 | access-date=11 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jacob|first1=Binu|last2=Mawson|first2=Anthony R.|last3=Payton|first3=Marinelle|last4=Guignard|first4=John C.|date=2008|title=Disaster Mythology and Fact: Hurricane Katrina and Social Attachment|journal=Public Health Reports|volume=123|issue=5|pages=555–566|doi=10.1177/003335490812300505|issn=0033-3549|pmc=2496928|pmid=18828410}}</ref> In other cases, looting may be tolerated or even encouraged by governments for political or other reasons, including religious, social or economic ones.
Following major disasters, reports of widespread looting are often amplified by media coverage, despite disaster research showing that post-disaster looting behavior is cooperative rather than criminal. Scholars in disaster sociology have argued that narratives of lawlessness exaggerate the scale of looting and can reinforce stereotypes about affected communities. Research conducted after Hurricane Katrina, for example, found that many widely circulated reports of violent crime and mass lootings were inaccurate or overstated as many incidents involved communities attempting to obtain essential supplies like food or water. Researchers have also distinguished between opportunistic theft and survival-driven behavior in situations where access to resources and emergency assistance has broken down.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=van Brown |first=Bethany L. |date=2019 |title=Conflict or consensus? Re-examining crime and disaster |journal=Jamba (Potchefstroom, South Africa) |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=744 |doi=10.4102/jamba.v11i1.744 |issn=1996-1421 |pmc=6739543 |pmid=31534639}}</ref>
Disaster researchers have also observed that perceptions of looting can influence emergency response policies and public behavior during crises. Fears of widespread lawlessness have, in come cases, led authorities to prioritize security and policing over humanitarian assistance. Studies following Hurricane Katrina found that exaggerated reports of violence and looting contributed to delays in aid and reinforced public misconceptions about how people were behaving during disasters. Researchers generally argue that solidarity and cooperation are far more common responses than panic or criminal activity, a contrast to what is often portrayed in news and media outlets.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |title=Sage Journals: Discover world-class research |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/action/cookieAbsent |access-date=2026-05-15 |website=Sage Journals |language=en |doi=10.1177/0002716205285589|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Milsten |first1=Andrew M. |last2=Kang |first2=Christopher S. |last3=Nemeth |first3=Ira |date=2024-08-27 |title=Maladaptive behaviors in disasters: case study evaluation of Hurricane Hugo, Hurricane Katrina and the Haiti Earthquake |journal=Frontiers in Public Health |language=English |volume=12 |article-number=1396517 |doi=10.3389/fpubh.2024.1396517 |doi-access=free |pmid=39257945 |pmc=11384589 |bibcode=2024FrPH...1296517M |issn=2296-2565}}</ref>
Some disaster researchers have argued that reports of looting following disasters can reflect broader social racial tensions instead of actual patterns of criminal behavior. Analyses of media coverage after Hurricane Katrina found that similar actions were described differently depending on the individuals involved. For example, Black residents were more frequently portrayed as "looters" while white residents were described as "finding" or "recovering" supplies. Scholars and sociologists have cited these differences as evidence that disaster narratives can reinforce existing social inequalities and shape public perceptions of affected communities. These portrayals may influence political responses and the allocation of emergency resources during disaster recovery.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />
== History ==
=== <span id="War looting"></span><!-- [[War looting]] redirects here-->In armed conflict === [[File:Plundering van Mechelen door Spaanse Troepen 1572 Frans Hogenberg.jpg|thumb| The [[Spanish Fury at Mechelen|sacking and looting of Mechelen by Spanish troops]] led by the [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba|Duke of Alba]], 2 October 1572]]
Looting by a victorious army during war has been a common practice throughout recorded history.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sandholtz|first=Wayne|date=2008|title=Dynamics of International Norm Change: Rules against Wartime Plunder|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066107087766|journal=European Journal of International Relations|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=101–131|doi=10.1177/1354066107087766|s2cid=143721778|issn=1354-0661|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Foot soldiers viewed plunder as a way to supplement an often-meagre income<ref name=hsc>Hsi-sheng Chi (1976), ''Warlord Politics in China, 1916–1928'', Stanford University Press, {{ISBN|0804708940}}, str. 93{{clarify inline|reason="str." is not a common English abbreviation|date=April 2015}}</ref> and transferred wealth became part of the celebration of victory. In the wake of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and particularly after [[World War II]], norms against wartime plunder became widely accepted.<ref name=":0" />
In the upper ranks, the proud exhibition of the loot plundered formed an integral part of the typical [[Roman triumph]], and [[Genghis Khan]] was not unusual in proclaiming that the greatest happiness was "to vanquish your enemies ... to rob them of their wealth".<ref>Henry Hoyle Howorth (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=e4PErdXlLhwC&pg=PA110 ''History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century'']. Part 1: The Mongols Proper and the Kalmyks. Cosimo.</ref>
[[File:Pehr Hörberg-Romerska soldater med krigsbyte.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Representation of some Roman soldiers in front of the collected loot ([[gouache]] by [[Pehr Hörberg]] of [[1791]])]]The Greek historian [[Polybius]] recounts that in the [[Roman era]] there existed a particular regulation concerning war booty after having [[Siege warfare in ancient Rome|conquered a city]]. Depending on the size of the city, the Romans assigned to the collection of booty, in some cases some men taken from each [[maniple (military unit)|maniple]], while at other times entire maniples.{{sfn|Polybius|1568||p=16.2}} They never, however, employed for this operation more than half of their troops. The others were arranged to control the key points of the city, both internally and externally, always ready to intervene at any moment.{{sfn|Polybius|1568||p=16.3}}
It should be added that in the republican period, since [[Roman army|consular armies]] were normally composed of two [[Roman legion|legions]] and two [[Ala (Roman army unit)|''alae'']] of [[Auxilia|allied troops]], all those who were assigned to this action of plundering normally brought the share of booty they had taken to their own legion.{{sfn|Polybius|1568||p=16.4}}
The tribunes, once the entire booty had been sold, distributed the profit in equal parts to everyone, including those who had remained at their post performing a covering function, in addition to those placed to guard the camps, the sick, and also those who had been sent somewhere to perform some special duty but belonging to that particular consular army.{{sfn|Polybius|1568||p=16.5}} All this because no one may appropriate part of the booty without having been authorized by his tribune. All, in fact, must remain faithful to the oath taken at the moment of entering the army, when the recruits are assembled for the first time in the camp, in preparation for their first military campaigns.{{sfn|Polybius|1568||p=16.6}}
It is no coincidence that no one harbored distrust toward their comrades-in-arms; on the contrary everyone knew, both those who remained on cover duty and those who went to plunder the city, that each would be given his share, without anyone ever considering it appropriate to abandon his post in order to recover his portion of the booty, something that would have caused irreparable damage in an army.{{sfn|Polybius|1568||p=16.9}}
It is said that [[Julius Caesar]], not only did not remove from his soldiers during the [[Gallic Wars]] the possibility of taking booty, but to the poor and simple [[Roman legionary|legionary]], who had to keep clearly in mind the final objective of the campaign and whose actions were not to condition the operational plans of the commander, in [[51 BC|51]]–[[50 BC]] he doubled the [[pay (Roman army)|pay]] from 5 to 10 asses per day (equal to 225 denarii annually), so much so that the pay of the legionary remained unchanged until the period of the emperor [[Domitian]] ([[AD 81|81]]–[[AD 96|96]]).<ref>Alessandro Milan, ''Le forze armate nella storia di Roma Antica'', Rome 1993, p. 95.</ref>
It is said that the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|conquest of Dacia]] brought to the [[Roman emperor|emperor]] [[Trajan]] an enormous booty, estimated at five million [[Ancient Roman units of measurement#Weight|Roman pounds]] of [[gold]] (equal to 163.6 t) and double the amount of [[silver]],<ref name="Dione68.14.4-5">Cassius Dio, LXVIII, 14, 4–5.<br />Filippo Coarelli, ''La colonna Traiana'', Rome, 1999, tables 164–165 (CI–CII/CXXXVII–CXL), pp. 208–209.</ref> and an extraordinary quantity of other loot, in addition to half a million prisoners of war with their weapons. It was the fabulous treasure of [[Decebalus]], which the king himself is said to have hidden in the bed of a small river (the ''Sargetia'') near his capital, [[Sarmizegetusa Regia]].<ref name="Dione68.14.4-5"/><ref>[[Pliny the Younger]], ''Epistulae'', VIII, 4, 2.</ref> The same emperor was granted a grand [[Roman triumph|triumph]], with [[gladiator|gladiatorial]] spectacles, [[chariot racing|chariot races]] in the [[Circus Maximus]], a new [[Trajan's Forum|forum]] and the construction of the famous [[Trajan's Column|column]], thirty meters high, on whose spiral frieze, two hundred meters long, the military deeds of Trajan and his generals were carved. A work of rare beauty and originality where, under the guidance of the great architect [[Apollodorus of Damascus]], until the day of the inauguration (which took place on May 12 [[AD 113|113]]), numerous sculptors worked on 155 scenes and 2500 figures.<ref>Julian Bennett, ''Trajan, Optimus Princeps'', Bloomington, 2001, p. 90.</ref> Some have thought that these astonishing numbers were the result of a transcription error and that the real figure should be divided by ten but, even if that were the case, the result would remain exceptionally remarkable. In fact Trajan seems to have received from this immense booty about 2.7 billion sesterces, a figure clearly higher than the entire sum spent by Augustus and documented in his ''[[Res gestae divi Augusti]]''. In addition to this, the conquest contributed to a permanent increase in revenues in the state treasury thanks to the mines of [[Dacia (Roman province)|western Dacia]] which were reopened under the supervision of imperial officials.<ref>Grigore Arbore Popescu, ''Le strade di Traiano'', in ''Traiano ai confini dell'Impero'', edited by Grigore Arbore Popescu, Milan, 1998, p. 190.</ref>
Looting was sometimes prohibited due to religious concerns. For example, [[King Clovis I]] of the Franks, forbade his soldiers to loot when they campaigned near [[Martin of Tours|St Martin]]'s shrine in Tours, for fear of offending the saint.<ref>Gregory of Tours. ''A History of the Franks''. Pantianos classics, 1916</ref> In warfare in ancient times, the spoils of war included the defeated populations, which were often [[Slavery|enslaved]]. Women and children might become absorbed into the victorious country's population, as [[concubine]]s, [[eunuch]]s and slaves.<ref>John K. Thorton (1996). "African Background in American Colonization". In Stanley L. Engerman, Robert E. Gallman (ed.), ''The Cambridge Economic History of the United States'', Cambridge University Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0521394422}}, p. 87. "African states waged war to acquire slaves ... raids that appear to have been more concerned with obtaining loot (including slaves) than other objectives."</ref><ref>[[John Bagot Glubb]], ''The Empire of the Arabs'', Hodder and Stoughton, 1963, p. 283. "... thousand Christian captives formed part of the loot and were subsequently sold as slaves in the markets of Syria".</ref> In other pre-modern societies, objects made of precious metals were the preferred target of war looting, largely because of their ease of portability. In many cases, looting offered an opportunity to obtain [[Looted art|treasures and works of art]] that otherwise would not have been obtainable. Beginning in the [[early modern period]] and reaching its peak in the [[New Imperialism]] era, [[History of colonialism|European colonial powers]] frequently looted areas they captured during military campaigns against non-European states.<ref>{{cite book|first=James|last=Cuno|authorlink=James Cuno|title=Whose Culture?: The Promise of Museums and the Debate over Antiquities|date=2002|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0691154435}}</ref> In the 1930s, and even more so during the [[World War II|Second World War]], [[Nazi Germany]] engaged in large-scale and organized [[Nazi plunder|looting of art and property]], particularly [[World War II looting of Poland|in Nazi-occupied Poland]].<ref>J. R. Kudelski (2004), {{lang|pl|Tajemnice nazistowskiej grabieży polskich zbiorów sztuki}}, Warsaw {{in lang|pl}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news| url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/2291481.stm | work= BBC News | title= Nazi loot claim 'compelling' | date= 2 October 2002 | access-date= 11 May 2010}}</ref> The Soviet Union [[Soviet plunder|did likewise]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Akinsha |first=Konstantin |date=May 2010 |title=Stalin's Decrees and Soviet Trophy Brigades: Compensation, Restitution in Kind, or "Trophies" of War? |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-cultural-property/article/abs/stalins-decrees-and-soviet-trophy-brigades-compensation-restitution-in-kind-or-trophies-of-war/B25E3F28D47558EE022591FFA0231EB5 |journal=International Journal of Cultural Property |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=195–216 |doi=10.1017/S0940739110000093 |issn=1465-7317|url-access=subscription }}</ref> On the smaller level, looting was done by other Allied forces too.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Givens |first=Seth A. |date=1 January 2014 |title=Liberating the Germans: The US Army and Looting in Germany during the Second World War |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0968344513504521 |journal=War in History |language=EN |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=33–54 |doi=10.1177/0968344513504521 |issn=0968-3445|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Looting, combined with poor [[Military justice|military discipline]], has occasionally been an army's downfall{{Citation needed|date= August 2018}} since troops who have dispersed to ransack an area may become vulnerable to counter-attack, a good example being during the 1967 [[First Invasion of Onitsha]], where the victorious [[Nigerian Army| Nigerian troops]] were encircled and annihilated while looting. In other cases, for example, the [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala]] in 1801 or 1802, loot has contributed to further victories for an army.<ref>Wayne H. Bowen (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=S6J2Q3TlJpMC&pg=PA73 ''The History of Saudi Arabia''], Greenwood, p. 73. {{ISBN|0313340129}}</ref> Not all looters in wartime are conquerors; the looting of [[Vistula Land]] by the retreating [[Imperial Russian Army]] in 1915<ref>{{in lang|pl}} Andrzej Garlicki (1986), {{lang|pl|Z dziejów Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej}}, {{lang|pl|italic=no|Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne}}, {{ISBN|8302022454}}, p. 147</ref> was among the factors sapping the loyalty of [[Poland in World War I|Poles to Russia]]. Local civilians can also take advantage of a breakdown of order to loot public and private property, as took place at the [[Iraq Museum]] in the course of the [[Iraq War]] in 2003.<ref>Myers, Steven Lee (23 February 2009), [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/world/middleeast/24museum.html "Iraq Museum Reopens Six Years After Looting"], ''The New York Times''.</ref> [[Leo Tolstoy|Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy]]'s novel ''[[War and Peace]]'' describes widespread looting by [[Moscow]]'s citizens before [[Napoleon]]'s troops [[French invasion of Russia|entered the city]] in 1812, along with looting by [[Grande Armée|French troops]] elsewhere.
In 1990 and 1991, during the [[Gulf War]], [[Saddam Hussein]]'s soldiers caused significant damage to both Kuwaiti and Saudi infrastructure. They also stole from private companies and homes.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Kelly|first=Michael|date=24 March 1991|title=The Rape and Rescue of Kuwaiti City|magazine=The New Republic|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/76724/rape-rescue-kuwait-iraq-saddam-hussein|access-date=10 June 2020|issn=0028-6583}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2 September 2016|title=Oil Fires in Iraq|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/88666/oil-fires-in-iraq|access-date=10 June 2020|website=NASA Earth Observatory|language=en}}</ref> In April 2003, looters broke into the National Museum of Iraq, and thousands of artefacts remain missing.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Barker|first=Craig|title=Fifteen years after looting, thousands of artefacts are still missing from Iraq's national museum|url=http://theconversation.com/fifteen-years-after-looting-thousands-of-artefacts-are-still-missing-from-iraqs-national-museum-93949|access-date=13 July 2020|website=The Conversation|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Samuel|first=Sigal|date=19 March 2018|title=It's Disturbingly Easy to Buy Iraq's Archeological Treasures|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/03/iraq-war-archeology-invasion/555200/|access-date=13 July 2020|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US}}</ref>
Syrian conservation sites and museums were [[list of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian Civil War|looted during the Syrian Civil War]], with items being sold on the international [[black market]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Swann|first=Steve|date=2 May 2019|title='Loot-to-order' antiquities sold on Facebook|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-47628369|access-date=10 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Harkin|first=James|title=The Race to Save Syria's Archaeological Treasures|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/race-save-syrias-archaeological-treasures-180958097/|access-date=10 July 2020|magazine=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref> Reports from 2012 suggested that the antiquities were being traded for [[weapons]] by the various combatants.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Baker|first=Aryn|date=12 September 2012|title=Syria's Looted Past: How Ancient Artifacts Are Being Traded for Guns|language=en-US|magazine=Time|url=https://world.time.com/2012/09/12/syrias-looted-past-how-ancient-artifacts-are-being-traded-for-guns/ |access-date=10 July 2020|issn=0040-781X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Jaber|first1=Hala|last2=Arbuthnott|first2=George|title=Syrians loot Roman treasures to buy guns|newspaper=[[The Times]]|language=en|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/syrians-loot-roman-treasures-to-buy-guns-q5z9fgzs9t0|access-date=10 July 2020|issn=0140-0460}}</ref>
==== Prohibition under international law ==== Both [[customary international law]] and international [[treaty|treaties]] prohibit pillage in [[war|armed conflict]].<ref name="ICRC" /> The [[Lieber Code]], the Brussels Declaration (1874), and the [[Laws of War on Land (Oxford 1880)|Oxford Manual]] have recognized the prohibition against pillage.<ref name="ICRC" /> The [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907]] ([[Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict|modified in 1954]]) obliges military forces not only to avoid the destruction of enemy property but also to provide for its protection.<ref name=hague>Barbara T. Hoffman (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=yvXTcGC5CwQC&pg=PA57 ''Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy, and Practice''], Cambridge University Press, p. 57. {{ISBN|0521857643}}</ref> Article 8 of the [[Statute of the International Criminal Court]] provides that in international warfare, "pillaging a town or place, even when taken by assault", is a [[war crime]].<ref name="ICRC" /> In the aftermath of [[World War II]], a number of war criminals were prosecuted for pillage. The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia|International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] (1993–2017) brought several prosecutions for pillage.<ref name="ICRC" />
The [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] of 1949 explicitly prohibits the looting of civilian property during wartime.<ref name="ICRC" /><ref name=gen>E. Lauterpacht, C. J. Greenwood, Marc Weller (1991), [https://books.google.com/books?id=5xVSkGtcT5YC&pg=PA154 ''The Kuwait Crisis: Basic Documents''], Cambridge University Press, p. 154. {{ISBN|0521463084}}</ref>
Theoretically, to prevent such looting, unclaimed property is moved to the custody of the [[Custodian of Enemy Property]], to be handled until returned to its owners.
The International Criminal Court has prosecuted acts of pillage and looting as war crimes, including during conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo.<ref>International Criminal Court. "Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, Judgment pursuant to article 74 of the Statute." ICC-01/04-01/07, 2014.</ref>
==== Modern conflicts ==== [[File:Graffiti outside looted Aldi store on May 28, 2020 in Minneapolis (51237052782).jpg|thumb|[[Vandalism|Vandalized]] and looted [[Aldi]] store during the [[George Floyd protests in Minneapolis–Saint Paul|George Floyd protests in Minneapolis]], 28 May 2020]] Despite international prohibitions against the practice of looting, the ease with which it can be done means that it remains relatively common, particularly during outbreaks of [[civil unrest]] during which rules of war may not yet apply. The [[2011 Egyptian Revolution]], for example, caused a significant increase in the looting of [[antiquities]] from archaeological sites in Egypt, as the government lost the ability to protect the sites.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Gannon |first=Megan |title='Space Archaeologists' Show Spike in Looting at Egypt's Ancient Sites |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/space-archaeologists-show-spike-in-looting-at-egypt-s-ancient-sites/ |access-date=20 September 2022 |magazine=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref> Other acts of modern looting, such as the looting and destruction of artifacts from the [[Iraq Museum|National Museum of Iraq]] by [[Islamic State]] militants, can be used as an easy way to express contempt for the concept of rules of war altogether.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Cultural War': Iraq Mourns Relics Destroyed by ISIS |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-uncovered/national-museum-iraq-director-discusses-isis-destruction-relics-n383706 |access-date=20 September 2022 |website=NBC News |date=29 June 2015 |language=en}}</ref>
In the case of a sudden change in a country or region's government, it can be difficult to determine what constitutes looting as opposed to a new government taking custody of the property in question. This can be especially difficult if the new government is only partially recognized at the time the property is moved, as was the case during the [[2021 Taliban offensive]], during which a number of artifacts and a large amount of property of former government officials who had fled the country fell into the hands of the [[Taliban]] before they were recognized as the legitimate government of [[Afghanistan]] by other countries. Further looting and burning of civilian homes and villages has been defended by the Taliban as within their right as the legitimate government of Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 July 2021 |title=Taliban looted, torched Afghan homes after evicting residents – Human Rights Watch |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-looted-torched-afghan-homes-after-evicting-residents-human-rights-watch-2021-07-07/ |access-date=20 September 2022}}</ref>
Looting can also be common in cases where [[Civil disorder|civil unrest]] is contained largely within the borders of a country or during peacetime. Riots in the wake of the [[George Floyd protests|2020 George Floyd protests]] in numerous American cities led to increased amounts of looting, as looters took advantage of the delicate political situation and civil unrest surrounding the riots themselves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wagner |first=Dennis |date=15 June 2020 |title='Peaceful protests got hijacked': Some criminals used George Floyd protests as cover for looting, police say |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2020/06/15/criminals-used-george-floyd-protests-cover-looting-police-say/5324881002/ |access-date=20 September 2022 |website=USA Today |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tingston |first=Nhx |date=6 June 2020 |title=Looter from BLM and George Floyd Protest Bragged About Theft on Facebook While Offering Stolen Goods for Sale |url=https://www.techtimes.com/articles/250229/20200610/looter-from-blm-and-george-floyd-protest-bragged-about-theft-on-facebook-while-offering-stolen-goods-for-sale.htm |access-date=5 March 2024 |website=Techtimes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 June 2020 |title=List: Austin businesses looted during protests |url=https://www.kvue.com/article/news/local/austin-protests-looting-george-floyd-mike-ramos/269-c532c593-a681-42db-8558-6b97a9e9f241 |access-date=5 March 2024 |website=KVUE |language=en-US}}</ref> Up to 175 [[Target Corporation|Target]] stores closed Nationwide during the disturbances.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Voytko |first=Lisette |date=31 May 2020 |title=Target Closes 175 Stores Nationwide In Wake Of George Floyd Protests, Looting |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/lisettevoytko/2020/05/31/target-closes-175-stores-nationwide-in-wake-of-george-floyd-protests-looting/ |access-date=5 March 2024 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 May 2020 |title=VIDEO: People loot Minneapolis Target in wake of George Floyd protests |url=https://www.kron4.com/news/national/video-people-loot-minneapolis-target-in-wake-of-george-floyd-protests/ |access-date=5 March 2024 |website=KRON4 |language=en-US}}</ref>
During the ongoing [[Kashmir conflict]], looting of [[Kashmiris]] trapped between the [[India]]n and [[Pakistan]]i militarized zones is common and widespread.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Two arrested for beating, looting homeless man in Srinagar: Police |url=https://thekashmirwalla.com/two-arrested-for-beating-looting-homeless-man-in-srinagar-police/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912093349/https://thekashmirwalla.com/two-arrested-for-beating-looting-homeless-man-in-srinagar-police/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=12 September 2022 |access-date=20 September 2022 |website=The Kashmir Walla |language=en-US}}</ref>
In 2022, international observers accused [[Russia]] of engaging in [[Looting by Russian forces during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|large scale looting]] during the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]], reporting the widespread looting of everything from food to industrial equipment.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fylyppov |first1=Olexsandr |last2=Lister |first2=Tim |title=Russians plunder $5M farm vehicles from Ukraine – to find they've been remotely disabled |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/05/01/europe/russia-farm-vehicles-ukraine-disabled-melitopol-intl/index.html |access-date=21 June 2022 |work=CNN |date=2 May 2022}}</ref> Despite the publication of numerous photos and videos by Ukrainian journalists and civilians, numerous Russian commanders have denied these claims. International observers have theorized that this looting is either the result of direct orders, despite to Russia's claims to the contrary, or due to Russian soldiers not being issued with adequate food and other resources by their commanders.<ref>{{cite web |title='Hungry' Russian Soldiers Loot Ukrainian Shops |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russian-soldiers-loot-ukraine/31732450.html |date=2 March 2022 |work=Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty |access-date=21 June 2022}}</ref> On 18 November 2022, the [[University of Miami]] estimated that Russian forces in Ukraine had destroyed, pillaged, and looted at least 40 museums in Ukraine.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://international-and-comparative-law-review.law.miami.edu/ukrainian-culture-at-risk-the-legalized-looting-of-ukrainian-territories-under-russian-control/ | title=Ukrainian Culture at Risk: The "Legalized" Looting of Ukrainian Territories Under Russian Control | International and Comparative Law Review | date=18 November 2022 }}</ref>
Israeli soldiers testified to Haaretz in 2026 that IDF reservists were looting civilian property on a large scale in southern Lebanon during the [[Hezbollah–Israel conflict (2023–present)|Hezbollah-Israel conflict]], openly bringing items back into Israel including motorcycles and sofas. Although officially prohibited, border checkpoints of the [[Military Police Corps (Israel)|military police]] were often removed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kubovich |first=Yaniv |date=23 April 2026 |title=Motorcycles, TVs and Couches Israeli Soldiers Testify to Widespread Looting in Lebanon: 'Commanders Know and Do Nothing' |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/israel-security/2026-04-23/ty-article/.premium/israeli-soldiers-testify-to-looting-in-lebanon-commanders-know-and-do-nothing/0000019d-b999-d2d7-af9f-bbb986480000 |website=Haaretz}}</ref> Similar testimony was reported in 2025 by [[Breaking the Silence (organization)|Breaking the Silence]] regarding the same phenomenon in Gaza during the [[Gaza war|Israel-Gaza war]] which similarly was effectively ignored by the military police.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Raz |first=Adam |date=1 May 2026 |title=Looting Was Part of Every Israeli War. What's New Is the Total Indifference |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/israel-security/2026-05-01/ty-article-magazine/.highlight/looting-was-part-of-every-israeli-war-whats-new-is-the-total-indifference/0000019d-e244-d0b2-a3bf-e26ddd9b0000 |website=Haaretz}}</ref> Another Haaretz article pointed out that looting was common throughout Israels conflicts since the state`s founding.<ref name=":2" />
==Archaeological removals== {{Further|Archaeological looting}} The term "looting" is also sometimes used to refer to [[antiquities]] being removed from countries by unauthorized people, either domestic people breaking the law seeking monetary gain or foreign nations, which are usually more interested in prestige or previously, "scientific discovery". An example might be the removal of the contents of Egyptian tombs that were transported to museums across the [[Western world|West]].<ref name="pyramid">{{cite news |first=Brian |last=Handwerk |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/10/061024-hawass.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061106190429/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/10/061024-hawass.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 November 2006 |work=National Geographic News |title=Egypt's Antiquities Chief Combines Passion, Clout to Protect Artifacts |date=24 October 2006 }}</ref>
==Looting of industry== As part of [[World War II reparations]], Soviet forces systematically plundered the [[Soviet occupation zone]] of Germany, including the [[Recovered Territories]], which later transferred to Poland. The Soviets sent valuable industrial equipment, infrastructure and whole factories to the Soviet Union.<ref name="IPN-MM">{{cite web|url=http://www.ipn.gov.pl/biuletyn/13/biuletyn02_2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050321165047/http://www.ipn.gov.pl/biuletyn/13/biuletyn02_2.html |title=Między Modernizacja a Marnotrawstwem |archive-date=21 March 2005 |publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance]] |language=pl}} See also [http://www.niniwa2.cba.pl/komunizm_gospodarka_prl_ipn.htm other copy online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070426011453/http://www.niniwa2.cba.pl/komunizm_gospodarka_prl_ipn.htm |date=26 April 2007 }}</ref><ref name="IPN-Ś">{{cite web|url=http://www.ipn.gov.pl/biuletyn/4/biuletyn4_51.html|title=Armia Czerwona na Dolnym Śląski |publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050321233124/http://www.ipn.gov.pl/biuletyn/4/biuletyn4_51.html|archive-date=21 March 2005|language=pl}}</ref>
Many factories in the [[belligerents in the Syrian Civil War|rebels]]' zone of [[Aleppo]] during the [[Syrian Civil War]] were reported as being plundered and their assets transferred abroad.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Turkey looted Syria factory: Damascus – World News|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-looted-syria-factory-damascus-38824|access-date=10 July 2020|website=Hürriyet Daily News|date=10 January 2013 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Webel|first1=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiIlDwAAQBAJ&q=looted+syria+industry+aleppo+factory&pg=PA75|title=Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives|last2=Tomass|first2=Mark|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1315469164|language=en}}</ref> Agricultural products and electronic power plants were also seized, to be sold elsewhere.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Aljaleel|first1=Alaa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T2GHDwAAQBAJ&q=stealing+of+copper+wire+aleppo&pg=PT112|title=The Last Sanctuary in Aleppo: A remarkable true story of courage, hope and survival|last2=Darke|first2=Diana|date=2019|publisher=Headline|isbn=978-1472260550|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Badcock|first=James|date=14 January 2019|title=Turkey accused of plundering olive oil from Syria to sell in the EU|language=en-GB|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/14/turkey-accused-plundering-olive-oil-syria-sell-eu/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/14/turkey-accused-plundering-olive-oil-syria-sell-eu/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=13 July 2020|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
==Gallery== <gallery> File:Sebastiaan Vrancx (1573-1647) - De plundering van Wommelgem (1625-1630) - Düsseldorf Museum Kunstpalast 15-08-2012 15-08-12.JPG|The aftermath of the plundering of the village of [[Wommelgem]] in 1589. [[Eighty Years' War]], painting by [[Sebastiaen Vrancx]] File:Saks Fifth Avenue Boarded Up During Black Lives Matter Protests New York City - 49984780162.jpg|Private [[security guard]]s, [[barbed wire]] fencing, and boarded up windows to prevent looting of [[Saks Fifth Avenue|department stores]] in [[New York City]] during [[George Floyd protests|mass unrest]] in the United States, 7 June 2020 File:Beit Ghazaleh Alep Dec 2017.jpg|The [[Beit Ghazaleh]] Museum of Aleppo was looted of its contents prior to being hit by explosions (photo 2017) File:Eisenhower, Bradley and Patton inspect looted art HD-SN-99-02758.JPEG|General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Gen. Omar N. Bradley, and Lt. Gen. George S. Patton Jr., inspect art treasures stolen by Germans and hidden in salt mine in Germany (1945) File:2011 London riots.jpg|Looters attempting to enter a cycle shop in North London during the [[2011 England riots]] </gallery>
==See also== {{Portal|Crime|History}} * [[Arson]] * [[Banditry]] * [[Cattle raiding]] * [[Conflict resource]] * [[Piracy]] * [[Prize of war]] * ''[[Spolia opima]]'', armour and arms a Roman general stripped from the body of an opposing commander slain in single combat * [[Slave raiding]] * [[Vandalism]] * [[Thak Thak gang]]
== References == {{reflist}}
=== Bibliography === ;Primary sources: * {{cite book |author=[[Cassius Dio]] |title=Historia Romana |url=https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Historia_romana_(Cassius_Dio) |volume=libri LVIII |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=27 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927112727/https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Historia_romana_(Cassius_Dio) |url-status=dead}} : [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html Storia romana] — English translation on [[LacusCurtius]]. * {{cite book |last=Polybius |author-link=Polybius |title=[[Histories (Polybius)|Storie (Ἰστορίαι)]] |volume=III–XV |language= |year=1568}} English versions available [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/home.html here] and [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D1 here]. * [[Pliny the Younger|Plinius Secundus]], ** [[Wikisource:la:Epistularum Libri Decem (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus)|''Epistularum Libri Decem'' (Latin text)]] ** [[Wikisource:la:Panegyricus|''Panegyricus'' (Latin text)]] * {{cite book |author=Titus Livy |author-link=Livy |title=Ab Urbe condita libri |url=https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita |volume=XXI–XXX |ref={{harvid|Livy}} |language=}}
;Modern historiographical sources: * Abudu, Margaret, et al., "Black Ghetto Violence: A Case Study Inquiry into the Spatial Pattern of Four Los Angeles Riot Event-Types", 44 ''Social Problems'' 483 (1997) * Curvin, Robert and Bruce Porter (1979), ''Blackout Looting'' * Dynes, Russell & Enrico L. Quarantelli, "What Looting in Civil Disturbances Really Means", in ''Modern Criminals'' 177 (James F. Short Jr., ed., 1970) * Green, Stuart P., [https://ssrn.com/abstract=917440 "Looting, Law, and Lawlessness"], 81 ''[[Tulane Law Review]]'' 1129 (2007) * Mac Ginty, Roger, "Looting in the Context of Violent Conflict: A Conceptualisation and Typology", 25 ''Third World Quarterly'' 857 (2004). {{JSTOR|3993697}}. * Stewart, James, [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1875053 "Corporate War Crimes: Prosecuting Pillage of Natural Resources", 2010] * Kończal, Kornelia (2017), ''Politics of Plunder. Post-German Property and the Reconstruction of East Central Europe after the Second World War''. EUI Florence. * Kończal, Kornelia (2014), ''Das Schreiben und das Schweigen über die Plünderung des deutschen Eigentums. Die identitätsstiftende Figur des szabrownik im Nachkriegspolen'', in: Włodzimierz Bialik, Czesław Karolak und Maria Wojtczak (ed.): Ungeduld der Erkenntnis. Eine klischeewidrige Festschrift für Hubert Orłowski, Peter Lang, Frankfurt a. M., p. 155–170. * Kończal, Kornelia (2017), ''The Quest for German Property in East Central Europe after 1945: The Semantics of Plunder and the Sense of Reconstruction'', in: Yvonne Kleinmann among others (ed.): Imaginations and Configurations of Polish Society. From the Middle Ages through the Twentieth Century, Göttingen: Wallstein, p. 291–312. * Kończal, Kornelia (2021), ''German Property and the Reconstruction of East Central Europe after 1945: Politics, Practices and Pitfalls of Confiscation'', in: European Review of History. Revue européenne d’histoire 28 (2), p. 278–300. * E. Abranson and J. P. Colbus, ''La vita dei legionari ai tempi della guerra di Gallia'', Milan 1979. * G. Cascarino, ''L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione'', vol. I - ''Dalle origini alla fine della repubblica'', Rimini 2007. * G. Cascarino, ''L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione'', vol. II - ''Da Augusto ai Severi'', Rimini 2008. * G. Cascarino & C. Sansilvestri, ''L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione'', vol. III - ''Dal III secolo alla fine dell'Impero d'Occidente'', Rimini 2009. * P. Connolly, ''Greece and Rome at war'', London 1998, ISBN 1-85367-303-X. * {{cite book|last=Duncan-Jones|first=Richard|title=Money and Government in the Roman Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/moneygovernmenti0000dunc|year=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-44192-6 }} * A. K. Goldsworthy, ''Storia completa dell'esercito romano'', Modena 2007, ISBN 978-88-7940-306-1. * L. Keppie, ''The Making of the Roman Army, from Republic to Empire'', London 1998. * [[Yann Le Bohec|Y. Le Bohec]], ''L'esercito romano da Augusto alla fine del III secolo'', Rome 1992, VII reprint 2008. * A. Milan, ''Le forze armate nella storia di Roma Antica'', Rome 1993.
== External links == * {{Commons category-inline|Looting}}
{{Types of crime}} {{War crimes}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Looting| ]] [[Category:Property crimes]]