{{Short description|None}}
{{Multiple issues| {{synthesis|date=August 2011}} {{More citations needed|date=October 2025}} }} {{nationalism sidebar|types}}
Among [[Nationalism studies|scholars of nationalism]], a number of '''types of nationalism''' have been presented. [[Nationalism]] may manifest itself as part of an official state ideology or as a popular non-state movement and may be expressed along [[Racial nationalism|racial]], [[Civic nationalism|civic]], [[ethnic nationalism|ethnic]], [[Linguistic nationalism (disambiguation)|linguistic]], [[religious nationalism|religious]] or [[ideological]] lines. These self-definitions of the nation are used to classify types of nationalism, but such categories are not mutually exclusive and many nationalist movements combine some or all of these elements to varying degrees. Nationalist movements can also be classified by other criteria, such as scale and location.
Some political theorists, like [[Umut Özkirimli]], make the case that any distinction between forms of nationalism is false.<ref>{{cite book |author=Özkirimli |first=Umut |author-link=Umut Özkırımlı |title=Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2005 |location=Basingstoke |pages=24–25 |chapter=Chapter 2: What is Nationalism?; A critique of the ethnic-civic distinction}}.</ref> In all forms of nationalism, the populations believe that they share some kind of common [[culture]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Özkirimli |first=Umut |title=Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2005 |location=Basingstoke |pages=24–25 |chapter=Chapter 2: What is Nationalism?; A critique of the ethnic-civic distinction}}</ref> Arguably, all types of nationalism merely refer to different ways academics throughout the years have tried to define nationalism.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Similarly, Yael Tamir has argued that the differences between the oft-dichotomized ethnic and civic nationalism are blurred.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tamir |first=Yael (Yuli) |date=2019 |title=Not So Civic: Is There a Difference Between Ethnic and Civic Nationalism? |journal=[[Annual Review of Political Science]] |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=419–434 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-022018-024059 |issn=1094-2939 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Racial nationalism == {{main|Racial nationalism}} Racial nationalism is an ideology that advocates a [[Race (human categorization)|racial]] definition of national identity. Racial nationalism seeks to preserve a given race through policies such as [[Anti-miscegenation laws|banning race mixing]] and the [[immigration]] of other races. Its ideas tend to be in direct conflict with those of [[anti-racism]] and [[multiculturalism]].<ref name="taub">{{cite news |last=Taub |first=Amanda |date=21 November 2016 |title=White Nationalism, Explained |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/americas/white-nationalism-explained.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614003947/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/americas/white-nationalism-explained.html |archive-date=14 June 2023 |access-date=14 June 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref name="silverstein">{{cite news |last=Silverstein |first=Jason |title=Billboard from 'white genocide' segregation group goes up along highway near Birmingham, Ala |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/billboard-white-genocide-group-ala-article-1.2074126 |work=[[New York Daily News]] |date=January 11, 2015 |access-date=14 June 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322082831/https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/billboard-white-genocide-group-ala-article-1.2074126 |url-status=live }}</ref> An example is [[white nationalism]]. == Ethnic nationalism == {{Main|Ethnic nationalism}} Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethnonationalism,{{sfn|Leoussi|2001|p=81-84}} is a form of [[nationalism]] wherein the nation and nationality are defined in terms of [[ethnicity]],{{sfn|Smith|1987|p=134-138, 144–149}}{{sfn|Smith|2009|p=61-80}} with emphasis on an [[ethnocentrism |ethnocentric]] (and in some cases an [[ethnocracy|ethnocratic]]) approach to various political issues related to national affirmation of a particular [[ethnic group]].{{sfn|Smith|1981|p=18}}{{sfn|Roshwald|2001|p=}}
The central tenet of ethnic nationalists is that "nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith, and a [[Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic group|common ethnic ancestry]]".{{sfn|Muller|2008}} Those of other ethnicities may be classified as second-class citizens.{{sfn|Rangelov|2013}}{{sfn|Yilmaz|2018}}
Ethnic nationalism was traditionally the determinant type of nationalism in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Friedli |first=Andrea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zz9BDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Eastern+European%22+%22ethnic+nationalism%22&pg=PA75 |title=Nation-Building and Identities in Post-Soviet Societies: New Challenges for Social Sciences Volume 47 of Freiburg Studies in Social Anthropology/Freiburger Sozialanthropologische Studien Series Freiburg Studies in Social Anthropology/ Freiburger Sozialanthropologische Studien Volume 47 of Freiburger Sozialanthropologische Studien |author2=Gohard-Radenkovic |first2=Aline |author3=Francois Ruegg |first3=Francois |publisher=[[LIT Verlag Münster]] |year=2017 |isbn=9783643802187 |page=75}}</ref>
=== Expansionist nationalism === [[Expansionist nationalism]]<ref name="21st-Century-Political-Sci">{{cite book |author1=Salih Bicakcic |editor1-last=Ishiyama |editor1-first=John T. |editor-link1=John Ishiyama |editor2-last=Breuning |editor2-first=Marijke |title=21st Century Political Science: A Reference Handbook |date=2011 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=9781412969017 |pages=633–638 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IR1GCphhU7EC |access-date=19 April 2019 |language=en |chapter=Vol.2, Part V: Political Thought; Chapter 74: Nationalism}}</ref> is an aggressive radical form of ethnic nationalism (''ethnonationalism'') that incorporates autonomous, heightened ethnic consciousness and patriotic sentiments with [[Atavism|atavistic]] fears and hatreds focused on "other" or foreign peoples, framing a belief in [[expansionism|expansion]] or recovery of formerly owned territories through militaristic means.<ref name="Political-ideologies-Heywood">{{cite book |last1=Heywood |first1=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Heywood |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy8hDgAAQBAJ&q=Heywood.+Political+Ideologies:+An+Introduction+2004 |title=Political Ideologies: An Introduction |date=2017 |publisher=PALGRAVE; Macmillan International Higher Education |isbn=9781137606044 |edition=6th |pages=176–187 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 6: Nationalism; 6.4.3.: Expansionist Nationalism |access-date=19 April 2019}}{{Dead link|date=February 2024|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref name="Political-theory-Heywood">{{cite book |last1=Heywood |first1=Andrew |title=Political Theory: An Introduction |date=2015 |publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education |isbn=9781137437280 |pages=95–99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mEH_CAAAQBAJ |access-date=19 April 2019 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 4 Sovereignty, the Nation and Transnationalism; 4.1. Nationalism }}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Nationalism-Theory-revisionworld.com">{{cite web |title=Nationalism Theory – Politics A-Level – Revision World |url=https://revisionworld.com/a2-level-level-revision/politics/nationalism-theory |website=revisionworld.com |access-date=19 April 2019}}</ref>
=== Romantic nationalism === [[Romantic nationalism]], also known as organic nationalism and identity nationalism, is the form of [[ethnic nationalism]] in which the state derives political legitimacy as a natural ("organic") consequence and expression of the nation, race, or ethnicity. It reflected the ideals of [[Romanticism]] and was opposed to Enlightenment [[rationalism]]. Romantic nationalism emphasized a historical ethnic culture which meets the Romantic Ideal; [[folklore]] developed as a Romantic nationalist concept. The [[Brothers Grimm]] were inspired by Herder's writings to create an idealized collection of tales which they labeled as ethnically German. Historian [[Jules Michelet]] exemplifies French romantic-nationalist history.
=== Liberal ethnonationalism === Generally, "liberal nationalism" is used in a similar sense to "civic nationalism"; liberal nationalism is a kind of nationalism recently defended by political philosophers who believe that there can be a non-[[xenophobic]] form of nationalism compatible with liberal values of freedom, tolerance, [[Equality before the law|equality]], and individual rights.<ref>Yael Tamir. 1993. ''Liberal Nationalism.'' Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-07893-9}}; Will Kymlicka. 1995. ''Multicultural Citizenship.'' Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-827949-3}}; David Miller. 1995. [http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9 ''On Nationality.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000601183631/http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9|date=2000-06-01}} Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-828047-5}}.</ref> However, not all "liberal nationalism" is always "civic nationalism"; there are also liberals who advocate moderate nationalism that affirm ethnic identity, also referred to as "liberal ethnonationalism".<ref name=Taiwan/>
Xenophobic movements in long-established Western European states indeed often took a 'civic national' form, rejecting a given group's ability to assimilate with the nation due to its belonging to a cross-border community (ex. [[Irish Catholics]] in Britain, [[Ashkenazi Jews]] in France).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yack |first=Bernard |title=The myth of the civic nation |journal=Critical Review |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=193–211 |year=1996 |doi=10.1080/08913819608443417}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Rogers Brubaker |title=Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany |publisher=Harvard University Press |dates=1992 |pages=14–17}}</ref> On the other hand, while liberal subnational separatist movements were commonly associated with ethnic nationalism; such nationalists as the [[Corsican Republic]], [[United Irishmen]], [[Breton Federalist League]] or [[Catalan Republican Party]] could combine a rejection of the unitary civic-national state with a belief in liberal universalism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Guibernau |first=Montserrat |title=Nations Without States: Political Communities in a Global Age |publisher=Polity |year=1999 |pages=81–85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Stephen John Small |title=Political Thought in Ireland, 1776-1798: Republicanism, Patriotism, and Radicalism |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=2002 |pages=220–225}}</ref>
During [[Taiwan]]'s [[Dang Guo|KMT one-party dictatorship]], the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) defended [[Chinese state nationalism]]. Opposing this, liberals and progressives such as the [[Democratic Progressive Party]] (DPP) defended [[Taiwanese nationalism|Taiwanese-based]] "liberal [ethnic] nationalism" (自由民族主義).<ref name="Taiwan">{{cite book |author1=Drover |first=Glenn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OO9OAAAAMAAJ&q=%22liberal+ethno-nationalism%22 |title=Regionalism and Subregionalism in East Asia: The Dynamics of China |author2=Graham Johnson |author3=Julia Lai Po-Wah Tao |date=2001 |publisher=Nova Science |isbn=978-1-56072-872-6 |pages=101 |quote=In response to the rise of 'liberal ethno-nationalism' and the DPP, it has increasingly promoted the discourse and practices of a 'Taiwanized' KMT.}}</ref> [[South Korea]] prioritized South Korean-based "[[Korean nationalism#State-aligned nationalism|state nationalism]]" (국가주의) over [[Korean ethnic nationalism]] during the right-wing dictatorship; in response, political liberals and leftists defended "liberal [ethnic] nationalism" (자유민족주의),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Hee-sun |date=2007 |title=Musical Representation of Nationalism in Contemporary South Korea |script-title=ko:민족주의의 음악적 표상: 한국 전통 음악 담론과 연행에서 민족주의 |trans-title=Musical Representation of Nationalism in Contemporary South Korea |journal=동양음악 (Journal of the Asian Music Research Institute) |volume=29 |pages=165–194 |hdl=10371/87889 |issn=1975-0218 |hdl-access=free |script-journal=ko:동양음악 |trans-journal=Journal of the Asian Music Research Institute}}</ref> a moderate version of Korean ethnic nationalism. Even today, major left-liberal and progressive nationalists in Taiwan and South Korea advocate anti-imperialistic [[Minzu (anthropology)#National liberation movements|''minzu''-based nationalism]] (民族主義) and are critical of right-wing state nationalism (國家主義).<ref>{{cite book |author=Whigham |first=Stuart |title=Sport and Nationalism: Theoretical Perspectives |date=8 February 2024 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |pages=170}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Baogang He |title=Governing Taiwan and Tibet: Democratic Approaches |date=8 July 2015 |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |pages=81}}</ref>
[[Liberal Zionism]] is an ideology that combines [[Zionism]]—an ethnocultural nationalist ideology—with secular liberal values. Liberal Zionists define Israel as a [[Jewish and democratic state]] and support [[two-state solution]] and equal rights to [[Arab citizens of Israel]].
In 19th century Europe, liberal movements often affirmed ethnic nationalism in the modern sense along with to topple [[classical conservatism]]; [[István Széchenyi]] was a representative of liberal ethnic nationalism.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Mark Hewitson |title=What Is a Nation?; Europe 1789–1914 |author2=Timothy Baycroft |date=2001 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=180 |quote=The shifting of ground in the Magyar case from the 'estate nationalism' of the 1790s to the liberal-ethnic nationalism of the 1840s can be followed in the 'national road' trodden by Count István Széchenyi where liberal and romantic were combined.}}</ref>
=== Left-wing ethnonationalism === {{Main|Left-wing nationalism#Social ethno-nationalism}}
While left-wing nationalism has a weaker ethnic nationalist component than right-wing nationalism, some national liberation movements have also combined with ethnic nationalism; [[Northeast Asia]] and [[Vietnam]]'s "national liberation" (民族解放, ''[[Minzu jiefang]]'') are representative.
== Civic nationalism == [[Civic nationalism]], sometimes known as democratic nationalism and liberal nationalism, is a political identity built around shared [[citizenship]] within the state, with emphasis on political institutions and liberal principles, which its citizens pledge to uphold. It aims to adhere to traditional liberal values of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]], [[Toleration|tolerance]], [[Egalitarianism|equality]], and [[individual rights]], and is not based on [[ethnocentrism]].<ref name="Auer">{{cite book |last1=Auer |first1=Stefan |author-link=Stefan Auer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BhNsM_ttOb4C&pg=PA5 |title=Liberal Nationalism in Central Europe |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1134378602 |page=5 |access-date=13 May 2017}}</ref><ref>Tamir, Yael. 1993. ''Liberal Nationalism.'' Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-07893-9}}{{Page needed |date=June 2016}}; [[Will Kymlicka]]. 1995. ''Multicultural Citizenship.'' Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-827949-3}}{{Page needed |date=June 2016}}; David Miller. 1995. [http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9 ''On Nationality.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000601183631/http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9 |date=1 June 2000 }} Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-828047-5}}.</ref> Civic nationalists often defend the value of [[national identity]] by arguing that individuals need it as a partial shared aspect of their identity to lead meaningful, autonomous lives<ref>Kymlicka, Will. 1995. ''Multicultural Citizenship''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-827949-3}}. For criticism, see: Patten, Alan. 1999. [https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1354-5078.1999.00001.x "The Autonomy Argument for Liberal Nationalism."] ''[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]].'' 5(1): 1–17.</ref> and that democratic [[Polity|polities]] need a [[national identity]] to function properly.<ref>Miller, David. 1995. ''On Nationality''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-828047-5}}. For criticism, see: [[Arash Abizadeh|Abizadeh, Arash]]. 2002. [http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Does-Liberal-Democracy-Presuppose-a-Cultural-Nation/c22zv/558da7580cf298ff2bcbdc82 "Does Liberal Democracy Presuppose a Cultural Nation? Four Arguments."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807114607/http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Does-Liberal-Democracy-Presuppose-a-Cultural-Nation/c22zv/558da7580cf298ff2bcbdc82|date=2016-08-07}} ''American Political Science Review'' 96 (3): 495–509; Abizadeh, Arash. 2004. "[http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Liberal-Nationalist-vs-Postnational-Social-Integration/c22zv/558eaf0b0cf20d45521f9542 Liberal Nationalist versus Postnational Social Integration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807114607/http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Liberal-Nationalist-vs-Postnational-Social-Integration/c22zv/558eaf0b0cf20d45521f9542|date=2016-08-07}}." ''[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]]'' 10(3): 231–250.</ref>
Membership in the civic nation is open to every person by citizenship, regardless of culture or ethnicity; those who share these values can be considered members of the nation.<ref name="definition">{{cite journal |author=Stilz |first=Anna |title=Civic Nationalism and Language Policy |journal=Philosophy & Public Affairs |volume=37 |issue=3 |page=257}}</ref> In theory, a civic nation or state does not aim to promote one culture over another.<ref name="definition" /> German philosopher [[Jürgen Habermas]] has argued that immigrants to a [[Liberal democracy|liberal-democratic]] state need not assimilate into the host culture but only accept the principles of the country's constitution ([[constitutional patriotism]]).<ref name="definition" />
[[Donald Ipperciel]] argues civic nationalism historically was a determining factor in the development of modern [[constitution]]al and democratic states.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ipperciel |first=Donald |date=2007 |title=Constitutional democracy and civic nationalism |journal=[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] on behalf of the [[Association for the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism]] |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=395–416 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00293.x |issn=1469-8129}}</ref> The 20th-century revival of civic nationalism played a key role in the ideological war against racism.<ref>{{cite book|author1=[[Nancy Foner]]|author2=Patric Simon|title=Fear, Anxiety, and National Identity Immigration and Belonging in North America and Western Europe|publisher=[[Russell Sage Foundation]]|year=2015|page=38|isbn=9781610448536|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRooCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38}}</ref> However, as the Turkish political scientist [[Umut Özkirimli]] states, "civic" nations can be as intolerant and cruel as the so-called "ethnic" nations, citing [[Jacobins|French Jacobin]] techniques of persecution that were used by [[History of fascism|20th-century fascists]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Özkirimli |first=Umut |title=Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction |publisher=[[Red Globe Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=9780333947739 |edition=1st |location=London |pages=27–28}}</ref>
=== State nationalism === [[State nationalism]], state-based nationalism, state-led nationalism,<ref name="Liu Li Fan Hong">{{cite book |author1=Liu Li |author2=Fan Hong |title=The National Games and National Identity in China |date=14 July 2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |pages=4 }}</ref> or "statism" ({{zh|t=國家主義|link=no}}) equates 'state identity' with '[[national identity]]' and values state authority. State nationalism is classified as civic nationalism by the dichotomy that divides nationalism into "civic" and "ethnic",<ref name="Mohammad Ateequ"/><ref>{{cite book |author1=Jacob T. Levy |title=The Multiculturalism of Fear |date=2000 |publisher=OUP Oxford |pages=87}}</ref><ref name="J. C. Chatturvedi">{{cite book |author1=J. C. Chatturvedi |title=Political Governance: Political theory |date=2005 |publisher=Isha Books |pages=75}}</ref> but it is not necessarily liberal and has been present in authoritarian politics. [[Soviet nationalism]], [[Shōwa Statism]], [[Kemalism]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Cengiz Gunes |title=The Political Representation of Kurds in Turkey: New Actors and Modes of Participation in a Changing Society |date=2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |pages=6}}</ref> [[Francoism]],<ref name="J. C. Chatturvedi"/> and [[Chinese Communist Party|Communist]]-led [[Chinese state nationalism]]<ref name="Mohammad Ateequ">{{cite book |author1=Mohammad Ateeque |title=Identity Conscience Nationalism and Internationalism |publisher=Educreation Publishing |pages=52}}</ref> are all classified as state nationalism.
== Ideological nationalism ==
=== Revolutionary nationalism === [[Revolutionary nationalism]] is a broad label that has been applied to many different types of nationalist political movements that wish to achieve their goals through a revolution against the established order. Individuals and organizations described as being revolutionary nationalist include some political currents within the [[French Revolution]],<ref>David A. Bell, "Lingua Populi, Lingua Dei: Language, Religion, and the Origins of French Revolutionary Nationalism" in ''The American Historical Review'', Dec. 1995, Vol. 100, No. 5, p. 1436</ref> [[Irish republicanism|Irish republicans]] engaged in armed struggle against the [[British crown]],<ref>Brian Jenkins, ''Irish Nationalism and the British State: From Repeal to Revolutionary Nationalism'', McGill-Queen's University Press, 2006, p. 255</ref> the [[Can Vuong movement]] against French rule in 19th century [[Vietnam]],<ref>David L. Anderson, edit., ''The Columbia History of the Vietnam War'', Columbia University Press, 2017, chapter: "Setting the Stage: Vietnamese Revolutionary Nationalism and the First Vietnam War," Mark Philip Bradley, p. 96-97</ref> the [[Indian independence movement]] in the 20th century,<ref>L.N. Rana, "Revolutionary Nationalism in Jharkhand" in ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', 2000–2001, Vol. 61, Part One, p. 718</ref> some participants in the [[Mexican Revolution]],<ref>Robert F. Alegre, ''Railroad Radicals in Cold War Mexico: Gender, Class, and Memory'', University of Nebraska Press, 2014, chapter: "'The Mexican Revolution Was Made on the Rails': Revolutionary Nationalism, Class Formation, and the Early Impact of the Cold War," p. 29</ref> [[Benito Mussolini]] and the [[Italian Fascism|Italian Fascists]],<ref>A. James Gregor, ''Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism'', University of California Press, 1979, p. 99</ref> the [[Autonomous Government of Khorasan]],<ref>Stephanie Cronin, "An Experiment in Revolutionary Nationalism: The Rebellion of Colonel Muhammad Taqi Khan Pasyan in Mashhad, April–October 1921" in ''Middle Eastern Studies'', Oct. 1997, Vol. 33, No. 4, p. 693</ref> [[Augusto Cesar Sandino]], the [[Revolutionary Nationalist Movement]] in Bolivia,<ref>Christian Anglade, Carlos Fortin, edit., ''The State and Capital Accumulation in Latin America, Vol. 2'', Palgrave Macmillan, 1990, chapter: "Capital Accumulation and Revolutionary Nationalism in Bolivia, 1952–85," Winston Moore Casanovas, p. 32</ref> [[black nationalism]] in the United States,<ref>Akinyele Omowale Umoja, ''We Will Shoot Back: Armed Resistance in the Mississippi Freedom Movement'', NYU Press, 2013, chapter: "'Black Revolution Has Come': Armed Insurgency, Black Power, and Revolutionary Nationalism in the Mississippi Freedom Struggle," p. 173</ref> and some [[African independence movements]].<ref>Basil Davidson, "On Revolutionary Nationalism: The Legacy of Cabral" in ''Latin American Perspectives'', Spring, 1984, Vol. 11, No. 2</ref>
=== Liberation nationalism === Many nationalist movements in the world are dedicated to [[national liberation]] in the view that their nations are being persecuted by other nations and thus need to exercise self-determination by liberating themselves from the accused persecutors. [[Anti-revisionism|Anti-revisionist]] [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist–Leninism]] is closely tied with this ideology, and practical examples include Stalin's early work ''[[Marxism and the National Question]]'' and his [[Socialism in One Country]] edict, which declares that nationalism can be used in an internationalist context i.e. fighting for national liberation without racial or religious divisions.
=== Left-wing nationalism === [[Left-wing nationalism]], also occasionally known as socialist nationalism,<ref>[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171019203758/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1987.tb01886.x/abstract Political Science, Volume 35, Issue 2; ''Class and Nation: Problems of Socialist Nationalism'']</ref> refers to any political movement that combines [[left-wing politics]] or [[socialism]] with [[nationalism]]. Notable examples include [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] that launched the [[Cuban Revolution]] that ousted dictator [[Fulgencio Batista]] in 1959, Ireland's [[Sinn Féin]], [[Labor Zionism]] in Israel, and the [[African National Congress]] in South Africa.
== Schools of anarchism which acknowledge nationalism == {{main|Anarchism and nationalism}}
[[Anarchism|Anarchists]] who see value in nationalism typically argue that a nation is first and foremost a ''people''; that the [[Sovereign state|state]] is parasite upon the nation and should not be confused with it; and that since in reality states rarely coincide with national entities, the ideal of the [[nation state]] is actually little more than a myth. Within the European Union, for instance, they argue there are over 500 ethnic nations within the 25 member states, and even more in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Moving from this position, they argue that the achievement of meaningful [[self-determination]] for all of the world's nations requires an anarchist political system based on local control, free federation, and [[Mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]]. There has been a long history of anarchist involvement with left-nationalism all over the world. Contemporary fusions of anarchism with anti-state left-nationalism include some strains of [[Black anarchism]] and [[indigenism]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}
In early to mid-19th-century Europe, the ideas of nationalism, [[liberalism]], and [[socialism]]. were closely intertwined. Revolutionaries and radicals like [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] aligned with all three in about equal measure.<ref>Hearder (1966), p. 46-47, 50.</ref> The early pioneers of anarchism participated in the spirit of their times: they had much in common with both liberals and socialists, and they shared much of the outlook of early nationalism as well. Thus [[Mikhail Bakunin]] had a long career as a [[Pan-Slavism|pan-Slavic]] nationalist before adopting anarchism. He also agitated for a United States of Europe (a contemporary nationalist vision originated by Mazzini).<ref>[http://raforum.info/imprimerart.php3?id_article=2221 Robert Knowles. "Anarchist Notions of Nationalism and Patriotism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006082128/http://raforum.info/imprimerart.php3?id_article=2221 |date=2007-10-06 }}</ref> In 1880–1881, the [[Boston]]-based Irish nationalist W. G. H. Smart wrote articles for a magazine called ''The Anarchist''.<ref>''The Raven'', No. 6.</ref> Similarly, [[Anarchism in China|anarchists in China]] during the early part of the 20th century were very much involved in the left wing of the nationalist movement while actively opposing{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}} racist elements of the anti-[[Manchu people|Manchu]] wing of that movement.
== Pan-nationalism == [[Pan-nationalism]] is usually an ethnic and cultural nationalism, but the 'nation' is itself a cluster of related ethnic groups and cultures, such as [[Pan-Slavism|Slavic]] peoples. Occasionally pan-nationalism is applied to [[Monoethnicity|mono-ethnic]] nationalism, when the national group is dispersed over a wide area and several states – as in [[Pan-Germanism]].
==Transnationalism== [[Transnationalism]] puts nations within an overarching concept, such as [[global citizen]]ry, seeing shared overarching institutions, for example such as institutions for [[continental union]] or [[Globalization|globalizing]] society.
== Religious nationalism == {{main|Religious nationalism}}
Religious nationalism is the relationship of nationalism to a particular religious belief, [[religious organization]], or [[religious identity]]. This relationship can be broken down into two aspects; the [[politicization]] of religion and the converse influence of religion on politics. In the former aspect, a shared religion can be seen to contribute to a sense of national unity, by the citizens of the nation. Another political aspect of religion is the support of a national identity, similar to a shared ethnicity, language or culture. The influence of religion on politics is more ideological, where current interpretations of religious ideas inspire political activism and action; for example, laws are passed to foster stricter religious adherence.<ref>Juergensmeyer, Mark. "The Worldwide Rise of Religious Nationalism",''[[Journal of International Affairs]]'', Summer 1996, 50, 1.</ref> [[Hindu nationalism]] is common in many states and union territories in India which joined the union of India solely on the basis of religion and post-colonial nationalism.
== Post-colonial nationalism == Since the process of [[decolonisation]] that occurred after [[World War II]], there has been a rise of Third World nationalisms (or nationalisms in less-developed states). Third world nationalisms occur in those nations that have been colonized and exploited. The nationalisms of these nations are the result of the required resistance made against colonial domination in order to survive. As such, resistance is part and parcel of such nationalisms and their very existence is a form of resistance to imperialist intrusions. Third World nationalism attempts to ensure that the identities of Third World peoples are authored primarily by themselves, not by colonial powers.<ref>Chatterjee, Partha. "Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World," University of Minnesota Press, {{ISBN|0-8166-2311-2}}</ref>
Examples of third world nationalist ideologies are [[African nationalism]] and [[Arab nationalism]]. Other important nationalist movements in the developing world have included the ideas of the [[Mexican Revolution]] and [[Haitian Revolution]]. Third world nationalist ideas have been particularly influential among governments elected in South America.
== Multi-ethnic nationalism == {{Also|Plurinationalism}} Multi-ethnic nationalism denotes ethnic nationalism in a [[multinational state]].
[[Chinese nationalism]] is a representative multi-ethnic nationalism. The concept of "[[Zhonghua minzu]]" ("Chinese ethnicity") includes many indigenous minorities in China who already live on Chinese territory, but does not include immigrants who are not part of the traditional Chinese ethnic group (ex, [[Japanese people in China|Japanese Chinese]], European Chinese, [[African Chinese]], etc). Therefore, Chinese nationalism is multi-ethnic nationalism, but it is distinct from civic nationalism or ethnic nationalism in a narrow sense.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fei |first=Xiaotong |title=The Pattern of Diversity in Unity of the Chinese Nation |journal=Social Sciences in China |date=1989 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=155–214}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James Leibold |title=Ethno-Diplomacy: The Uyghur Hitch in Sino-Turkish Relations |date=2013 |publisher=ASAA Women in Asia Series |pages=45-48}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stroup |first=David R. |date=13 October 2022 |title=Chinese Nationalism: Insights and Opportunities for Comparative Studies |quote=[...] In China, however, the CCP’s pursuit of legitimation through rhetorical appeals to citizens that both urge them to resist external threats to limit China’s rise and to join in the building of a multi-ethnic and inclusive Chinese national identity (zhonghua minzu yishi) blur the lines between civic and ethnic nationalisms, as well as the lines between populism, patriotism, and nationalism. |journal=Educational Philosophy and Theory |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=497-511 |doi=10.1017/nps.2022.99 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Taiwanese nationalism]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gunter Schubert |author2=Jens Damm |title=Taiwanese Identity in the 21st Century: Domestic, Regional and Global Perspectives |quote= In the multi-ethnic nationalism approach, the Taiwanese nation is conceptualized as a harmonious, democratic and ... |date= 2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |pages=270}}</ref> and [[Indian nationalism|India's]] [[composite nationalism]] are also considered multi-ethnic nationalism.
Multi-ethnic nationalism may be similar to [[civic nationalism]]. However, multi-ethnic nationalism tends to embrace multi-ethnic elements without embracing the core elements of civic nationalism.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anthony D. Smith |title=Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History |date=2013 |publisher=Polity |pages=105-110}}</ref>
== Diaspora nationalism == [[Diaspora politics|Diaspora nationalism]], or as [[Benedict Anderson]] terms it, "long-distance nationalism", generally refers to nationalist feeling among a [[diaspora]] such as the Irish in the United States, Jews around the world after the expulsion from Jerusalem (586 BCE), the Lebanese in the Americas and Africa, or Armenians in Europe and the United States.<ref>Humphrey, Michael. 2004. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_1_26/ai_n6145318 Lebanese identities: between cities, nations and trans-nations]. ''Arab Studies Quarterly'', Winter 2004.</ref> Anderson states that this sort of nationalism acts as a "phantom bedrock" for people who want to experience a national connection, but who do not actually want to leave their diaspora community. The essential difference between pan-nationalism and diaspora nationalism is that members of a diaspora, by definition, are no longer resident in their national or ethnic [[homeland]]. In some instances, 'Diaspora' refers to a dispersal of a people from a (real or imagined) 'homeland' due to a cataclysmic disruption, such as war, famine, etc. New networks – new 'roots' – form along the 'routes' travelled by diasporic people, who are connected by a shared desire to return 'home'. In reality, the desire to return may be [[Eschatology|eschatologica]]<nowiki/>l (i.e. end times orientation), or may not occur in any foreseeable future, but the longing for the lost homeland and the sense of difference from circumambient cultures in which diasporic people live becomes an identity unto itself. == Language nationalism == Language nationalism is a nationalism that defends and promotes a language of a nation. Language nationalists in many cases campaign for the national language to be made the [[official language]].{{cn|date=July 2025}}
==<span lang="bn" dir="ltr">See</span> also == * [[Anti-nationalism]] * [[Buddhist nationalism]] * [[Christian nationalism|Christian nationalism]] * [[Hindu nationalism]] * [[Integral nationalism]] * [[Islamic nationalism]] * [[Jewish national movements (disambiguation)|Jewish nationalism]] * [[Jingoism]] * [[Postnationalism]] * [[Zionism]]
== Notes == {{reflist|2}} {{Nationalism}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Types Of Nationalism}} [[Category:Nationalism|*]]