Language assessment

{{Short description|Evaluation of a person's language ability}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} {{Linguistics}} '''Language assessment''' or '''language testing''' is a field of study under the umbrella of [[applied linguistics]]. Its main focus is the assessment of [[first language|first]], [[second language|second]] or other language in the school, college, or university context; assessment of language use in the workplace; and assessment of language in the immigration, citizenship, and [[right of asylum|asylum]] contexts.<ref name="HornbergerSpringer">{{cite book |author=Hornberger, Nancy H. |author2=Shohamy, Elana |title=Encyclopedia of Language and Education, Volume 7: Language Testing and Assessment |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-387-32875-1}}</ref> The assessment may include listening, speaking, reading, [[Writing Assessment|writing]], an integration of two or more of these skills, or other constructs of language ability. Equal weight may be placed on knowledge (understanding how the language works theoretically) and [[language proficiency|proficiency]] (ability to use the language practically), or greater weight may be given to one aspect or the other.<ref>http://hrd.apec.org/index.php/Language_Assessment {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722201227/http://hrd.apec.org/index.php/Language_Assessment |date=22 July 2009 }} APEC Human Resources Development Working Group</ref>

== History == {{globalize|date=August 2008}} [[File:Centro de lingva testado Albion 02.jpg|thumb|Language assessment in [[Tyumen]], [[Russia]], 2021.]]

The history of language testing may have originated in the late nineteenth century testing of ESL at Cambridge and Oxford in England,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kunnan, Antony John, author|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/993696190|title=Evaluating language assessments|date=6 July 2017|isbn=978-1-136-63438-3|oclc=993696190}}</ref> but the earliest works in language assessment in the United States date back to the 1950s to the pioneering studies and test created by [[Robert Lado]] and David Harris. The earliest large scale assessments in the United States were referred to as the Michigan Tests, developed by the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, now known as [[Michigan Language Assessment]], and the [[TOEFL|''Test of English as a Foreign Language'' (TOEFL)]] developed by [[Educational Testing Service]] (ETS), Princeton, New Jersey.

The English Language Institute at the University of Michigan (Michigan Language Assessment) was established in 1941 and was the first of its kind in the United States. Charles Fries, Director of ELI, and [[Robert Lado]], Director of Testing at ELI, were determined to put foreign language teaching and testing on a "scientific" footing. The first test launched in 1946 was the ''Lado Test of Aural Comprehension''. Approximately 10 years later, a full suite of tests had been assembled: "an English language test battery", which was administered to incoming foreign students at Michigan and other universities and was known as the Michigan English Language Assessment Battery. In 1953, the ELI also developed the ECPE (Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English) exam, under contract to the United States Information Agency, for use abroad.<ref>{{cite book|author=John M. Swales|title=Other Floors, Other Voices: A Textography of A Small University Building|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xsz5AQAAQBAJ&pg=PT68|year=2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-68698-6|page=68}}</ref> The Michigan Tests continue to support international student and professional mobility and include the [https://michiganassessment.org/michigan-tests/met-new/ Michigan English Test (MET)], which is offered worldwide at testing centers and remotely.

TOEFL was launched in 1961 and was designed to assess the English language ability of students applying for admission to U.S. and Canadian colleges and universities. This test, which is used widely around the world, is still in use although it is now only available in the internet-based format (now called the TOEFL iBT<ref>About the TOEFL iBT Test http://www.ets.org/toefl/ibt/about/ Retrieved 23 November 2010</ref>).

Many tests from other companies, universities and agencies compete for this market: [[International Test of English Proficiency|iTEP]] (International Test of English Proficiency), the [[Canadian English Language Proficiency Index Program]] (CELPIP) Test, the [[Pearson Language Tests|Pearson Language Test]]'s ''[[Pearson Test of English Academic|Pearson Test of English]]'' (PTE), [[Michigan Language Assessment]] exams include ''Michigan English Test'' ([[Michigan English Test|MET]]), ''Examination for the Certificate of Competency in English'' (ECCE) and ''Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English'' (ECPE), and [[the British Council]] and the Australian IDP's ''[[International English Language Testing System]]'' (IELTS). In the United States, non-profit and other organizations such as the [[Center for Applied Linguistics]], Washington, D.C., and [[Language Testing International]], White Plains, NY have developed language tests that are used by many public and private agencies. Many universities too, like the [[UCLA|University of California, Los Angeles]], [[Teachers College]], Columbia University, and the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign|University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign]], have developed English (and other) language tests to assess the abilities of their students and teaching assistants. These language assessments are generally known as proficiency or achievement assessments. Other modern English language tests developed include ''The General English Proficiency Test (GEPT)'' in Taiwan, the ''College English Test'' in China, and the ''STEP Eiken'' in Japan. New technology has also made a presence in the field: Versant's English and Dutch assessments use phone technology to record the speaking and automated scoring of their speaking tests, and the ETS is currently experimenting with automated scoring of their [[Writing Assessment|writing tests]].

== Organizations == The International Language Testing Association (ILTA) is one of the many organizations that organizes conferences, workshops, and a public forum for the discussion of important matters. ILTA's major annual conference is the Language Testing Research Colloquium. ILTA's Lifetime Achievement Award winners include: Alan Davies (UK), Lyle Bachman (US), Bernard Spolsky (Israel), John Clark (US), Charles Alderson (UK), Carol Chapelle (US), Elana Shohamy (Israel), Tim McNamara (Australia), Cyril Weir (UK), Dan Douglas (US), Cathie Elder (Australia), Jin Yan (China), Liz Hamp-Lyons (UK), and Antony John Kunnan (Indo-US).

Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey, the home of the TOEFL, offers an annual outstanding Doctoral Dissertation Award in Second or Foreign Language and the [[University of Cambridge]], UK, also offers an annual outstanding master's degree Award in second language testing. In Europe, there are two organizations: the Association of Language Testers of Europe (ALTE) and the European Association for Language Testing and Assessment (EALTA). All of these associations have developed [[code of ethics|Codes of Ethics]] and Practice that all language assessment professionals are expected to adhere to.

== Annual conferences == There are many annual conferences on general or specific topics. Among the most important conferences is ILTA's official conference: the '''Language Testing Research Colloquium''' (LTRC), which has been held every year since 1978. In the last few years, it has been held in different parts of the world: Temecula, California, US (2004); Ottawa, Canada (2005); Melbourne, Australia (2006); Barcelona, Spain (2007); Hangzhou, China (2008), and Denver, Colorado (2009), Cambridge, UK (2010), Ann Arbor, Michigan (2011), Princeton, New Jersey (2012), and Seoul, South Korea (2013).

ALTE's international conferences are held in different cities in Europe: Barcelona, Spain (2002); Berlin, Germany (2005); Cambridge, UK (2008); Krakow, Poland (2011); Paris,France (2014); Bologna, Italy (2017) ) with regional conferences in Perugia, Prague, Budapest, Sofia, and Lisbon. Similarly, there are regional meetings in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. International conference themes have included supporting the European Year of Languages (2001), the impact of multilingualism (2005), the wider social and educational impact of assessment (2008) and the role of language frameworks (2011). Selected conference papers have been published through the [[Studies in Language Testing (SiLT)]] volumes.

== Language assessments in aviation == The aviation personnel is required to be regularly tested on aviation language proficiency. The testing is required on the international basis by ICAO Doc 9835. Within the EASA region, the aviation language assessments are required by Ec 1178/2011, Part FCL, FCL.055.

=== Endorsements === Each flight crew license is endorsed by the respective endorsement specifying the holder's language proficiency. The level acceptable for the operational use in the aviation is 4 thru 6. The validity of the respective level varies with the region.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://language.aero/en/blog/icao-easa-validity| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190902135210/http://language.aero/en/blog/icao-easa-validity| archive-date = 2019-09-02| title = ICAO and EASA validity period {{!}} Aero Language ✈ ICAO English, letecká Angličtina a letecká komunikácia, IFR English}}</ref>

=== Organizations === The organizations authorized to conduct the language assessments on behalf of national aviation authorities are so-called "Language assessment bodies" or "Testing service providers". Each and every Language assessment body is issued with the Certificate of approval with its authorizations. Aero Language<ref>[http://www.language.aero/en Aero Language ✈️ ICAO English online aviation English<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and Myflower College<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.maycoll.co.uk/aviation-english/test_of_english_for_aviation.htm| title = Test of English for Aviation - ICAO Level 4}}</ref> are one of several organizations in Europe authorized to conduct the language assessments for pilots and air traffic controllers.

== Publications == There are two premier journals in the field: ''Language Assessment Quarterly'' (published by [[Routledge]]/[[Taylor & Francis]]) and ''[[Language Testing]]'' (published by [[SAGE Publications]]) that publishes major findings from researchers. Both these journals are indexed in Thompson's SSCI list. Other journals that publish articles from the field include ''[[Applied Linguistics (journal)|Applied Linguistics]]'', ''[[Language Learning (journal)|Language Learning]]'', ''[[TESOL Quarterly]]'', ''[[Assessing Writing]]'', and ''[[System (journal)|System]]''. Some of these journals have special issue volumes on Ethics in language assessment, structural equation modeling, language assessment in Asia, Classroom assessment, etc. and commentaries, brief reports, and book and test reviews.

The field has exploded in the last twenty years in terms of textbooks and research publications. The most popular books include: Lyle Bachman's ''Fundamental considerations in language testing,'' and ''Statistical Analyses for Language Assessment,'' Lyle Bachman and Adrian Palmer's ''Language Testing in Practice'' and ''Language Assessment in Practice'', Glenn Fulcher and Fred Davidson's 'Language Testing and Assessment: An Advanced Resource Book', [[Charles Alderson]]'s 'Assessing Reading,'' John Read's ''Assessing Vocabulary,'' James Purpura's ''Assessing Grammar,'' Gary Buck's ''Assessing Listening,'' Sara Weigle's ''[[Assessing Writing]],' Glenn Fulcher's 'Practical Language Testing' and 'Testing Second Language Speaking'. Edited volumes include: [[Alister Cumming]]'s ''Validation in Language Testing,'' Antony John Kunnan's ''Validation in Language Assessment,'' and ''Fairness in Language Assessment,'' and the ''Routledge Handbook of Language Testing'', edited by Glenn Fulcher and Fred Davidson.

The most popular book series are Michael Milanovic, Cyril Weir, and Lynda Taylor's [[Studies in Language Testing (SiLT)]] series, and Lyle Bachman and Charles Alderson's ''Cambridge Language Assessment Series.''

== Courses == Language assessment or language testing courses are taught as required or elective courses in many graduate and [[doctoral]] programs, particularly in the subjects of [[applied linguistics]], [[English for Speakers of Other Languages]], [[English as a second language|English as a second or foreign language]], or educational linguistics. These programs are known as MA or PhD programs in Applied Linguistics, Educational Linguistics, [[English as a Foreign or Second Language|TESOL]], [[TEFL]], or [[TESL]]. The focus of most courses is on test development, [[psychometric]] qualities of tests, [[Validity (logic)|validity]], [[reliability (statistics)|reliability]] and fairness of tests, and [[classical true score measurement theory]]. Additional courses focus on [[item response theory]], [[factor analysis]], [[structural equation modeling]], [[G factor (psychometrics)|G theory]], [[latent growth modeling]], [[Qualitative research|qualitative analysis]] of test performance data such as conversation and [[discourse analysis]], and politics and language policy issues.

Universities that have regular courses and programs that focus on language assessment at the PhD level include [[Iowa State University]], [[University of Illinois]], [[Urbana-Champaign]], [[University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa]], Teachers College, Columbia University, [[Penn State University]], [[Georgia State University]], [[Northern Arizona University]], [[McGill University]], [[University of Toronto]], [[Lancaster University]] (UK), [[University of Leicester]], [[University of Bristol]], [[University of Cambridge]], [[University of Bedfordshire]], and [[Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]] (China); at the MA level include [[Lancaster University]], [[University of Leicester]], [[University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa]], California State Universities at Fullerton, Los Angeles, Long Beach, San Jose, and San Francisco.

== Scales == === General scales === {| class="wikitable" |- ![[Common European Framework of Reference for Languages|CEFR]] ![[Interagency Language Roundtable scale|ILR]] ![[ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines|ACTFL]] ![[New Brunswick Oral Proficiency Scale|NB OPS]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnb.ca/0381/032-e.asp |title=Post-Secondary Education, Training and Labour / Éducation postsecondaire, Formation et Travail |publisher=Gnb.ca |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ![[Canadian language benchmarks|CLB]] ![[Public Service Commission of Canada|PSC]] [[Second Official Language Proficiency Levels|PSC]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/gui/squn03-eng.asp |title=Qualification Standards 3 / 3 |publisher=Tbs-sct.gc.ca |date=15 April 2013 |accessdate=2013-05-02}}</ref> |- |A1 |0/0+/1 |Novice (Low/Mid/High) |Unrated/0+/1 |1/2 |A |- |A2 |1+ |Intermediate (Low/Mid/High) |1+/2 |3/4 |B |- |B1 |2 |Advanced Low |2+ |5/6 |C |- |B2 |2+ |Advanced Mid |3 |7/8 | |- |C1 |3/3+ |Advanced High |3+ |9/10 | |- |C2 |4 |Superior |4 |11/12 | |- | |4+/5 | | | | |}

=== Language-specific scales ===

== Other Test Types ==

* Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) Accepted and trusted by 14,000+ organizations in more than 160 countries, the TOEIC® tests assess your English-language proficiency across all four language skills needed to succeed in the global workplace—listening, reading, speaking and writing. With your TOEIC score, you can: get a fair, accurate evaluation of your ability to communicate in English; show potential employers your full range of communication skills; differentiate yourself from the competition; expand your job opportunities.<ref>[https://www.ets.org/toeic/test-takers The TOEIC Tests (For Test Takers)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

== See also == * [[List of language proficiency tests]] * [[Language proficiency]] * [[Washback effect]]

== References == {{Reflist}}

== External links == * [http://www.iltaonline.com/ International Language Testing Association] * [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/journal.asp?issn=1543-4303&subcategory=ED200000 Language Assessment Quarterly] * [http://www.ealta.eu.org/ European Association for Language Testing and Assessment] * [http://www.alte.org/ Association of Language Testers of Europe] * [http://www.languagetesting.com/ Language Testing International] * [http://languagetesting.info/ Language Testing Resources] * [http://www.languagetestingasia.com/ Language Testing in Asia] * [http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/silt/ Studies in Language Testing (SiLT)] * [https://www.werkflug.com/index.php/language-proficiency-test Online language proficiency test ( Level4, Level5, Level6 ) for pilots in english or german] * [https://lingali.com/faq Master your CEFR language exam with AI-powered practice and instant feedback. Prepare for A1, A2, B1, and B2 exams in German, French, Spanish, and more. Get exam-ready with adaptive AI assessment.] {{Language Testing}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Language Assessment}} [[Category:Language assessment| ]] [[Category:Applied linguistics]] [[Category:Language tests]]