{{Short description|Semi-legendary Chinese philosopher, founder of Taoism}} {{about||the book also known as Laozi|Dao De Jing|'Lao Tzu' by Mark di Suvero|Lao Tzu (sculpture)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}} {{CS1 config|mode=cs2}}
{{Infobox philosopher | region = [[Chinese philosophy]] | era = [[Ancient philosophy]] | image = Zhang Lu-Laozi Riding an Ox.jpg | caption = [[Ming era]] portrait by [[Zhang Lu (painter)|Zhang Lu]] | name = {{unbulleted list|Laozi|{{langn|zh|老子}}}} | birth_date = {{abbr|trad.|traditionally}} 6th century BC, sometimes dated 4th century BC | birth_place = Quren Village, [[State of Chu|Chu]] (present-day [[Luyi County|Luyi]], Henan) | death_date = trad. 5th century BC | school_tradition = [[Taoism]] | notable_ideas = {{unbulleted list|''[[Tao]]''|''[[Wu wei]]''}} | notable_works=''[[Dao De Jing]]''}} {{Infobox Chinese | title = Laozi | pic = Laozi (Chinese characters).svg | piccap = "Laozi" in Chinese [[seal script]] (top)and [[regular script]] (bottom) | picupright = 0.5 | name1 = [[Chinese honorifics|Honorific]] | c = 老子 | l = "Old Master"<!--not "Old Child": see Talk page--> | p = Lǎozǐ | tp = Lǎo-zǐh | w = {{tone superscript|Lao3-tzŭ3}} | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|l|ao|3|.|zi|3}} | bpmf = ㄌㄠˇ ㄗˇ | myr = Lǎudž | showflag = p | suz = Lao<sup>6</sup>-tsy<sup>3</sup> | j = Lou5-zi2 | y = Lóuhjí | ci = {{IPAc-yue|l|ou|5|-|z|i|2}} | poj = Ló-chú | tl = Ló-tsú | oc-bs = C.rˤuʔ tsəʔ<ref name=baxsag/> | vie = | hn = 老子 | hangul = | hanja = | rr = Noja | kanji = 老子 | hiragana = ろうし | katakana = ロウシ | revhep = Rōshi | kunrei = Rousi | altname = Personal name | c2 = 李耳 | p2 = Lǐ Ěr | tp2 = Lǐ Ěr | w2 = {{tone superscript|Li3 Erh3}} | mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|l|i|3|-|er|3}}|bpmf2|ㄌㄧˇ ㄦˇ | oc-bs2 = C.rəʔ C.nəʔ<ref name=baxsag/> | altname3 = [[Courtesy name]] | t3 = 李伯陽 | s3 = 李伯阳 | p3 = Lǐ Bóyáng | tp3 = Lǐ Bó-yáng | w3 = {{tone superscript|Li3 Po2-yang2}} | mi3 = {{IPAc-cmn|l|i|3|-|b|o|2|.|yang|2}} | bpmf3 = ㄌㄧˇ ㄅㄛˊ ㄧㄤˊ | oc-bs3 = C.rəʔ pˤrak laŋ | altname4 = [[Posthumous name]] | c4 = {{unbulleted list|李聃|老聃}} | p4 = {{unbulleted list|Lǐ Dān|Lǎo Dān}} | tp4 = {{unbulleted list|Lǐ Dan|Lǎo Dan}} | w4 = {{unbulleted list|{{tone superscript|Li3 Tan1}}|{{tone superscript|Lao3 Tan1}}}} | mi4 = {{unbulleted list|{{IPAc-cmn|l|i|3|-|d|an|1}}|{{IPAc-cmn|l|ao|3|-|d|an|1}}}} | bpmf4 = {{unbulleted list|ㄌㄧˇ ㄉㄢ|ㄌㄠˇ ㄉㄢ}} | altname5 = [[Theonym]] | c5 = 老君 | p5 = Lǎojūn | tp5 = Lǎo-jyun | w5 = {{tone superscript|Lao3-chün1}} | mi5 = {{IPAc-cmn|l|ao|3|.|jun|1}} | bpmf5 = ㄌㄠˇ ㄐㄩㄣ | l5 = the Old [[junzi|Lord]] }}
'''Laozi''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|l|au|.|ˈ|t|s|ʌ}}; {{lang-zh|c=老子|p=Lǎozǐ}}), also romanized as '''Lao Tzu''', was a legendary [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese philosopher]] and sage traditionally credited with writing the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' ([[Pinyin]]: ''Dào Dé Jīng''), one of the foundational texts of [[Taoism]]. Traditional accounts identify him as {{nowrap|'''Li Er'''}}, born in the 6th century BC in the [[state of Chu]] during China's [[Spring and Autumn period]] ({{circa|770|481 BC}}). He is said to have served as the royal [[archivist]] for the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] court, to have met [[Confucius]] ({{circa|551|479 BC|lk=no}}), and to have composed the ''Dào Dé Jīng'' before withdrawing into the western wilderness. Modern scholarship, however, has questioned both Laozi’s historicity and the traditional attribution of the ''Dào Dé Jīng'' to a single author.{{Taoism}}
[[File:Lao Zi.jpg|thumb|Laozi seated before a cauldron; the inscription in the top-right corner reads "Impression of [[Taishang Laojun]]".]]
A central figure in [[Chinese culture]], Laozi is traditionally considered the founder of Taoism. In religious Taoism, he is venerated as [[Taishang Laojun]], one of the [[Three Pure Ones]] of the Taoist pantheon. In philosophical Taoism, the work attributed to Laozi influenced [[Zhuangzi]], another figure of Taoism. He was also claimed as an ancestor by the [[Li (surname 李)|Li]] clans, including the ruling Li family of the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0739478097 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Edmund |location=New York |pages=365}}</ref>
Advocating harmony with nature and [[wu wei]], the ''Dào Dé Jīng'' is an influential work of Chinese philosophy, though the identity of its author remains uncertain. Modern textual and historical scholarship commonly dates the received text to the [[Warring States period]] ({{circa|475|lk=no}}{{snd}}221 BC) and regards it as a composite work rather than the product of a single historical author.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldin |first=Paul R. |title=The Art of Chinese Philosophy: Eight Classical Texts and How to Read Them |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691200811 |page=110 |doi=10.1515/9780691200811-008 |s2cid=242423709}}</ref>
{{anchor|Name|Etymology|Meaning}}
== Name == '''Lǎozǐ''' is the [[pinyin]] [[romanization of Chinese|romanization]] of {{lang|zh|老子}}, a name also romanized as '''Lao Tzu,''' '''Lao-tse''', or '''Laou-tsze''', with various pronunciations in English. It is not a personal name, but rather an [[Chinese honorifics|honorific title]] or [[epithet]], meaning 'old teacher' or 'venerable master'. Its structure, with ''zǐ'' in the second syllable, matches that of other ancient Chinese philosophers, such as [[Kongzi]] (Confucius), [[Mencius|Mengzi]], and [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]].<ref>{{citation |contribution=The "Ancient Child" Fallacy |date=29 December 2016 |last=Lin |first=Derek |contribution-url=https://taoism.net/ancient-child/ |url=https://taoism.net |title=Taoism.net }}</ref>
Traditional accounts give Laozi the personal name '''Li Er''' ({{lang|zh|李耳}}, {{tlit|zh|Lǐ Ěr}}), whose [[Old Chinese]] pronunciation [[reconstruction of Old Chinese|has been reconstructed]] as [[Reconstructions of Old Chinese#Yakhontov (1959–1965)|{{Transliteration|och|*C.rəʔ C.nəʔ}}.]]<ref name=baxsag>{{cite web |last1=Baxter |first1=William |first2=Laurent |last2=Sagart |url=http://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/BaxterSagartOCbyMandarinMC2014-09-20.pdf |title=Baxter–Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction |date=20 September 2014 |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428050156/https://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/BaxterSagartOCbyMandarinMC2014-09-20.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Li (surname 李)|Li]] is a common [[Chinese surname]] which also has the meaning 'plum' or 'plum tree' when used as a common noun; there is a legend tying Laozi's birth to a plum tree.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia <!-- Citation bot no -->|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Laozi|title=Laozi |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2009 |last1=Ames |first1=Roger T. |last2=Kaltenmark |first2=Max |author1-link= Roger T. Ames }}</ref> Laozi has long been identified with the persona '''Lao Dan''' ({{lang|zh|老聃}}, {{tlit|zh|Lǎo Dān}}).{{sfnp|Luo|2004|p=118}}{{sfnp|Kramer|1986|p=118}}{{sfnp|Chan|2000|p=2}} ''Dan'' similarly means "Long-Ear" or "the Long-Eared One". The character {{lang|zh|耳}} is the Chinese word for 'ear'.<ref>{{Citation |script-work=zh:漢典 |work=Zdic |url=https://www.zdic.net/hant/%E8%80%B3 |script-title=zh:耳字 |language=zh}}</ref>
Laozi is recorded bearing the [[courtesy name]] '''Boyang''' ({{lang|zh|伯陽}}, {{tlit|zh|Bóyáng}}), whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as {{Transliteration|och|*pˤrak laŋ}}.<ref name=baxsag/> The character {{lang|zh|伯}} was the title of the eldest son born to the primary wife, or an uncle of the father's family who was older than one's father, also used as a [[Zhou dynasty nobility|noble title]] indicating an aristocratic lineage head with rulership over a small to medium domain, and as a general mark of respect. The character {{lang|zh|陽}} is [[yang (concept)|yang]], the solar and masculine life force in Taoist belief. Lao Dan seems to have been used more generally, however, including by [[Sima Qian]] in his ''[[Shiji]]'' ({{circa|91 BC|lk=no}}),<ref name="LDR">{{citation |last1=Rainey |first1=Lee Dian |title=Decoding Dao: Reading the ''Dao De Jing'' (''Dào Dé Jīng'') and the ''Zhuangzi'' (''Chuang Tzu'') |date=2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1118465677 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YNFiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31 31] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YNFiAgAAQBAJ}}.</ref> in the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'',<ref name="LDR"/> and by some modern scholars.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | author-last= Fu | author-first= Charles Wei-hsun |editor-last1=Carr |editor-first1=Brian |editor-last2=Mahalingam |editor-first2=Indira |title=Daoism in Chinese Philosophy |encyclopedia=Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1134960583 |pages=497–519|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIwrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA497}}</ref>
== Identity == By the mid-twentieth century, consensus had emerged among Western scholars that the [[historicity]] of a person known as Laozi is doubtful and that the ''Dào Dé Jīng'' is "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands",{{sfnp|Watson|1968|p=8}}<ref name=Kohn4>{{Harvp|Chan|2000|p=4}}</ref> with an author being invented afterwards.{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|p=61}} While multiple authorship over time is typical for early Chinese texts,{{sfnp|Zhang|2018|pp=26, 30}} the book's conspicuous absence of a central Master figure places it in marked contrast with nearly all other early Chinese philosophical works.{{sfnm|1a1=Denecke|1y=2011|1pp=208, 212–213|2a1=Lewis|2y=1999|2p=91}}
{{As of|2024}}, the oldest manuscript containing text from the ''Dào Dé Jīng'' dates to the late 4th century BC, written on [[bamboo slips]] excavated as part of the [[Guodian Chu Slips]]. These passages correspond with roughly one third of the received text,<ref>{{cite journal | last= Qiu | first= Xigui | author-mask= [[Qiu Xigui]] | title= Guodian ''Laozi'' jian chu tan | script-title = zh:郭店老子簡初談 | trans-title= An initial discussion of the Guodian ''Laozi'' slips | script-work=zh:道家文化研究 | volume= 17 | date=1999 | page= 26 n. 1}} Cited in {{harvp|Shaughnessy|2005|p=451}}</ref> and some are placed in the same order. These are mixed in with passages not carried by the transmitted ''Dào Dé Jīng'', indicating that its makeup was still undergoing revisions and modifications.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|2005|p=445}} The oldest manuscripts of the ''Dào Dé Jīng'' in a complete form by itself were discovered at a tomb in [[Mawangdui]], and date to the early 2nd century BC.<ref name="stanford">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Laozi | last= Chan | first = Alan | orig-date= 2001 | editor1 = Edward N. Zalta | editor2= Uri Nodelman | display-editors= etal |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/ |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=Stanford University Department of Philosophy |year=2018 |quote=The discovery of two ''Laozi'' silk manuscripts at Mawangdui, near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an important milestone in modern ''Laozi'' research. The manuscripts, identified simply as 'A' (''[[sexagenary cycle|jia]]'') and 'B' (''yi''), were found in a tomb that was sealed in 168 B.C.E. The texts themselves can be dated earlier, the 'A' manuscript being the older of the two, copied in all likelihood before 195 B.C.E." [...]<br />"Until about two decades ago, the Mawangdui manuscripts have held the pride of place as the oldest extant manuscripts of the ''Laozi''. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb (identified as M1) in Guodian, Jingmen city, [[Hubei]], has yielded among other things some 800 [[Guodian Chu slips|bamboo slips]], of which 730 are inscribed, containing over 13,000 Chinese characters. Some of these, amounting to about 2,000 characters, match the ''Laozi''. The tomb...is dated around 300 B.C.E.}}</ref> Analysis of early commentary on passages that appear in the received ''Dào Dé Jīng'' supports an accretionary evolution for the text rather than a singular authorship event.<ref>{{ cite book | last = Queen | publisher= Springer | editor= Paul R. Goldin | first= Sarah A. | chapter= <!-- Citation bot stet oblique --> ''Han Feizi'' and the Old Master: A Comparative Analysis and Translation of ''Han Feizi'' Chapter 20, "Jie Lao," and Chapter 21, "Yu Lao" | series= Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy |pages= 197–256 | date= 2013 | title= Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei | isbn = 978-9400743175 | doi = 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2_10}}</ref>
=== Traditional accounts === The earliest biographical reference to Laozi is found in the 1st‑century BC ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' by [[Sima Qian]]. Multiple accounts of Laozi's biography are presented, with Sima Qian expressing various levels of doubt in his sources.{{sfnp|Kern|2015|pp=349–350}}
In one account, Sima Qian reports that Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century{{nbsp}}BC. His personal name was Er or Dan. He was born in the village of Quren ({{lang|zh|曲仁里}}, ''Qūrén lǐ'') in the southern [[state of Chu]],<ref>{{Cite book| author1= Sima Qian | author1-link= Sima Qian| author2= Sima Tan| author2-link= Sima Tan| script-title=zh:史記| title = Records of the Grand Historian| orig-year= 90s BCE| year = 1959 | publisher= Zhonghua Shuju| chapter=[[:zh:s:史記/卷063#老子|Vol. 63: 老子韓非列傳]] | language= zh| ref={{sfnref|Shiji}} }}</ref> within present-day [[Luyi]] in [[Henan]].{{sfnp|Morgan|2001}} He was said to be the son of the Censor-in-Chief of the [[Zhou dynasty]] and Lady Yishou ({{lang|zh|益壽氏}}), and was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal Zhou court. This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the [[Yellow Emperor]] and other classics of the time, and he wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west.
In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius called {{ill|Lao Laizi|zh|老莱子}} ({{lang|zh|老莱子}}), one of [[the Twenty-four Filial Exemplars]], and wrote a book in 15 parts. The story tells of Zong the Warrior who defeats an enemy and triumphs, and then abandons the corpses of the enemy soldiers to be eaten by vultures. By coincidence Laozi, traveling and teaching the way of the Tao, comes on the scene and is revealed to be the father of Zong, from whom he was separated in childhood. Laozi tells his son that it is better to treat respectfully a beaten enemy, and that the disrespect to their dead would cause his foes to seek revenge. Convinced, Zong orders his soldiers to bury the enemy dead. Funeral mourning is held for the dead of both parties and a lasting peace is made.
In a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th century{{nbsp}}BC reign of the [[Duke Xian of Qin (424–362 BC)|Duke Xian of Qin]]{{sfnp|Fowler|2005|p=96}}{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=26}} who grew weary of the moral decay of life in [[Chengzhou]] and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guard [[Yinxi]]. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the ''Dào Dé Jīng'', although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again.{{sfnp|Kohn|Lafargue|1998|pp=14, 17, 54–55}} In some later interpretations, the "Old Master" journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama, [[the Buddha]]. Others say he was the Buddha himself.<ref name="Simpkins 1999 pp 12-13"/>{{sfnp|Morgan|2001|pp=224–225}}
The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the ''Zhuangzi''.<ref name="Simpkins 1999 pp 12-13">{{Harvp|Simpkins|Simpkins|1999|pp=12–13}}</ref>{{sfnp|Morgan|2001|pp=223–224}} [[A. C. Graham|A.C. Graham]] suggested that the Confucian version of the story presented in the ''[[Book of Rites]]'' was the original, which was borrowed and re-interpreted by the followers of [[Zhuang Zhou]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graham |first=Angus C. |author-link=A. C. Graham |url=https://archive.org/details/chuangtzuinnerch0000zhua |title=Chuang-tzŭ: the Inner Chapters |date=2001 |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company, Inc |isbn=978-0872205826 |edition=Reprinted |location=Indianapolis Cambridge |pages=126–129 |chapter=The dialogues of Confucius and Old Tan |orig-date=1981}}</ref> His birthday is popularly held to be the 15th day of the second month of the [[Chinese calendar]].<ref name="Stepanchuk Mooncakes and Hungry Ghosts Lao Tze">{{cite book |last1=Stepanchuk |first1=Carol |title=Mooncakes and Hungry Ghosts: Festivals of China |date=1991 |publisher=China Books & Periodicals |location=San Francisco |isbn=0835124819 |page=125}}</ref> In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son who became a celebrated soldier of [[Wei (state)|Wei]] during the [[Warring States period]].
<gallery widths="200" heights="200" mode="packed"> File:Konfuzius-laozi.jpg|''Confucius meets Laozi'', Shi Gang ({{lang|zh|史杠}}), [[Yuan dynasty]] File:Lao Tzu - Project Gutenberg eText 15250.jpg|Depiction of Laozi in [[E. T. C. Werner]]'s ''Myths and Legends of China'' </gallery>
== ''Dào Dé Jīng'' == {{Main|Tao Te Ching}}
{{see also|Tao|Wu wei}}
[[File:Ping Sien Si - 016 Lao zi (16135526115).jpg|thumbnail|upright|Carving of Laozi at Ping Sien Si Temple in [[Perak]], Malaysia]] The ''Dào Dé Jīng'' (or "Tao Te Ching", according to an older romanization) is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese [[cosmogony]]. It is often called the ''Laozi'', and has always been associated with that name. The identity of the person or people who wrote or compiled the text has been the source of considerable speculation and debate throughout history.{{sfnp|Simpkins|Simpkins|1999|pp=11–13}}{{sfnp|Morgan|2001|p=223}} As with many works of ancient [[Chinese philosophy]], ideas are often explained by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. The ''Dào Dé Jīng'' stands as an exemplar of this literary form.<ref>{{ cite book| chapter = On the Range and Performance of ''Laozi''-Style Tetrasyllables | last = Schaberg | first = David | pages=87–111 | title= Literary Forms of Argument in Early China | editor1= Joachim Gentz |editor2=Dirk Meyer | publisher=Brill | series= Sinica Leidensia, vol. 123 | isbn = 978-9004299702 | date = 2015 }}</ref> Unlike most works of its genre, the book conspicuously lacks a central "master" character and seldom references historical people or events, giving it an air of timelessness.{{sfnp|Denecke|2011|pp=208, 213}}
<section begin="DDJ themes" />The ''Dào Dé Jīng'' describes the Tao as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. The ''Dào Dé Jīng'' intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao.<!-- ref supports whole of paragraph to this point -->{{sfnp|Van Norden|Ivanhoe|2005|p=162}} Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.<ref name="Kohn-22">{{Harvp|Chan|2000|p=22}}</ref>
''[[Wu wei]]'', literally 'non-action' or 'not acting', is a central concept of the ''Dào Dé Jīng''. The concept of ''wu wei'' is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment".{{sfnp|Watts|Huang|1975|pp=78–86}}
This concept is used to explain ''[[ziran]]'', or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. ''Dào Dé Jīng'' used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between ''wu wei'' and [[Eastern esotericism|esoteric]] practices, such as ''[[zuowang]]'' ('sitting in oblivion': emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]''.<ref name="Kohn-22"/><section end="DDJ themes" />
Alan Chan provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of ''wu wei'', free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as an [[apologetic]] of the philosophical coherence of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" ({{lang|zh|谷神}}, ''gǔshén'') and 'soul' ({{lang|zh|魄}}, ''pò''), bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work.<ref name="Kohn-22"/>
<gallery widths="200" heights="160" mode="packed"> File:Confucius and Laozi, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|A [[Western Han]] [[fresco]] depicting [[Confucius]] and Laozi, from a tomb of [[Dongping County]], Shandong, China File:Laozi 002.jpg|A stone sculpture of Laozi, located north of [[Quanzhou]] at the foot of [[Mount Qingyuan]] </gallery>
== Influence == {{Asian philosophy sidebar}} Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]], to deny serving any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, the other founder of Taoism, had a great deal of influence on Chinese [[Scholar-bureaucrats|literati]] and culture.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reynolds|first=Beatrice K.|date=February 1969|title=Lao Tzu: Persuasion through inaction and non-speaking|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01463376909368862|journal=Today's Speech|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=23–25|doi=10.1080/01463376909368862|issn=0040-8573|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, various [[antiauthoritarianism|antiauthoritarian movements]] have embraced Laozi's teachings on the power of the weak.{{sfnp|Roberts|2004|pp=1–2}}
=== Han dynasty === The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the [[Han dynasty]]. As [[Taoism]] took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the [[Way of the Celestial Masters]], the first organized religious Taoist sect. In later Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Tao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations" and taken on guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Taoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing the ''Dào Dé Jīng'' but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao.<ref name="Kohn 3-4"/>
[[Chinese mythology|Taoist myths]] state that Laozi was a [[miraculous births|virgin birth]], conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star. He supposedly remained in her womb for 62 years before being born while his mother was leaning against a plum tree. Laozi was said to have emerged as a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, both symbols of wisdom and long life.{{sfnp|Simpkins|Simpkins1999|pp=11–12}} Other myths state that he was [[reincarnation|reborn]] 13 times after his first life during the days of [[Fuxi]]. In his last incarnation as Laozi, he lived 990 years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Tao.<ref name="Kohn 3-4">{{Harvp|Chan|2000|pp=3–4}}</ref>
=== Tang dynasty === Due to his traditional name ''Li Er'', Laozi has been [[Chinese ancestral veneration|venerated]] as the ancestor of all subsequent [[Li (surname 李)|Li]]s, and many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi,<ref name="Woolf2007 1">{{cite book|last= Woolf | first= Greg|title=Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=94NuSg3tlsgC&q=Li+Er+Laozi|year=2007|publisher=Barnes & Noble|isbn=978-1435101210|pages=218–219}}</ref> including the [[List of rulers of China|emperors]] of the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>{{Citation |access-date=8 February 2012|title=The Chinese: their history and culture, Volume 1|last=Latourette|first= Kenneth Scott|quote=T'ai Tsung's family professed descent from Lao Tzu (for the latter's reputed patronymic was likewise Li)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ultxAAAAMAAJ|edition=2|year=1934|publisher=Macmillan|page=191}}</ref><ref name="Woolf2007 1" /><ref name="Hargett2006">{{cite book|last= Hargett|first= James M.|title=Stairway to Heaven: A Journey to the Summit of Mount Emei|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m21KGsV8ihgC&pg=PA54|year=2006|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791466827|page=54 ff}}</ref> This family was known as the [[Li clan of Longxi|Longxi Li]] lineage ({{lang|zh|[[w:zh:隴西李氏|隴西李氏]]}}). According to the Simpkinses, while many (if not all) of these lineages are questionable, they provide a testament to Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.{{sfnp|Simpkins|Simpkins|1999|p=12}} Under the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], Laozi received a series of [[temple name]]s of increasing grandeur. In the year 666, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] named Laozi the "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" {{nowrap|({{lang|zh|{{linktext|太上|玄|元|皇帝}}}},}} ''Tàishàng Xuán Yuán Huángdì'').<ref>{{cite book|author=Fu Qinjia (傅勤家) |script-title=zh:道教史概論 |trans-title= Outline of the History of Daoism |year=1996 |publisher=Commercial Printing House |location=[[Taipei]] |isbn=978-9570513240 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goTcCDAOHh0C&pg=PA82 |page=82 |language=zh}}</ref> In 743, [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]] declared him the "[[sage (philosophy)|Sage]] [[Chinese ancestral veneration|Ancestor]]" {{nowrap|({{lang|zh|{{linktext|聖祖}}}},}} ''Shèngzǔ'') of the dynasty with the posthumous title of "Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" {{nowrap|({{lang|zh|{{linktext|玄|元|皇帝}}}},}} ''Xuán Yuán Huángdì''). Emperor Xuanzong also elevated Laozi's parents to the ranks of "Innately Supreme Emperor" {{nowrap|({{lang|zh|{{linktext|先天|太上|皇}}}},}} ''Xiāntiān Tàishàng Huáng'') and "Innate Empress" {{nowrap|({{lang|zh|{{linktext|先天|太后}}}},}} ''Xiāntiān Tàihòu''). In 749, Laozi was further honored as the "Sage Ancestor and Mysterious and Primordial Emperor of the Great Way" {{nowrap|({{lang|zh|{{linktext|聖祖|大道|玄|元|皇帝}}}},}} ''Shèngzǔ Dàdào Xuán Yuán Huángdì'') and then, in 754, as the "Great Sage Ancestor and Mysterious and Primordial Heavenly Emperor and Great Sovereign of the Golden Palace of the High and Supreme Great Way" {{nowrap|({{lang|zh|{{linktext|大|聖祖|高|上|大道|金闕|玄|元|天皇|大帝}}}},}} ''Dà Shèngzǔ Gāo Shǎng Dàdào Jīnquē Xuán Yuán Tiānhuáng Dàdì'').
A seventh-century work, the ''Sandong Zhunang'' ({{lang|zh|三洞珠囊}}; "Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), presents Laozi as the perfect Taoist master and a character named [[Yinxi]] as the ideal Taoist student. Yinxi follows a formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment.{{sfnp|Kohn|Lafargue|1998|pp=55–56}}
=== Contemporary === Many contemporary philosophers have seen Laozi as a proponent of limited government.{{sfnp|Dorn|2008|pp=282–283}} The [[Right-libertarianism|right-libertarian]] economist [[Murray Rothbard]] suggested that Laozi was the first [[Libertarianism|libertarian]],<ref>Rothbard, Murray (2005). Excerpt from "Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire", ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies'', Vol. IX, No. 2 (Fall 1990) at [https://mises.org/daily/1967 mises.org]</ref> likening Laozi's ideas on government to [[Friedrich Hayek]]'s theory of [[spontaneous order]].<ref>[[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]] (2005). "The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition", ''Mises Daily'', (5 December 2005) (original source unknown) at [https://mises.org/daily/1967 mises.org]</ref> James A. Dorn agreed, writing that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony."{{sfnp|Dorn|2008}} Similarly, the [[Cato Institute]]'s [[David Boaz]] includes passages from the ''Dào Dé Jīng'' in his 1997 book ''The Libertarian Reader'' and noted in an article for the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' that Laozi advocated for rulers to "do nothing" because "without law or compulsion, men would dwell in harmony."<ref name="Boaz">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Libertarianism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism |access-date=21 February 2017 |date=30 January 2009 |author-link=David Boaz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504222253/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism |archive-date=4 May 2015 |quote=An appreciation for spontaneous order can be found in the writings of the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao-tzu (6th century bce), who urged rulers to "do nothing" because "without law or compulsion, men would dwell in harmony." |author=Boaz, David |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Boaz|1997}} Philosopher Roderick Long argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier [[Confucian]] writers.{{sfnp|Long|2003}}
The [[anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]] writer and activist [[Rudolf Rocker]] praised Laozi's "gentle wisdom" and understanding of the opposition between political power and the cultural activities of the people and community in his 1937 book ''[[Nationalism and Culture]]''.{{sfnp|Rocker|1997|pp=82 & 256}} In his 1910 article for the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', [[Peter Kropotkin]] also noted that Laozi was among the earliest proponents of essentially [[Anarchism|anarchist]] concepts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/kropotkin/britanniaanarchy.html |title=Britannica: Anarchism |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |access-date=14 November 2011}}</ref> More recently, anarchists such as John P. Clark and [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] have written about the conjunction between anarchism and Taoism in various ways, highlighting the teachings of Laozi in particular.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://raforum.info/spip.php?article4488&lang=fr|author=Clark, John P.|title=Master Lao and the Anarchist Prince|access-date=1 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020015752/https://raforum.info/spip.php?article4488&lang=fr|archive-date=20 October 2017}}</ref> In her rendition of the Dào Dé Jīng, Le Guin writes that Laozi "does not see political power as magic. He sees rightful power as earned and wrongful power as usurped... He sees sacrifice of self or others as a corruption of power, and power as available to anyone who follows the Way. No wonder anarchists and Taoists make good friends."{{sfnp|Le Guin|2009|p=20}}
== Notes == {{Reflist|22em}}
== References == {{refbegin|2}} * {{Citation |last=Boaz |first=David |title = The libertarian reader: classic and contemporary readings from Lao-tzu to Milton Friedman |publisher=Free Press |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn = 978-0684847672 | author-link= David Boaz }} * {{ Citation| last= Denecke | first= Wiebke |title= The Dynamics of Masters Literature: Early Chinese Thought from Confucius to Han Feizi | date= 2011 | publisher= Brill | isbn = 978-1684170586 | doi = 10.1163/9781684170586 | series = Harvard–Yenching Institute Monographs, vol. 74}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Dorn |first=James A. |title=Lao Tzu (c. 600 B.C.) |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |access-date=12 May 2010 |year=2008 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |isbn = 978-1412965804 |oclc = 750831024 |lccn = 2008009151 |doi = 10.4135/9781412965811.n169 |url-access=subscription }} * {{Citation |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane |title=An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |location=Brighton |year=2005 |isbn = 978-1845190859 }} * {{cite journal |first=Martin | last=Kern |title=The "Masters" in the ''Shiji'' |date=2015 | volume=101 | issue=4–5 |journal=T'oung Pao | pages=335–362 |publisher= Brill | doi=10.1163/15685322-10145P03 | place=Leiden |jstor=24754939}} * {{Citation |editor-last=Kohn |editor-first=Livia |title = Daoism Handbook | series=Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 4: China, vol. 14|publisher=Brill Academic |location=Boston |year=2000 |isbn=978-9004112087 | doi = 10.1163/9789004391840}} ** {{Harvc| in = Kohn | year= 2000 | last = Chan | first= Alan K.L. | c= The ''Daode Jing'' and Its Tradition | pages= 1–29 }} * {{Citation |editor-last=Kohn |editor-first=Livia |editor2-last=Lafargue |editor2-first=Michael |title=Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |year=1998 |isbn=978-0791435991 }}. * {{Citation |last=Kramer |first=Kenneth |title=World scriptures: an introduction to comparative religions |publisher=Paulist Press |location=New York |year=1986 |isbn = 978-0809127818}} * {{Citation |last=Le Guin |first=Ursula K. |title=Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching: A Book about the Way and the Power of the Way |publisher=Shambhala Publications Inc. |location=Washington, DC |year=2009 |isbn = 978-1590307441 |edition=2nd | author-link= Ursula K. Le Guin }} * {{Citation| last= Lewis | first= Mark Edward | author-link= Mark Edward Lewis | title = Writing and Authority in Early China| publisher= State University of New York Press | place= Albany | date= 1999 | isbn = 0791441148 | series= SUNY series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture}} * {{Citation |last=Long |first=Roderick T. |date=Summer 2003 |title = Austro-Libertarian Themes in Early Confucianism |journal=The Journal of Libertarian Studies |pages=35–62 |volume=17 |series=3 |url= https://mises.org/journal-libertarian-studies/austro-libertarian-themes-early-confucianism }} * {{Citation |last=Luo |first=Jing |author-mask=Luo Jing |title = Over a cup of tea: an introduction to Chinese life and culture |publisher=University Press of America |location=Washington, DC |year=2004 |isbn = 978-0761829379 |url = https://archive.org/details/overcupoftea00jing }} * {{Citation |last=Morgan |first=Diane |title=The Best Guide to Eastern Philosophy and Religion |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York |year= 2001 |isbn = 978-1580631976 }} * {{Citation |last=Roberts |first=Moss |title = Dao De Jing: The Book of the Way |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA |year=2004 |isbn = 978-0520242210 }} * {{Citation |last=Robinet |first=Isabelle |title=Taoism: Growth of a Religion |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |year=1997 |isbn = 978-0804728393 }} * {{cite book |last=Rocker |first=Rudolf |title=Nationalism and Culture |publisher=Black Rose Books |year=1997 | orig-date= 1937 | translator= Ray E. Chase | isbn = 978-1551645001 | place= Montreal | author-link= Rudolf Rocker | title-link= Nationalism and Culture }} * {{cite journal |title=The Guodian Manuscripts and Their Place in Twentieth-Century Historiography on the ''Laozi'' |last= Shaughnessy| first=Edward L. |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |date=2005 |volume=65 |number=2 |pages= 417–457|publisher=Harvard Yenching Institute | author-link= Edward L. Shaughnessy |jstor=25066782}} * {{Citation |last1=Simpkins |first1=Annellen M. |last2=Simpkins |first2=C. Alexander |title=Simple Taoism: a guide to living in balance |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |edition=3rd Printing |location=Boston |year=1999 |isbn = 978-0804831734 }} * {{Citation |last1=Van Norden |first1=Bryan W. |last2=Ivanhoe |first2=Philip J. |title=Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |edition=2nd |location=Indianapolis, Ind |year=2006 |isbn = 978-0872207806 |ref = {{Harvid|Van Norden|Ivanhoe|2005}} | author2-link= Philip J. Ivanhoe }} * {{Citation |last=Watson |first=Burton |title=Complete Works of Chuang Tzu |publisher=Columbia Univ. Press ([[UNESCO Collection of Representative Works]]: Chinese Series) |location=New York |year=1968 |isbn = 978-0231031479 | author-link= Burton Watson }} * {{Citation |last1=Watts |first1=Alan |last2=Huang |first2=Al Chung-liang |title=Tao: The Watercourse Way |publisher=Pantheon Books |location=New York, NY |year=1975 |isbn=978-0394733111 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/taowatercoursewa00watt_0 | author1-link= Alan Watts }} * {{ Cite book | last= Zhang | first= Hanmo | date= 2018 | title= Authorship and Text-Making in Early China| series= Library of Sinology, vol. 2 | publisher= De Gruyter| chapter = Text, Author, and the Function of Authorship | pages= 10–34 | doi= 10.1515/9781501505133-003 | doi-access= free| jstor= j.ctvbkk21j.5| isbn= 978-1501505133 | jstor-access= free}} {{refend}}
== Further reading == {{refbegin|e0em}} * {{Citation |last=Kaltenmark |first=Max |translator-last=Greaves |translator-first=Roger |title=Lao Tzu and Taoism |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=[[Stanford, California|Stanford]] |year=1969 |isbn=978-0804706896}}. * {{citation |last=Sterckx |first=Roel |title=Ways of Heaven: An Introduction to Chinese Thought |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |date=2019}}. * {{citation |last=Welch |first=Holmes Hinkley Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=giThXv6OvSAC |title=Taoism: The Parting of the Way |date=1957 |publisher=Beacon Press |location= |isbn=9780807059739}} {{refend}}
== External links == {{Sister project links|s=Author:Laozi|v=no|n=no|b=Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/Lao-tzu and Taoism}} * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/laozi}} * {{Gutenberg author |id=2427}} * {{Internet Archive author |search=("Lao-Tze" OR "Laozi" OR "Lao-Tzu" OR "Lao Zi" OR "Lao Zih" OR "Lao Tse" OR "Laotze" OR "Lao Tzu")}} * {{Librivox author |id=4205}} * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Laozi] * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/laozi.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Laozi]
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