Type 93 torpedo

{{Short description|WW2 24-inch torpedo of the Imperial Japanese Navy}} {{redirect|Long Lance|the American Indian writer|Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance}} {{Infobox weapon | name=Type 93 torpedo | image = Type93torpedo.jpg | caption = Type 93 torpedo, recovered from Point Cruz, Guadalcanal, on display outside U.S. Navy headquarters in Washington, D.C., during World War II | origin = Empire of Japan | type = Torpedo

| is_ranged = yes | is_explosive = yes | is_missile = yes | is_UK = yes

| service = 1933–1945 | used_by = Imperial Japanese Navy | wars = Second World War

| designer = Rear Admiral Kaneji Kishimoto and Captain Toshihide Asakuma | design_date = 1928–1932 | variants = Type 97 torpedo, Type 95 torpedo

| weight = {{convert|2.7|t|lb|comma=5}} | length = {{convert|9|m|ftin|frac=16}} | diameter = {{convert|610|mm|ftin|abbr=on|frac=64}}

| range = {{convert|22000|m|yd|abbr=on}} at {{convert|48–50|kn|kph|order=flip|abbr=on}} | max_range = {{convert|40400|m|yd|abbr=on}} at {{convert|34–36|kn|kph|order=flip|abbr=on}}

| filling = | filling_weight = {{convert|490|kg|lb|abbr=on|comma=5}} | detonation = | yield =

| propellant = Kerosene or similar oxidized with oxygen-enriched air | fuel_capacity = {{convert|19|L|3}} | speed = {{convert|52|kn|kph|order=flip|abbr=on}} | launch_platform = Surface ships }} The {{nihongo|'''Type 93'''|酸素魚雷||designated for Imperial Japanese calendar year 2593}} was a {{convert|610|mm|in|abbr=on}}-diameter torpedo of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), launched from surface ships. It is commonly referred to as the '''Long Lance'''{{sfn|Boyne|1995|pp=127, 254}} by most modern English-language naval historians, a nickname given to it after the war by Samuel Eliot Morison,{{sfn|Morison|1950|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wb7915Exoz0C&q=long+lance&pg=PA278 195]}} the chief historian of the U.S. Navy, who spent much of the war in the Pacific Theater. In Japanese references, the term {{nihongo|''Sanso gyorai''|酸素魚雷||lit. "oxygen torpedo"}} is also used, in reference to its propulsion system.<ref>{{cite book |surname= Sato |given= Kasumasa |year= 1988 |publisher= 講談社 |script-title= ja:太平洋海戦 1 進攻篇 |language= ja |isbn= 4062037416}}</ref> It was the most advanced naval torpedo in the world at the time.{{sfn|Morison|1984|pp=23–25}}<ref name="Peck">{{cite web |first1=Michael |last1=Peck |url=http://nationalinterest.org/feature/japans-super-torpedo-was-the-hypersonic-missile-wwii-15541 |title=Japan's Super Torpedo was the Hypersonic Missile of World War II |work=National Interest |date=March 20, 2016 |access-date=March 20, 2016}}</ref>

== History and development == The Type 93's development (in parallel with a submarine-launched model, the Type 95) began in Japan in 1928, under the auspices of Rear Admiral Kaneji Kishimoto and Captain Toshihide Asakuma, as an evolution of the {{convert|610|mm|in|abbr=on}}-diameter Type 90 pneumatic torpedo. The torpedo design was inspired by the British oxygen-enriched torpedoes used on the {{sclass|Nelson|battleship|1}}s: a naval officer believed them to be oxygen-fuelled and it led to restarting research at Kure.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DiGiulian |first=Tony |date=23 April 2022 |title=Torpedoes of Japan |url=http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WTJAP_Main.php#Engines |website=Navweaps}}</ref>

At the time, the most powerful potential enemy of the Japanese Navy was the United States Navy's Pacific Fleet. The US Navy's doctrine, presuming an invasion by Japan of the Philippines (an American commonwealth at that time), called for the battle line to fight its way across the Pacific Ocean, relieve or recapture the Philippines, and destroy the Japanese fleet. Since the IJN had fewer battleships than the US Navy, it planned to use light forces (light cruisers, destroyers, and submarines) to whittle down the US fleet in a succession of minor battles, mostly at night. After the number of American warships was sufficiently reduced, the IJN would commit its own presumably fresh and undamaged battleships to finish off the US remnants in one huge climactic battle. A climactic battle was essentially what the US Navy's "War Plan Orange" expected as well, but in that case they would be on the offensive side.

To aid with this strategy of whittling down the US forces using smaller units, the Japanese Navy invested heavily in developing a large, heavy, and long-range torpedo, the Type 93. Torpedoes were the only weapon that gave small warships, such as destroyers, the potential to cripple or sink battleships. The IJN's torpedo research and development focused on using highly compressed oxygen instead of compressed air as the fuel oxidizer in the torpedo's propulsion system. These torpedoes used an otherwise normal wet-heater engine burning a fuel such as kerosene. Since air is only 21% oxygen (and 78% nitrogen), pure oxygen provides nearly five times as much oxidizer in the same tank volume, thereby increasing torpedo range. In addition, the absence of the inert nitrogen contained in (compressed) air led to the emission of significantly less exhaust gas, made up only of water vapor and carbon dioxide which, being significantly soluble in water, greatly reduced tell-tale bubble trails.

Compressed oxygen is dangerous to handle and required lengthy research and development, not to mention additional training for the warship's torpedomen, for safe operational use. Eventually, the IJN's weapons development engineers found that by starting the torpedo's engine with compressed air, and then gradually switching to pure oxygen, they were able to overcome the problem of explosions that had hampered it before. To conceal the use of pure oxygen from the ship's crew and any potential enemy, the oxygen tank was named the ''secondary air tank''. The pure oxygen torpedo was first deployed by the IJN in 1935.

== Specification == Some specification examples of ranges by speed: * {{convert|22000|m|yd|abbr=on}} at {{convert|48|to|50|kn|km/h|abbr=on|order=flip}} (13.6 miles) * {{convert|33000|m|yd|abbr=on}} at {{convert|37|to|39|kn|km/h|abbr=on|order=flip}} (20.5 miles) * {{convert|40400|m|yd|abbr=on}} at {{convert|33|to|35|kn|km/h|abbr=on|order=flip}} (25.1 miles)

However, the IJN announced officially the maximum performance of the Type 93 was {{convert|11|km|yd|abbr=on}} at {{convert|42|kn|km/h|abbr=on|order=flip}}.

The stated range of over {{convert|10|km|yd|abbr=on}} was effective when the targeted warship steamed straight for more than a few minutes while the torpedo approached. This sometimes occurred when USN cruisers chased IJN destroyers breaking away from the scene of the battle at high speed during the night, or when American fleet carriers, engaged in flight operations, were targeted by IJN submarines in the South Pacific in 1942–43.

The Type 93 weighed about {{convert|2700|kg|abbr=on}}, with a high explosive warhead of about {{convert|490|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of Shimose type 97 explosive, which was about 7% more powerful than straight TNT.

Rear Admiral Jungo Rai explained this weapon in the chapter "Torpedo", in collective work ''The Full Particulars of Secret Weapons'' (秘密兵器の全貌), first published by Koyo-sha, Japan, in 1952.

[[File:KaitenType1.JPG|thumb|A Type 93 torpedo modified into a Kaiten, Yasukuni Shrine Yūshūkan War Memorial Museum]]

The Type 93 torpedo had a main chamber filled with pure compressed oxygen, a joint regulator valve preventing reverse flow, and a small (approximately 13-liter) high-pressure air tank. First, compressed air was mixed with fuel, and the mixture was supplied to a heat starter. Ignition started gently, with the mixture burning steadily in the engine (if oxygen was used at this stage, explosions were common). As the compressed air was consumed and lost pressure, high-pressure oxygen was supplied from the main chamber through the joint valve into the compressed air tank. Soon the air tank was filled with pure oxygen, and combustion continued in the engine.

The torpedo needed careful maintenance. Warships equipped with Type 93 torpedo launchers required an oxygen generator system to use this type of torpedo.

=== Development of Kaiten from the Type 93 === {{Main|Kaiten}} The rotational speed of the gyrocompass was increased to 20,000 rpm for the Kaiten manned torpedo. The warhead of the Type 93 torpedo was {{convert|480|kg|lb|abbr=on}} (the same as the 1-ton {{convert|410|mm|in|abbr=on}} gun of an Imperial Japanese battleship), increased to 1.6 tons for Kaiten.

The Type 93 torpedo is {{convert|9.61|m|ft|abbr=on}} long and weighs about three tons, while the Kaiten was {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} long and weighed eight tons. The maximum speed of the Type 93 was {{convert|52|kn|km/h|abbr=on|order=flip}}, for a range of {{convert|22000|m|yd|lk=on|abbr=on}}. The Kaiten had a range of {{convert|23000|m|yd|abbr=on}} at {{convert|30|knots|km/h|abbr=on|order=flip}}, and {{convert|70000|m|yd|abbr=on}} at {{convert|12|knots|km/h|abbr=on|order=flip}}. The Kaiten had a stable slow cruising capability just beneath the surface.

==Operational history== The Type 93 had a maximum range of {{convert|40|km|yd|abbr=on}} at {{convert|38|kn|km/h|order=flip|abbr=on}} with a {{convert|490|kg|lb|abbr=on}} high explosive warhead. Its long range, high speed, and heavy warheads provided a formidable punch in surface battles. In contrast, the U.S. Navy's standard surface-launched torpedo of World War II, the {{convert|21|in|cm|abbr=on|order=flip}} Mark 15, had a maximum range of {{convert|15000|yd|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} at {{convert|26.5|kn|km/h|order=flip|abbr=on}}, or {{convert|6000|yd|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} at {{convert|45|kn|km/h|order=flip|abbr=on}}, with a significantly smaller {{convert|375|kg|lb|abbr=on}} warhead; torpedoes of other Allied nations did not have longer range. The Type 93 was launched from {{convert|61|cm|in|abbr=on}} torpedo tubes mounted on the decks of IJN destroyers and cruisers; some Japanese destroyers, unlike ships of other navies, mounted their banks of torpedo tubes in turrets offering protection against splinters, and had tube loaders. The IJN armed nearly all of its cruisers with Type 93 torpedoes.

The long range of the Type 93 enabled them to score the two longest-ranged torpedo hits ever fired. At the battle of the Java Sea, February 27, 1942, the heavy cruiser ''Haguro'' launched a torpedo from 22,000 yards which hit and sank the Dutch destroyer ''Kortenaer''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Imperial Cruisers |url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/haguro_t.htm |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.combinedfleet.com}}</ref> Shortly before the battle of Kula Gulf, July 5, 1943, the destroyer ''Niizuki'' launched a torpedo that hit and sank the destroyer USS ''Strong''. Sources differ on the exact range, but some put the range at nearly 22,000 yards.<ref>Stille, p. 33</ref>

In the early surface battles of 1942–43, Japanese destroyers and cruisers were able to launch their torpedoes from about {{convert|20|km|yd|abbr=on}} at unsuspecting Allied warships attempting to close to gun range; the Allied warships expected that, if torpedoes were used, they would be fired from not more than {{convert|10|km|yd|abbr=on}}, their own typical torpedo range. The many torpedo hits suffered by Allied warships in such engagements led their officers to believe the torpedoes had been fired by undetected Japanese submarines operating in concert with the surface warships. On rare occasions, stray Type 93s also struck ships at much longer ranges than their intended targets, leading the Allies on occasion to suspect their ships had hit mines. The capabilities of the Type 93 went mostly unrecognized by the Allies until examples were captured intact in 1943.

A {{convert|17.7|in|cm|abbr=on|order=flip}} version, the Type 97, was later developed for midget submarines, but was not a success, and was replaced operationally by Japan's standard aerial torpedo, the Type 91. A {{convert|21|in|cm|abbr=on|order=flip}} version for use by a few IJN submarines was designated the Type 95, and it was ultimately successful.

A disadvantage of the Type 93 was that its Shimose explosive warhead was far more likely to detonate due to shock than a TNT-loaded torpedo. The explosion from one Type 93, with its heavy warhead, was usually enough to sink the destroyer, or heavily damage the cruiser, carrying it. As American air strikes against IJN ships became more common, captains of destroyers and cruisers under air attack had to decide whether or not to jettison torpedoes to prevent them from being detonated during the attack. In one instance, the heavy cruiser ''Chikuma'' jettisoned her Type 93s just before being hit by bombs from several USN dive bombers at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. It was initially believed that during the Battle off Samar (in the eastern Philippines) a {{convert|5|in|mm|abbr=on|adj=on}} shell from escort carrier USS ''White Plains''{{sfn|Hornfischer|2004|p=309}} struck the heavy cruiser ''Chōkai'' which detonated the cruiser's Type 93 torpedoes, causing damage that forced the ship to be scuttled; however, the 2019 discovery by the RV Petrel of the wreck of the ''Chōkai'' with her torpedoes intact disproved this theory.<ref>{{Citation|title=IJN Chokai|url=https://www.facebook.com/rvpetrel/videos/ijn-chokai/706071753222186/|language=en|access-date=2021-03-22}}</ref> The same Samar engagement saw the heavy cruiser ''Suzuya'' sunk by the detonation of her Type 93 torpedoes: a bomb near miss starboard amidships set off the torpedoes in the starboard tube mounts; the resultant fires propagated to other torpedoes nearby and beyond; the subsequent explosions damaged one of the boilers and the starboard engine rooms and eventually reached the main magazines.

===Ships sunk by Type 93 torpedo=== While the Type 93 torpedo was dangerous to its user as well as its intended target, the Imperial Japanese Navy felt that its effectiveness outweighed its risks.{{sfn|Morison|1984|pp=23–25}} During the course of the war, 22 Allied warships were sunk after Type 93 hits: 8 cruisers, 10 destroyers, and one fleet aircraft carrier (USS Hornet). Thirteen of these had been fatally hit solely by the Type 93, with the rest succumbing to a combination of bombs, gunfire, and torpedoes.{{sfn|Boyne|1995|pp=127, 254}}{{sfn|Brown|1990|pp=16, 209}}{{sfn|Brown|1990|pp=58–133}}

* Dutch destroyer HNLMS ''Piet Hein'', 19 February 1942 in Battle of Badung Strait by destroyer ''Asashio''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Battle of Badung Strait by Vincent O'Hara |url=http://microworks.net/PACIFIC/battles/badung_strait.htm |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=microworks.net}}</ref> * Dutch destroyer HNLMS ''Kortenaer'', 27 February 1942 by heavy cruiser ''Haguro''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=IJN HAGURO: Tabular Record of Movement |url=http://combinedfleet.com/haguro_t.htm}}</ref> * Dutch light cruiser {{HNLMS|Java|1921}}, 27 February 1942 Battle of the Java Sea by heavy cruiser ''Nachi''.<ref name=":1" /> * Dutch light cruiser HNLMS ''De Ruyter'', 27–28 February 1942 by heavy cruiser ''Haguro''.<ref name=":1" /> * American heavy cruiser {{USS|Houston|CA-30}}, 1 March 1942 by heavy cruisers ''Mogami'' and ''Mikuma''. * Dutch freighter ''Enganno'', 4 March 1942 by heavy cruiser ''Chikuma'' and destroyer ''Urakaze'' * U.S. freighter ''Bienville,'' 1 April 1942 by heavy cruiser ''Chōkai''. * British steamship ''Ganges,'' 1 April 1942 by heavy cruiser ''Chōkai.'' * Heavy cruiser USS ''Quincy'' (CA-39), 9 August 1942 by heavy cruiser ''Aoba''. * Heavy cruiser USS ''Vincennes'' (CA-44), 9 August 1942 by ''Chōkai'' and light cruiser ''Yūbari.'' * Destroyer {{USS|Blue|DD-387}}, 22 August 1942 by IJN destroyer ''Kawakaze''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IJN Kawakaze: Tabular Record of Movement |url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/kawaka_t.htm}}</ref> * Aircraft carrier {{USS|Hornet|CV-8}}, 26 Oct 1942 by IJN destroyers ''Akigumo'' and ''Makigumo'' (scuttled). * Light cruiser USS ''Juneau'' (CL-52), 13 November 1942, crippled by destroyer ''Amatsukaze'', finished off by IJN submarine ''I-26''.<ref name=":2">Hara (1961) Chapter 20</ref> * Destroyer {{USS|Barton|DD-599}}, 13 November 1942 by destroyer ''{{ship|Japanese destroyer|Amatsukaze|1939|2}}''.<ref name=":2" /> * Destroyer {{USS|Laffey|DD-459}}, 13 November 1942 by destroyer ''Yukikaze''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IJN Yukikaze: Tabular Record of Movement |url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/yukika_t.htm}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=主要兵器 |first=大日本帝国軍 |date=2018-02-04 |title=雪風【陽炎型駆逐艦八番艦】その1Yukikaze【Kagero-class destroyer】 |url=https://japanese-warship.com/destroyer/yukikaze/ |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=大日本帝国軍主要兵器 |language=ja}}</ref> * Destroyer {{USS|Walke|DD-416}}, 14 November 1942 by destroyer ''Samidare''. * Heavy cruiser {{USS|Northampton|CA-26}}, 30 November 1942 by destroyers ''Kagerō'' and ''Makinami.''<ref>{{Cite web |last=主要兵器 |first=大日本帝国軍 |date=2018-02-04 |title=巻波【夕雲型駆逐艦五番艦】Makinami【Yugumo-class destroyer】 |url=https://japanese-warship.com/destroyer/makinami/ |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=大日本帝国軍主要兵器 |language=ja}}</ref> * Destroyer {{USS|Strong|DD-467}}, 5 July 1943 by destroyer ''Niizuki'' * Light cruiser {{USS|Helena|CL-50}}, 5 July 1943 by destroyers ''Suzukaze'' and ''Tanikaze'' * Destroyer {{USS|Gwin|DD-433}}, 12 July 1943 by mass torpedo attack from destroyers ''Yukikaze, Hamakaze, Kiyonami'', and ''Yūgure''. * Destroyer {{USS|Chevalier|DD-451}}, 6 October 1943 by destroyer ''Yūgumo''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IJN Yugumo: Tabular Record of Movement |url=http://combinedfleet.com/yugumo_t.htm}}</ref><ref name=":4">Hara (1961) Chapter 27</ref> * Destroyer {{USS|Cooper|DD-695}}, 3 December 1944 probably by destroyer ''Take''.{{sfn|Brown|1990|p=133}}

==== Possible torpedo hits ==== * British destroyer HMS ''Stronghold'', possibly hit by one or more torpedoes from destroyers ''Nowaki'' and ''Arashi.''<ref>Edwards (2006) p 128</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">Western sources often state ''Stronghold'' was torpedoed by the attacking destroyers, but Japanese centric sources only speak of ''Stronghold'' being sunk by gunfire</ref> * American destroyer USS ''Monssen'', possibly hit by one or more torpedoes from destroyer ''Asagumo.''<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=主要兵器 |first=大日本帝国軍 |date=2018-02-03 |title=朝雲【朝潮型駆逐艦五番艦】Asagumo【Asashio-class destroyer】 |url=https://japanese-warship.com/destroyer/asagumo/ |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=大日本帝国軍主要兵器 |language=ja}}</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">''Asagumo'' fired torpedoes at ''Monssen'', and some sources state they hit the ship. However, only gunfire damage from ''Hiei, Asagumo, Murasame,'' and ''Samidare'' has been confirmed; US sailors noticed ''Asagumo's'' torpedoes running underneath the destroyer, but whether any hit is unknown</ref>

==== Friendly fire incidents ====

* On March 1, 1942, the heavy cruiser ''Mogami'' launched a spread of torpedoes which missed their target but hit and sank the Japanese minesweeper ''W-2'' and the transport ships ''Sakura Maru'' and ''Tatsuno Maru,'' the depot ship ''Shinshu Maru'', and the hospital ship ''Horai Maru''. The destroyer ''Fubuki'' had been thought responsible for these sinkings until ''Mogami'' was later found to have been the true culprit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Imperial Cruisers |url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/mogami_t.htm |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.combinedfleet.com}}</ref>

=== Ships damaged by Type 93 Torpedo === * Heavy cruiser USS ''Chicago'', crippled by torpedo from heavy cruiser ''Kako'', August 9, 1942.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bates |first=Richard W |title=The battle of Savo Island, August 9th 1942, Strategic and tactical analysis. |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/Hell/NWC-Savo.pdf}}</ref> * Heavy cruiser USS ''Minneapolis'', crippled by two torpedo hits from destroyer ''Takanami'', November 30, 1942.<ref name="Long Lancers">{{Cite web |title=Long Lancers |url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/takana_t.htm |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.combinedfleet.com}}</ref> * Heavy cruiser USS ''New Orleans'', crippled by torpedo hit from ''Takanami'', November 30, 1942.<ref name="Long Lancers"/> * Heavy cruiser USS ''Pensacola'', crippled by torpedo hit from destroyer ''Kawakaze'', November 30, 1942. * New Zealand light cruiser HMZNS ''Leander'', crippled by torpedo hit probably from destroyer ''Yukikaze'', July 13, 1943.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-17 |title=『ゴジラ-1.0』で蘇った「奇跡の駆逐艦」大戦中は運が良かった？戦後は多くの人を祖国へ |url=https://trafficnews.jp/post/129908 |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=乗りものニュース |language=ja}}</ref> * Light cruiser USS ''Honolulu'', crippled by mass torpedo spread from destroyers ''Yukikaze, Hamakaze, Kiyonami'', and ''Yūgure'', July 13, 1943. * Light cruiser USS ''Saint Louis'', badly damaged by mass torpedo spread from destroyers ''Yukikaze, Hamakaze, Kiyonami'', and ''Yūgure'', July 13, 1943. * Destroyer USS ''Selfridge'', crippled by torpedo hit from destroyer ''Samidare'', October 7, 1943.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Long Lancers |url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/samida_t.htm |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.combinedfleet.com}}</ref> * Destroyer USS ''Foote'', crippled by torpedo hit from destroyer ''Samidare'', November 2, 1943.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Hara (1961) Chapter 28</ref>

== Surviving examples == Several examples are displayed in museums. This is an incomplete list: * Imperial War Museum Duxford, England. * Papua New Guinea National Museum, Waigani. * USS ''Arizona'' Memorial, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. * U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland – displayed outside in small park in front of Dahlgren Hall. The torpedo flanks a pathway on the other side of which is a Type 91 Japanese air-launched torpedo. * Yūshūkan museum, Tokyo, Japan. * In store at Explosion Museum of Naval Firepower, part of the National Museum of the Royal Navy, Gosport, Hampshire, England * Navy Yard, Washington D.C.

A number are also located within the war wrecks of Chuuk (Truk) Lagoon, specifically in the holds of the San Francisco Maru and Seiko Maru.

== Notes == {{notelist}}

== References == {{reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography == * {{cite book | last = Boyne | first = Walter | year = 1995 | title = Clash of Titans | publisher = Simon and Schuster | location = NY, US | isbn = 978-0-684-80196-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Brown | first = David | year = 1990 | title = Warship Losses of World War Two | publisher = Arms and Armour | location = London, Great Britain | isbn = 978-0-85368-802-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Hornfischer | first = James D. | year = 2004 | title = Last Stand of the Tin Can Sailors | publisher = Bantam | isbn = 0-553-80257-7 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/laststandoftinca00horn }} * {{cite book | last = Morison | first = Samuel Eliot | author-link = Samuel Eliot Morison | year = 1950 | title = History of United States Naval Operations in World War II: Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier | location = New York }} * {{cite book | last = Morison | first = Samuel Eliot | year = 1984 | title = History of United States Naval Operations in World War Two | volume = 3 | publisher = Little, Brown, and Company | location = Boston, US }} * {{cite book | last = Shigetaka | first = Onda |date=November 1988 | language = ja | chapter = Chapter 5, Between "Kaiten" and "Ohka" | title = "Tokko" or Kamikaze attack | publisher = Kodan-sha | location = Tokyo, Japan | isbn = 978-4-06-204181-2 }} *{{cite journal |last1=Smyers|first1=Richard Paul|title=Question 17/48: Japanese Tuype 93 Oxygen Torpedoes|journal=Warship International|date=2012|volume=XLIX|issue=2 |pages=172–173|issn=0043-0374}}

== Further reading == * {{cite journal |author1-link=Thomas C. Hone | last = Hone | first = Thomas C. |date=September 1981 | title = The Similarity of Past and Present Standoff Threats | journal = Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute | location = Annapolis, Maryland | volume = 107 | issue = 9 | pages = 113–116 | issn = 0041-798X | ref = none }} * {{cite book | last1 = Ito | first1 = Yoji | last2 = Sendo | first2 = Michio | last3 = Shiga | first3 = Fujio | date=November 1976 | orig-year = 1952 | language = ja | chapter = Torpedo (by Rai Jungo) | title = "Kimitu Heiki no Zenbo" or The full particulars of secret weapons | publisher = Hara-shobo | location = Tokyo, Japan | ref = none }} * Stille, Mark (2013). ''Imperial Japanese Navy Destroyers 1919–45 (2): Asahio to Tachibana Classes''. Botley, UK: Osprey Publishing.. {{ISBN|978-1-84908-987-6}}.

== External links == * [http://www.combinedfleet.com/torps.htm CombinedFleet info on torpedoes] * [http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WTJAP_Main.htm NavWeap's compilation of technical and development data]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Type 93 Torpedo}} Category:Torpedoes of Japan Category:World War II weapons of Japan Category:World War II naval weapons Category:Military equipment introduced in the 1930s