Lake Huka

{{Short description|Historic lake in the North Island of New Zealand}} {{Use New Zealand English|date=April 2024}} {{Infobox body of water |name = Lake Huka | other_name = | etymology = |image ={{maplink|frame=yes|frame-align=center|frame-width=260|frame-height=400|frame-long=176.17|frame-lat=-38.5|zoom=8|raw={{Wikipedia:Map data/Reporoa Caldera}} |text=Approximate maximum Lake Huka sizes between 220,000 years ago (light blue shading) and just before the [[Oruanui eruption]] (darker blue shading). The dark blue line delimits the well defined area of the Huka Lake Formation so shaded areas outside this indicates only limited samples. Mouse over is enabled if the map is clicked to enlarge it.{{sfn|Barker|Wilson|Illsley-Kemp|Leonard|2020}}{{sfn|Cattell|2015|loc=P. 119 Fig. 6.4}}{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Tables 1 & 2}} }} | alt = Approximate maximum Lake Huka sizes between 220,000 years ago (light blue shading) and just before the Oruanui eruption (darker blue shading) |caption = |image_bathymetry = |caption_bathymetry = |location = [[North Island]] |coords = {{coord|-38.62|176.1 |region:NZ_type:waterbody|display=inline,title}} |lake_type = [[lake#Paleolakes|paleolake]] |inflow = |pushpin_map=North Island | pushpin_map_alt = Location of Lake Huka |outflow = Waikato |catchment = |basin_countries = New Zealand |length ={{convert|100|km|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Cattell|2015|loc=P. 119 Fig. 6.4 }} |width = {{convert|20|km|abbr=on}}+{{sfn|Cattell|2015|loc=P. 119 Fig. 6.4 }} |area = |depth = |max-depth = |volume = |residence_time = |shore = |elevation = |islands = |cities = | date-flooded = 220 ka{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Table 2}} |reference = }} '''Lake Huka''' is a [[former lake]] whose waters, on its sudden explosive destruction, were a component in the creation of the largest [[phreatomagmatic eruption]] characterised to date and the largest volcanic eruption on earth in the past 70,000 years. This was the [[Oruanui eruption]] of the [[Taupō Volcano]] about 25,500 years ago. Presently the smaller [[Lake Taupō]], currently the largest lake in [[New Zealand]], occupies the area of the southern part of the former lake. Diatoms from sediments erupted from the former lake floor have been identified {{convert|850|km|abbr=on}} away on the [[Chatham Islands]].

==Geography== The lake is named after the Huka Falls Formation, the [[Taupō Volcanic Zone]]'s most widespread sedimentary [[Lacustrine deposits|lacustrine deposit]].{{sfn|Chi|Browne|1991|p=185}} This is centred around the [[Huka Falls]], in the [[Taupō Rift]]. The formation defines Lake Huka, and extends south from the [[Reporoa Caldera]], to beyond the southern end of Lake Taupō with the furtherest south deposits in the drainage area of the [[Tongariro River]].{{sfn|Cattell|Cole| Oze|Allen|2014|p=331-32}} In length this is about {{convert|100|km|abbr=on}} and while the width of the Taupō-Reporoa basin deposits is about {{convert|20|km|abbr=on}}, deposits identified onshore of Lake Taupō suggest a maximum width may have been about {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} to the south.{{sfn|Cattell|2015|loc=P. 119 Fig. 6.4}} However, as Waiora Formation assigned deposits might contribute to this wider width,{{sfn|Cattell|2015|loc=P. 119 Fig. 6.4}} the definite lake may not have been this wide.

==Geology== The lake formed in a north-east oriented [[graben]] of the [[Taupō Rift]] that has a [[Mesozoic]] [[greywacke]] basement.{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Section:3. Stratigraphic framework}} This basement is known to be in places more than {{convert|3|km|abbr=on}} deep presently.{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Section:3. Stratigraphic framework}} The massive [[Whakamaru Caldera|Whakamaru ignimbrite eruption]] of 349,000 years ago,{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Section:3. Stratigraphic framework}} for example has deposits up to 50m thick typically at least {{convert|650|m|abbr=on}} below the present ground level. At its northern end in the Taupō-Reporoa Basin the eruptions that had formed the [[rhyolite|rhyolitic]] Reporoa Caldera some 280,000 years ago,{{sfn|Downs|Rowland|Wilson|Rosenberg|2014|p=197}} were to define the lakes boundaries throughout its existence. At the southern end the current [[andesite|andesitic]] [[stratovolcano]] [[Mount Tongariro]] massif had started forming about 349,000 years ago, with its Tupuna and Haumata formations predating the lake,{{sfn|Pure|2020|p=99-106}} so that its high ground likely delimited the lake to the south. Volcanic deposits washed down from the Tongariro River drainage were to silt up its southern end as is the case with Lake Taupō today. [[Kakaramea-Tihia Massif|Kakaramea]] has been dated to 229 ± 1 ka so may not have been active from the time of lakes formation but may have therefore defined a south-western initial shore.{{sfn|Pure|2020|p=13}}{{efn|name=AgeAr|For discussion of K-Ar verus Ar-Ar age and the former's potential for inaccuracy in low potassium oxide andesite see Pure 2020}} In the center and to the west the rhyolitic volcanic deposits associated with the [[Whakamaru Caldera|Whakamaru caldera complex]] and the [[Taupō Volcano]] by 222,000 years ago defined the western shore. The lake's high stand remained fairly constant throughout its lifetime and was dictated by the emplacement of the last Waiora Formation eruptives in the north-west of the lake allowing its creation. This took place at 220,000 ± 31,000 [[Before Present|BP]].{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Tables 1 & 2}} The high stand was about {{convert|400|m|abbr=on}} above present mean sea level,{{sfn|Cattell|Cole| Oze|Allen|2014|p=332}} but given the rate of rift extension (subsidence) and historic much lower sea levels this relative level is almost meaningless to try to define further. Evidence for more than one high stand/lake terrace does exist.{{sfn|Brown|Smith|Cole|Houghton|1994|pp=113-15}}

The lake was completely destroyed by the Oruanui eruption of the Taupō Volcano which was the largest [[phreatomagmatic eruption]] characterised to date,{{sfn|Barker|Wilson|Illsley-Kemp|Leonard|2020|p=8}} and occurred about 25,500 years ago.{{sfn|Muscheler|Adolphi|Heaton|Bronk Ramsey|2020|loc=Volcanic Time Markers}}{{efn|The age of the Oruanui eruption has been determined by several independent methods and may be subject to further correction. The reference age for the zircon dating used elsewhere in this article of 25.36 {{abbr|ka|thousand years ago}} has been corrected by subsequent work. Other previous ages such as 26.5 ka,{{sfn|Dunbar|Iverson|Van Eaton|Sigl|2017}} have also been updated by [[Radiocarbon calibration|IntCal20 correction]] to 25.675 ± 0.09 ka cal BP.{{sfn|Dong|Kathayat|Rasmussen|Svensson|2022|loc=Correlations to Antarctic ice-core records}} The previous ice core date of 25.318 ± .25 ka BP using the WD2014 timescale was corrected to 25.718 ka.{{sfn|Dong|Kathayat|Rasmussen|Svensson|2022|loc=Correlations to Antarctic ice-core records}} The review article used here as source says around 25,500 years ago which is not a precise statement like the later 2022 corrections.{{sfn|Muscheler|Adolphi|Heaton|Bronk Ramsey|2020|loc=Volcanic Time Markers}} As the 2022 re-calibration of the timing of the Oruanui eruption may not be relevant to zircon dating, zircon dates are not corrected for this.|name=Odate}} The reference [[Detrital zircon geochronology|zircon dating]], as used to determine most eruption timings relevant to Lake Huka's evolution, has this, the largest eruption on earth in the past 70,000 years timed at 25,360 ± 160 BP.{{sfn|Peti|Hopkins|Augustinus|2021|pp=191-92}}{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Tables 1 & 2}}{{sfn|Dunbar|Iverson|Van Eaton|Sigl|2017}}{{sfn|Barker|Wilson|Illsley-Kemp|Leonard|2020|p=8}}{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}} The Oruanui eruption can not be timed directly by zircon dating and has now been corrected by other means to 25,675 ± 90 years BP.{{efn|name=Odate}} The Huka Falls Formation was described first in 1965,{{sfn|Cattell|Cole| Oze|Allen|2014|p=331}} and is mainly subsurface. It is found between {{convert|400|-|100|m|abbr=on}} above present mean sea level in this middle portion of the [[Taupō Volcanic Zone]],{{sfn|Cattell|Cole| Oze|Allen|2014|p=332}} and was only accurately dated recently.{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Tables 1 & 2}}{{efn|name=AgeCorrect|Recent ages used in the table have been obtained except for the Oruanui eruption by zircon dating.{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Tables 1 & 2}} Age estimations from different original sources used in the table may need correction. For example the lake may have existed for 100,000 years less than previously estimated. This article has corrected estimates published before 2020, to be consistent with the 2020 work and such corrected ages will be marked by this note. It has been assumed in this re-basing that the Waiora Formation pre-dates Lake Huka. No doubt other lakes existed in the area before Lake Huka, and may have been incorporated when it formed.}} The Huka Falls Formation is above the mainly volcanic Waiora Formation, some of which is hard to distinguish from the Huka Falls Formation at its margins, and beneath the Oruanui Formation (Wairakei [[Breccia]]).{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Fig. 3}}{{sfn|Chi|Browne|1991|p=185}}{{efn|The geological terms used are those of Rosenberg et al. 2020.{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020}} Because a number of terms have been used to classify the local rock secession the following may help in understanding this article in the context of other articles on Wikipedia. The ''Taupo Group'' (Rosenberg et al. 2020) contains the Oruanui Formation as its most recent deposited member but this is slightly different to how the term Oruanui Formation was defined when it replaced the term ''Wairakei Breccia''(Chi & Brown 1991) due to later discoveries. The Taupo Group contains as we go older, the recent Taupo subaerial [[rhyolite]] lavas from the Aratiata, Trig 9471 and Rubbish tip domes, then the [[dacite]] Tauhara Formation lavas and pyroclastic deposits but there is overlap in time between these and the upper Huka Falls Formation. The oldest part of the Taupo Group that overlaps in time with the lower Huka Falls Formation is the K-Trig Formation. Finally the two Te Mihi and Racetrack rhyolite lavas are subclassified as part of the lower Huka Falls Formation.}} The formation is most well characterised in its middle section due to well drilling for geothermal development and here there are three distinct units: #Upper with mudstones interbedded with volcaniclastic material #*in the Waireki area at a depth of {{convert|250|-|263|m|abbr=on}} below ground.{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Table 1}} #*between 25,360 ± 160{{sfn|Peti|Hopkins|Augustinus|2021|pp=191-92}} and 92,000 ± 11,000 years old{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Table 2}} #Middle [[pumice]]-rich from a relatively deep-water pyroclastic eruption(s) #*The eruptions were under a Lake Huka water column that was {{convert|150|–|250|m|abbr=on}} deep{{sfn|Cattell|Cole| Oze|Allen|2014|p=331}} #*Eruptions dated to between 168,000 and 92,000 years ago{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Table 2}} #Lower with mudstones interbedded with volcaniclastic material #*Is younger than 220,000 ± 31,000 years ago.

During the lake's existence its size, while never small, varied.{{sfn|Cattell|2015|loc=P. 119 Fig. 6.4}} Because of the length of its existence, relevant processes to such change, being structurally controlled subsidence, subsidence following explosive eruptions or by volcanic eruptions blocking water outflows and silting may have applied.{{sfn|Cattell|Cole| Oze|Allen|2014|p=331}} Events that impacted on the lake are shown in the table.

{| class="wikitable" |+ Events impacting on Lake Huka{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}} |- ! Date (ka) !! Event !! Location !! Comment |- | 220 to 25.36|| Lake Huka's existence|| - ||{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}}{{sfn|Rosenberg|Wilson|Bignall|Ireland|2020|loc=Tables 1 & 2}}{{sfn|Peti|Hopkins|Augustinus|2021|pp=191-92}} |- | 220 ± 31 || Emplacement Waiora Formation eruptives || North-west/Outlet ||{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}} Outlet is [[Waikato River]] |- | 198 ± 23 ||[[Kakaramea-Tihia Massif|Tihia]], andesitic deposits|| South ||{{sfn|Pure|2020|p=13}} {{efn|name=AgeAr}} The combined massive where Tihia is a parasite cone would have contributed to making the southern end of the lake shallower. |- | 180 to 123 ||[[Pihanga]], andesitic deposits|| South ||{{sfn|Pure|2020|p=13}} Would have contributed to defining the southern end of the lake.{{efn|name=AgeAr}} |- | 150 to 60{{sfn|Wilson|Blake|Charlier|Sutton|2006|p=37}} ||Whakaroa ridge domes|| Central ||May have contributed to redefining central western part of lake shore. |- | 140 to 45 ||K-trig basalts|| Western Central ||New central western shoreline. K-trig commenced this which did not finish until about 45 ka as defined by the Punatekahi cone and its Tihoi Tephra. These deposits have Huka Falls Formation under them and in places over them consistent with higher lake stands and erosion of the volcanics.{{sfn|Brown|Smith|Cole|Houghton|1994|pp=113-15}} |- | 142 ± 7 ||Racetrack, rhyolite lava|| Central ||{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}}Made central portion lake shallower by about {{convert|0.5|m|abbr=on}}. |- | 141 ± 8 ||Te Mihi 2, rhyolite lava|| Central ||{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}}Made central portion lake shallower by about {{convert|35|m|abbr=on}}. |- | 122 ± 9 ||Te Mihi 1, rhyolite lava|| Central ||{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}}Made central portion lake shallower by about {{convert|155|m|abbr=on}}. |- | 168 ± 24 to 92 ± 11 ||Middle Huka Falls Formation Eruption || Central ||{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}}Made central portion lake shallower. |- | 200-26 ||Tongariro volcanic centre|| South ||Volcanic sediments from multiple eruptions were washed down into the southern lake and the southern shore line retreated to the north. |- | ~100 ||Illdefined Taupo Eruptions|| South ||Evidence of most of these was destroyed in the Oruanui eruption. The south east andesitic-basalt of the Karangahape Cliffs on the west side of Lake Taupō and observation that the Oruanui ignimbrite to the east of the lake comprises up to 50% andesitic lithology suggests that an andesitic cone of cubic kilometre-scale was destroyed during the Oruanui eruption{{sfn|Barker|Wilson|Illsley-Kemp|Leonard|2020|loc=Section: Post-Whakamaru, pre-Rotoiti (∼350–55 ka)}} |- | 81.3 to 77.2||[[Motuoapa]] Peninsula, rhyolite|| South || Two rhyolitic eruptions that changed south-western shoreline{{sfn|Kósik|Németh|Danišík|Procter|2021}} |- | 58 ± 10 || Emplacement [[Mount Tauhara|Tauhara]] dacite|| Eastern central ||{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}}Created smaller new shore line eastern central region |- | 34.5 ± 3.1 ||[[Motuoapa]] Peninsula, dacite|| South || Possibly only local impact south-western shoreline{{sfn|Kósik|Németh|Danišík|Procter|2021}} |- |28.621 ± 1.428||Okaia ||Central||This eruption's tephra deposits contained a diatom population distribution consistent with that of the later Oruanui eruption.{{sfn|Harper|Pledger|Smith|Van Eaton|2015|loc=section:Discussion The 28.6 ka Okaia eruption}} |- | 27 || Trig 9471 and the Rubbish Tip Domes Emplacement|| Central || Narrowed at least, if not blocked the shoreline in central region cutting Lake Huka in half about 27,000 years ago. These events included the phreatoplinian Poihipi eruption from Rubbish Tip Dome.{{sfn|Manville|Wilson|2004|p=528}}{{sfn|Barker|Wilson|Illsley-Kemp|Leonard|2020|loc=Fig. 4}} |- | 25.36 ± 0.16 || [[Oruanui eruption]] || South ||{{efn|name=Odate}}{{efn|name=AgeCorrect}}Destroyed lake |}

===Destruction=== The Oruanui eruption occurred in a ten-stage process with the main vents located under the southern Lake Huka system. There is a fair possibility on geological grounds that the southern section of Lake Huka, had recently separated from the northern section to create what could be called the first Lake Taupō, due to either or both of pre-eruption upwarping shortly before the eruption itself, {{sfn|Manville|Wilson|2004|p=528}} or in a process that likely commenced about a thousand years earlier, due to eruptive activity of the Poihipi volcano adjoining [[Mount Tauhara]] whose [[magma chamber]] is under [[Wairakei]] and that had erupted at Trig 9471 and the Rubbish Tip Domes about 27,000 years ago.{{sfn|Manville|Wilson|2004|p=528}}{{sfn|Barker|Wilson|Illsley-Kemp|Leonard|2020|loc=Fig. 4}}

===Outflow=== Outflow of Lake Huka was always via the Waikato River, but had major downstream implications to the evolving geology of the Hamilton Basin as now found in the [[Waikato Plains|Waikato Basin]], and [[Hauraki Rift]] as now found in the [[Hauraki Plains]].{{sfn|Manville|Wilson|2004|p=530}} The predominant pattern was an ancestral Waikato River that drained the Taupo Rift through the Ōngāroto Gorge and reached the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the north at the [[Hauraki Gulf]] via the [[Hauraki Plains]].{{sfn|Cattell|2015|p=120}} By the time of the Oruanui eruption the lower reaches of the Waikato River were a mature river system. It is unknown if the evidence for some historic drainage well before the Oruanui eruption, into the Hamilton Basin by the Waikato River relates to a period when Lake Huka existed. Whatever the destruction of Lake Huka was associated ultimately by the breakdown of a volcanic dam located over the central portion of the former Lake Huka and then a change in the Waikato River course so that it now flowed through the Waikato Basin, into the [[Tasman Sea]].{{sfn|Manville|Wilson|2004|p=530}} This change was not immediate and only occurred permanently sometime after the eruption.{{sfn|Manville|Wilson|2004|p=541-2}}

===Later lakes=== Lake Taupō was formed and filled over a period of about a hundred years after the Oruanui eruption.{{sfn|Manville|Wilson|2004|p=532}} In the former northern region of Lake Huka there is evidence for a temporary lake in the [[Reporoa Caldera#Geography|Reporoa Basin]] with a shoreline terrace at about {{convert|360|m|abbr=on}} and lake deposits at up to {{convert|400|m|abbr=on}} above today's sea level but this was either drained before the main break-out flood from Lake Taupō, or was destroyed during the break-out flood.{{sfn|Manville|Wilson|2004|p=535}} Much later, after the 232 CE [[Hatepe eruption]] two temporary [[Lake Reporoa]]s were created transiently in the Reporoa Basin.{{sfn|Manville |2001|p=109}}

==Ecology== Intact samples of erupted lake sediment from the Oruanui eruption in the form of lithic [[Clastic rock|clasts]] in the [[ignimbrite]] contain [[diatom]]s.{{sfn|Harper|Pledger|Smith|Van Eaton|2015|loc=section:Abstract}} In particular ''Cyclostephanos novaezelandiae'' is found which is much rarer in the current volcanic lakes of the region, and this is believed to be because a ''Cyclostephanos novaezelandiae'' ecosystem became less likely due to reorganisation of the watershed in the aftermath of the eruption, and climate warming following the [[Last Glacial Maximum]].{{sfn|Harper|Pledger|Smith|Van Eaton|2015|loc=section:Abstract, Discussion}} Further as ''Cyclostephanos novaezeelandiae'', is endemic to New Zealand's North Island it would serve if identified in [[tephra]] to confirm the eruptive source region.{{sfn|Van Eaton|Harper|Wilson|2013|loc=section:Abstract}} Diatoms have been identified in tephra from the eruption {{convert|850|km|abbr=on}} away on the [[Chatham Islands]].{{sfn|Harper|Pledger|Smith|Van Eaton|2015|loc=Fig. 3}}

The earlier Taupō Volcano Okaia eruption, that erupted through Lake Huka, also dispersed diatom specimens from lake sediments, with a very similar ecological population to the Oruanui eruption.{{sfn|Harper|Pledger|Smith|Van Eaton|2015|loc=section:Discussion The 28.6 ka Okaia eruption}}

==Notes== {{notelist}}

== References == {{reflist}}

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==External links== *{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260266167 |title= Pictures of Diatoms - Supplementary document to Van Eaton et al 2013|access-date=3 December 2023}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Huka, Lake}} [[Category:Pre-Holocene volcanism]] [[Category:Pleistocene volcanism]] [[Category:Taupō Volcanic Zone]] [[Category:Former lakes of New Zealand|Huka]]