{{Short description|Species of annelid worm}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}} {{Speciesbox | image = Regenwurm1.jpg | genus = Lumbricus | species = terrestris | authority = Linnaeus, 1758 }}
'''''Lumbricus terrestris''''' is a large, reddish worm species thought to be native to Western Europe, now widely distributed around the world (along with several other lumbricids). In some areas where it is an introduced species, some people consider it to be a significant pest for out-competing native worms.<ref name="cabi">{{Cite web |title=''Lumbricus terrestris'' |access-date=11 November 2020 |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/109385 |publisher=CAB International |archive-date=4 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220604102032/https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/109385 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Through much of Europe, it is the largest naturally occurring species of earthworm, typically reaching 20 to 25 cm in length when extended.
== Common names == Because it is widely known, ''L. terrestris'' goes under a variety of common names. In Britain, it is primarily called the '''common earthworm''' or '''lob worm''' (though the name is also applied to a marine polychaete). In North America, the term '''nightcrawler''' (or '''vitalis''') is also used, and more specifically '''Canadian nightcrawler''', referring to the fact that the large majority of these worms sold commercially (usually as fishing bait) are from Southern Ontario. In Canada, it is also called the '''dew worm''', or "Grandaddy Earthworm". In several Germanic languages, it is called variants of "rain worm", for example in German ''Gemeiner Regenwurm'' ("common rain worm") or in Danish ''Stor regnorm'' ("large rain worm"). In the rest of the world, many references are just to the scientific name, though with occasional reference to the above names.
Although this is not the most abundant earthworm, even in its native range, it is a very conspicuous and familiar earthworm species in garden and agricultural soils of the temperate zone, and is frequently seen on the surface, unlike most other earthworms. It is also used as the example earthworm for millions of biology students around the world, even in areas where the species does not exist. However, 'earthworm' can be a source of confusion since, in most of the world, other species are more typical. For example, through much of the unirrigated temperate areas of the world, the "common earthworm" is actually ''Aporrectodea'' (=''Allolobophora'') ''trapezoides'', which in those areas is a similar size and dark colour to ''L. terrestris''.
==Description== 250 px|thumb|Earthworm head ''Lumbricus terrestris'' is relatively large, pinkish to reddish-brown in colour, generally {{Convert|110|-|200|mm|in|abbr=out}} in length and about {{Convert|7|–|10|mm|in|abbr=out}} in diameter. It has around 120–170 segments, often 135–150. The body is cylindrical in the cross section, except for the broad, flattened posterior section. Head end dark brown to reddish brown lateral, dorsal pigmentation fading towards the back.<ref name="cabi"/>
The worm has a hydrostatic skeleton and moves by longitudinal and circular muscular contractions. Setae – tiny hair-like projections – provide leverage against the surrounding soil, using slime liquid. Surface movements on moist, flat terrain were reported at a speed of 20 m/h and, based on measurements of the length of the trail, nocturnal activity away from the burrow was estimated at up to 19 m during a single surface foray. Such movement is apparent during and after heavy rainfall and usually happens when people become aware of relatively large numbers of earthworms in, for example, urban ecosystems. This form of activity is often considered a way to escape floods and waterlogged burrows. However, this cannot be the case since ''L. terrestris'', like other earthworms, can live in oxygenated water for long periods of time, stretching to weeks. Under less severe environmental conditions where air temperature and moisture are sufficient, the worm often moves around on the surface. This may be driven by resource availability or the desire to avoid mating with close relatives.<ref>{{Cite journal|volume=52|issue=4|pages=1–7|last1=Butt|first1=Kevin R.|last2=Nuutinen|first2=Visa| title=The dawn of the dew worm|journal=Biologist|date=2005}}</ref>
== Ecology == ''Lumbricus terrestris'' is a deep-burrowing anecic earthworm which builds deep vertical burrows and surfaces to feed as opposed to burrowing through the soil for its food as endogeic species do. It removes litter from the soil surface, pulling it down into the mineral layer, and deposits casts of mixed organic and mineral material on the soil surface.<ref name="iucngisd">{{Cite web |title=''Lumbricus terrestris'' |publisher=GISD |access-date=11 November 2020 |url=http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1555 |archive-date=20 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320215843/http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1555 |url-status=live }}</ref> It has invaded some areas with podzol soil profiles and destroyed their distinctive banded appearance (thick dark organic litter on the surface underlain by pale E horizon and below that brown or reddish B horizon), creating a new horizon sequence of thin litter and dark Ap (representing the worms' mixing zone) over the B.<ref>https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/epdf/10.4141/cjss64-005 K. K. Langmaid (1964). Some Effects of Earthworm Invasion in Virgin Podzols. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, Vol. 44, pp. 34-37</ref> It lives in semi-permanent burrows and can reside in or escape to deeper soil layers.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-14635-0|volume=24|pages=19–38|editor=A. Karaca|last1=Valckx|first1=J.|last2=Govers |first2=Gerard|last3=Hermy|first3=Martin|last4=Muys|first4=Bart|title=Biology of Earthworms|chapter=Optimizing Earthworm Sampling in Ecosystems|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|date=2011|chapter-url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/34526597.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126211502/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/34526597.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2017}}</ref>
High night air temperatures and hot soil inhibit ''Lumbricus terrestris''<nowiki/>' activity, as does low night moisture and dry soil. During such times, particularly in the summer, it will retreat to the deepest parts of its burrows. Winter temperatures can also reduce activity, while activity in maritime climates can continue through winter.<ref name="cabi"/>
''Lumbricus terrestris'' can strongly influence soil fungi, creating distinctive micro-habitats called middens, which strongly affect the spatial distribution of plant litter and litter-dwelling animals on the soil surface.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1078/0031-4056-00166 |issn=0031-4056 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=27–32 |last1=Orazova |first1=Maral Kh. |last2=Semenova |first2=Tatyana A. |last3=Tiunov |first3=Alexei V. |title=The microfungal community of Lumbricus terrestris middens in a linden (Tilia cordata) forest |journal=Pedobiologia |access-date=11 November 2020 |date=2003 |bibcode=2003Pedob..47...27O |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223663295}}</ref> In the soil system, ''L. terrestris'' worm casts have a relationship with plants which can be seen in such scenarios as plant propagation from seed or clone. Worm casts initiate root development, root biomass, and in effect increase root percentage as opposed to soil and soil systems without worm casts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tomati |first1=U. |last2=Grappelli |first2=A. |last3=Galli |first3=E. |title=The hormone-like effect of earthworm casts on plant growth |journal=Biology and Fertility of Soils |date=1 January 1988 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=288–294 |doi=10.1007/BF00262133 |bibcode=1988BioFS...5..288T |s2cid=32495106 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00262133 |language=en |issn=1432-0789 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=27 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120074938/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00262133 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In parts of Europe, notably the Atlantic fringe of northwestern Europe, ''Lumbricus terrestris'' is now locally endangered due to predation by the New Zealand flatworm (''Arthurdendyus triangulatus'')<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=H. D. |last2=Santoro |first2=Giulio |last3=Boag |first3=Brian |last4=Neilson |first4=Roy |title=The diversity of earthworms in 200 Scottish fields and the possible effect of New Zealand land flatworms (Arthurdendyus triangulatus) on earthworm populations |journal=Annals of Applied Biology |date=2001 |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=75–92 |doi=10.1111/j.1744-7348.2001.tb00132.x |bibcode=2001AnnAB.139...75J |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1744-7348.2001.tb00132.x |language=en |issn=1744-7348 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=12 November 2020 |access-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112194645/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1744-7348.2001.tb00132.x |url-status=live }}</ref> and the Australian flatworm (''Australoplana sanguinea''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santoro |first1=Giulio |last2=Jones |first2=Hugh D. |title=Comparison of the earthworm population of a garden infested with the Australian land flatworm (Australoplana sanguinea alba) with that of a non-infested garden |journal=Pedobiologia |date=January 2001 |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=313–328 |doi=10.1078/0031-4056-00089 |bibcode=2001Pedob..45..313S }}</ref> two predatory flatworms accidentally introduced from New Zealand and Australia. These predators are very efficient earthworm eaters, being able to survive for lengthy periods with no food, so persist even when their prey has dropped to unsustainably low populations. In some areas, this has a serious adverse effect on soil structure and quality, as the soil aeration and organic material mixing previously done by the earthworms has ceased in some areas.{{Citation needed|date=May 2026}}
===Diet=== ''Lumbricus terrestris'' is a detritivore that eats mainly dead leaves on the soil floor and A-horizon mineral soil.<ref name="cabi"/> Preference is associated with high concentrations of calcium and likely nitrogen. As a result, basswood, ash and aspen are most favored,<ref name="Knollenberg1985">{{Cite journal |doi=10.2307/2425341 |issn=0003-0031 |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |last1=Knollenberg |first1=Wesley G. |last2=Merritt |first2=Richard W. |last3=Lawson |first3=Daniel L. |title=Consumption of Leaf Litter by Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaeta) on a Michigan Woodland Floodplain |journal=American Midland Naturalist |access-date=11 November 2020 |date=January 1985 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2425341 |jstor=2425341 |bibcode=1985AMNat.113....1K |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251124220631/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2425341 |url-status=live }}</ref> followed by sugar maple and maple varieties.{{Citation needed|date=May 2026}} Oak is less palatable due to its low concentration of calcium, but will be eaten if no leaves higher in calcium are available.<ref name="iucngisd"/><ref name="Suárez2006">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1890/04-0788|issn=1051-0761|volume=16|issue=1|pages=154–165|last1=Suárez|first1=Esteban R.|last2=Fahey|first2=Timothy J.|last3=Yavitt|first3=Joseph B.|last4=Groffman|first4=Peter M.|last5=Bohlen|first5=Patrick J.|title=Patterns of Litter Disappearance in a Northern Hardwood Forest Invaded By Exotic Earthworms|journal=Ecological Applications|access-date=11 November 2020|date=February 2006|pmid=16705969|bibcode=2006EcoAp..16..154S |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/04-0788|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
While ''Lumbricus terrestris'' generally feeds on plant material, it has also been observed feeding on dead insects, soil micro-organisms,<ref name="NatureNorth">{{cite journal |url=http://www.naturenorth.com/fall/ncrawler/Night_Crawlers_03.html |title=Biology of the Night Crawler |author=Doug Collicutt |journal=NatureNorth |archive-date=12 November 2020 |access-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112195624/http://www.naturenorth.com/fall/ncrawler/Night_Crawlers_03.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and feces.<ref name="Fosgate">{{Cite journal |doi=10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(72)85586-3 |issn=0022-0302 |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=870–872 |last1=Fosgate |first1=O.T. |last2=Babb |first2=M.R. |title=Biodegradation of Animal Waste by Lumbricus terrestris |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |date=June 1972 |pmid=5032211 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Reproduction=== ''Lumbricus terrestris'' is an obligatorily biparental, simultaneous hermaphrodite worm,<ref>{{Cite journal|issn=0008-4301|volume=76 |issue=1|pages=104–109|last1=Butt|first1=Kevin R.|last2=Nuutinen|first2=Visa|title=Reproduction of the earthworm ''Lumbricus terrestris'' Linné after the first mating|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|access-date=11 November 2020|date=1998 |doi=10.1139/z97-179 |bibcode=1998CaJZ...76..104B |url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/z97-179|url-access=subscription}}</ref> that reproduces sexually with individuals mutually exchanging sperm.<ref name="iucngisd"/> Copulation occurs on the soil surface, but partners remain anchored in their burrow and mating is preceded by repeated mutual burrow visits between neighbors. Additionally, when mates separate, one of them can be pulled out of its burrow.<ref name="Michiels"/> Mating frequency is relatively high (once every 7–11 days). The relative size of the mate, the distance from presumed mates, the chance of being dragged to the surface, and size-related fecundity all tend to play key roles in the mating behavior of ''L. terrestris''.<ref name="Michiels">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1093/beheco/12.5.612 |issn=1465-7279 |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=612–618 |last=Michiels |first=N. K. |title=Precopulatory mate assessment in relation to body size in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris: avoidance of dangerous liaisons? |journal=Behavioral Ecology |date=September 2001 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
''Lumbricus terrestris'' sperm is stored for as long as 8 months, and mated individuals produce cocoons for up to 12 months after the mating.<ref name="iucngisd"/> Fertilization takes place in the cocoon, which is deposited in a small chamber in the soil adjacent to the parental burrow. After a few weeks, young worms emerge and begin to feed in the soil. In the early juvenile phase, the worms do not develop the vertical burrows typical of adults. Adulthood is believed to require a minimum of one year of development, with reproductive maturity reached in the second year.<ref name="cabi"/> The natural lifespan of ''L. terrestris'' is unknown, though individuals have lived for six years in captivity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uclan.ac.uk/scitech/earthworm_research/faqs.php |title=Earthworm Research Group (at the University of Central Lancashire):Frequently Asked Questions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313003133/http://www.uclan.ac.uk/scitech/earthworm_research/faqs.php|archive-date=13 March 2009}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=May 2026|reason=Have any Lumbricus terrestris specimens lived longer than six years in captivity since 2009? May not *need* an update, but it would certainly be nice to have a more recent source than 2009.}}
==As an invasive species in North America== {{Main|Invasive earthworms of North America}} ''Lumbricus terrestris'' is considered invasive in the north central United States. It does not do well in tilled fields because of pesticide exposure, physical injuries from farm equipment and a lack of nutrients.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kladivko EJ, Akhouri NM, Weesies G |year=1997 |title=Earthworm populations and species distributions under no-till and conventional tillage in Indiana and Illinois |journal=Soil Biol Biochem |volume=29 |issue=3–4 |pages=613–615 |doi=10.1016/s0038-0717(96)00187-3 |bibcode=1997SBiBi..29..613K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=1999|title=Long-term trends in earthworm populations of cropped experimental watershed in Ohio, USA|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258394858|journal=Pedobiologia|volume=43|pages=713–719|vauthors=Butt KR, Shipitalo MJ, Bohlen PJ, Edwards WM, Parmelee RW |issue=6 |doi=10.1016/S0031-4056(24)00602-4 |bibcode=1999Pedob..43..713B }}</ref> It thrives in fence rows and woodlots and can lead to reductions in native herbaceous and tree regrowth.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Frelich LE, Hale CM, Scheu S, Holdsworth AR, Heneghan L, Bohlen PJ, Reich PB |year=2006 |title=Earthworm invasion into previously earthworm-free temperate and boreal forests |journal=Biol Invasions |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=1235–1245 |doi=10.1007/s10530-006-9019-3 |bibcode=2006BiInv...8.1235F |hdl=11299/175603 |s2cid=446677 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hale CM, Frelich LE, Reich PB |year=2005 |title=Exotic European earthworm invasion dynamics in northern hardwood forests of Minnesota, USA |journal=Ecol Appl |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=848–860 |doi=10.1890/03-5345 |bibcode=2005EcoAp..15..848H }}</ref>
==References== {{Reflist}}
==External links== {{Commons-inline}} {{refbegin}} * {{cite web|url=http://files.dnr.state.mn.us/ecological_services/nongame/projects/consgrant_reports/2002_Frelich_sign2.pdf|title=Exotic Earthworms in Minnesota Hardwood Forests|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040306140446/http://files.dnr.state.mn.us/ecological_services/nongame/projects/consgrant_reports/2002_Frelich_sign2.pdf|archive-date=6 March 2004}} * {{cite news |title=Biologists trying to figure why giant earthworm grew so big |last1=Wise |first1=Scott |publisher=CBS 6, WTVR-TV |date=2 September 2012 |url=http://wtvr.com/2012/09/02/giant-earthworm/ |access-date=15 May 2013 |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123204956/https://www.wtvr.com/2012/09/02/giant-earthworm/ |url-status=live }} {{refend}}
==Further reading== * {{cite journal|last1=McTavish|first1=Michael J.|last2=Basiliko|first2=Nathan|last3=Sackett|first3=Tara E.|title=Environmental Factors Influencing Immigration Behaviors of the Invasive Earthworm Lumbricus terrestris|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|date=December 2013|volume=91|issue=12|pages=859–865|doi=10.1139/cjz-2013-0153 |bibcode=2013CaJZ...91..859M }}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q30092}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Lumbricidae Category:Animals described in 1758 Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus