United States expedition to Korea

{{Short description|1871 U.S.–Joseon battle in Korea}} {{Use American English|date=March 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}} {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = Korean Expedition | partof = | image = Sujagi.jpg | image_size = 300px | caption = The captured ''Sujagi'' aboard USS ''Colorado'' in June 1871 | date = 1 June – 3 July 1871<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=06|day1=01|year1=1871|month2=07|day2=03|year2=1871}}) | place = Kanghwado, Korea | coordinates = {{coord|37.7000|N|126.4333|E|source:wikidata|display=inline,title}} | result = American tactical victory * Successful punitive expedition and withdrawal * Korea retains isolationist policies | combatant1 = {{Flagu|United States|1867}} | combatant2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Korea (1882–1910).svg}} Korea | commander1 = {{plainlist| * {{Flagicon image|U.S. flag used in the expedition to Korea (1871).png}} John Rodgers * {{Flagicon image|U.S. flag used in the expedition to Korea (1871).png}} Winfield Schley * {{Flagicon image|U.S. flag used in the expedition to Korea (1871).png}} Hugh McKee{{KIA}} }} | commander2 = {{plainlist| * {{Flagicon image|Flag of Korea (1882–1910).svg}} Eo Jae-yeon{{KIA}} * {{Flagicon image|Flag of Korea (1882–1910).svg}} Eo Jae-sun{{KIA}} }} | strength1 = {{ubl|650 troops |1 frigate|2 sloops-of-war|2 gunboats}} | strength2 = {{ubl|800 troops |40 artillery pieces|6 forts|4 shore batteries}} | casualties1 = {{ubl|3 killed|10 wounded|1 gunboat damaged}} | casualties2 = {{ubl|243 killed (American estimate)<ref name="nationalinterest">[https://nationalinterest.org/blog/reboot/fact-america-first-went-war-korea-1871-183290 Fact: America First Went to War in Korea In 1871], ''The National Interest''</ref>|~350 killed (Korean estimate, likely including suicide)<ref name="nationalinterest"/>|20 captured (later released)|40 artillery pieces captured|5 forts destroyed|1 fort damaged|4 shore batteries destroyed}} | campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Ganghwa Island War}} }} {{Infobox Korean name/auto | hangul = ^신미양요 | hanja = 辛未洋擾 }}

The '''United States expedition to Korea''', known in Korea as the '''''Shinmiyangyo''''' ({{Korean|hangul=신미양요|hanja=辛未洋擾|lit="Western Disturbance in the Shinmi Year"}}), or simply the '''Korean Expedition''', was an American military action in Korea that took place predominantly on and around Ganghwa Island in 1871.

== Background == {{See also|General Sherman incident|l1=''General Sherman'' incident}} Frederick Low, the American ambassador to China, sent the mission to ascertain the fate of the merchant ship ''General Sherman'', which had gone missing while visiting Korea in 1866. According to a ''National Interest'' article, Low's own records indicated the punitive campaign was motivated by a need to demonstrate American power over what he considered to be a weaker nation. Previously, the American commanders had felt entitled. They would "peacefully" enter Korean waters for survey and trade aboard heavily armed warships, all the while ignoring repeated diplomatic requests to respect Korean sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Roblin|first=Sebastien|date=2018-01-18|title=In 1871, America 'Invaded' Korea. Here's What Happened.|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/1871-america-invaded-korea-heres-what-happened-24113|access-date=2021-04-14|website=The National Interest|language=en|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109030935/https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/1871-america-invaded-korea-heres-what-happened-24113|url-status=live}}</ref>

Korean officials had sent letters holding the Americans responsible for unlawfully sending warships into their territorial waters, and also explaining to Low what had happened to the ''General Sherman''. The governor of Ganghwa also sent what Low described as a "few worthless articles"—three cows, 50 chickens and 1,000 eggs—in an effort to de-escalate things. The Americans rejected the offer. Instead, they launched a punitive campaign after the commanding American admiral did not receive an official apology from the Koreans.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rights to Protect Citizens in Foreign Countries by Landing Forces|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PfnfAAAAMAAJ|year=1912|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfnfAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59 59]|access-date=14 April 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414170046/https://books.google.com/books?id=PfnfAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The isolationist nature of the Joseon dynasty and the free trade ambitions of the Americans pushed a diplomatic standoff into an armed conflict.<ref>{{Citation|title=The General Sherman Incident of 1866|date=2019|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/past-forward/general-sherman-incident-of-1866/40D71B80CF4CE13914A41AB069956119|work=Past Forward: Essays in Korean History|pages=170–171|editor-last=Hwang|editor-first=Kyung Moon|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-78308-880-5|access-date=2021-04-15|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415055644/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/past-forward/general-sherman-incident-of-1866/40D71B80CF4CE13914A41AB069956119|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Initial contact== The American expedition consisted of about 650 men, more than 500 sailors and 100 Marines, as well as five warships:<ref>The number of ships is confirmed by Lee (1984), p. 264.</ref> {{USS|Colorado|1856|2}}, {{USS|Alaska|1868|2}}, {{USS|Palos|1865|2}}, {{USS|Monocacy|1864|2}}, and {{USS|Benicia|1868|2}}. Embarked aboard ''Colorado'' was Rear Admiral John Rodgers, and Frederick F. Low, the United States Ambassador to China.<ref>Lee (1984), loc. cit.</ref><ref name="colorado">[http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/c11/colorado-i.htm Colorado] {{webarchive |url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20121004105008/http%3A//www%2Ehistory%2Enavy%2Emil/danfs/c11/colorado%2Di%2Ehtm |title=Archived copy |date=4 October 2012}}. ''Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships''</ref> The Korean forces, known as "Tiger Hunters", were led by General Eo Jae-yeon.

The Americans safely made contact with the Korean inhabitants, described as "people wearing white clothes". When they inquired about the ''General Sherman'' incident, the Koreans were initially reluctant to discuss the topic, ostensibly to avoid having to pay compensation. The Americans consequently let the Koreans know that their fleet would be exploring the area and that they meant no harm. This gesture was misinterpreted; Korean policy at the time prohibited foreign ships from sailing on the Han River, which led directly to the capital city of Hanyang, modern-day Seoul. Therefore, the Joseon government rejected the U.S. request. The Americans sailed anyway.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Korean History Dictionary Compilation Society|date=2005-09-10|title=신미양요|url=https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?cid=42958&docId=919480&categoryId=42958|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-06|website=terms.naver.com|language=ko|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606092113/https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?cid=42958&docId=919480&categoryId=42958}}</ref>

On 1 June, the Korean fortress fired at the U.S. fleet as it sailed up the Ganghwa Straits, which leads to the river. The U.S. forces were not badly damaged due to "the bad gunnery of the [K]oreans, whose fire, although very hot for the fifteen minutes in which they maintained it, was ill-directed, and consequently without effect."<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2Q7AQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA277 Report of Rear Admiral John Rodgers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920112303/https://books.google.com/books?id=u2Q7AQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA277 |date=20 September 2020 }}". In ''Reports of the Secretary of the Navy and of the Postmaster General''. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1871. p. 277.</ref> The U.S. demanded an apology within 10 days; there was no response so Rodgers decided on a punitive assault on the forts.<ref name="colorado" />

==Battle of Ganghwa==  {{Main|Battle of Ganghwa}}

[[File:Ganghwa 3-edit.jpg|thumb|''American servicemen after capturing Fort Dŏkjin (Fort Monocacy) on 10 June'' by Felice Beato]] On 10 June, the Americans attacked the lightly defended Choji Garrison on Ganghwa, along the Salee River. The Koreans were armed with severely outdated weapons, such as matchlock muskets, cannons, and breech-loading swivel guns. After overrunning the Korean defenders, the Americans moved on to their next objective, the Deokjin Garrison. American 12-pound howitzers kept the poorly armed Korean forces from effective range. The American troops continued towards the next objective, Deokjin Fort, which they found abandoned. The sailors and Marines quickly dismantled this fortress and continued to Gwangseong Garrison, a citadel. By this time, Korean forces had regrouped there. Along the way, some Korean units tried to flank the U.S. forces but were beaten off again due to the strategic placement of artillery on two hills.

Artillery fire from ground forces and ''Monocacy'' offshore pounded the citadel in preparation for an assault by U.S. forces. A force of 546 sailors and 105 Marines grouped on the hills west of the fortress (infantry troops were on the hill directly west of the fortress, while artillery troops on another hill both shelled the fortress and also covered the Americans' flanks and rear), keeping cover and returning fire. Once the bombardment stopped, the Americans charged the citadel, led by Lieutenant Hugh McKee. The slow reload time of the Korean matchlocks aided the Americans, armed with superior Remington rolling block carbines, in making it over the walls; the Koreans even ended up throwing rocks at the attackers.

McKee was the first to make it into the citadel and was fatally wounded by a shot to the groin; after him came commander Winfield Scott Schley, who shot the Korean soldier who had killed McKee.<ref>Lexington Morning Herald 28 November 1897</ref> The flag of the Korean commander, General Eo Jae-yŏn, called the "Sujagi" by Koreans, was captured by Corporal Charles Brown of ''Colorado''{{'}}s guard and Private Hugh Purvis of ''Alaska''{{'}}s guard.<ref>Report of Captain McLane Tilton to the Secretary of the Navy, Korea, 16 June 1871</ref> General Eo was killed by Private James Dougherty.<ref>Report of Commander L.A. Kimberly (USN) to the Secretary of the Navy, Korea, 5 July 1871</ref> While serving as the color bearer for ''Colorado''{{'}}s crew and Marines, ''Colorado'' Carpenter Cyrus Hayden planted the U.S. flag on the ramparts under heavy enemy fire. Corporal Brown, Privates Dougherty, Purvis, and Carpenter Hayden received the Medal of Honor.left|thumb|Unique American flag used during the conflictThe fighting lasted fifteen minutes. The total number killed was 243 Koreans and three Americans; McKee, Seaman Seth Allen, and U.S. Marine Corps Private Denis Hanrahan.<ref>Dispatch from Commodore John Rodgers to the Secretary of the Navy, Corea, 23 June 1871</ref> Ten Americans were wounded, and 20 Koreans were captured, several of whom were wounded. Five Korean forts were taken in total, with dozens of small cannons.<ref name="Nahm 1996, p. 149">Nahm (1996), p. 149.</ref><ref>Rear-Admiral John Rodgers, General Order No. 32, 12 June 1871</ref> The Korean deputy commander was among the wounded who were captured.<ref>"The Korean War", ''New York Times'', Vol. 20, No. 6215, 22 August 1871</ref> The U.S. hoped to use the captives as a bargaining chip to meet with local officials, but the Koreans refused, calling the captives cowards and "Low was told that he was welcome to keep the wounded prisoners." However, the Americans released the prisoners before departing.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kim Young-Sik, PhD |url=http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/1462.html |title=Association for Asia Research- The early US-Korea relations |publisher=Asianresearch.org |access-date=2014-07-18 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923175246/http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/1462.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Following the military operations of 10–12 June, the United States Asiatic Squadron stayed at anchorage off Jakyak Island{{clarify|date=April 2021|reason=As this is a redlink and cited sources are not hyperlinked, more clarity is needed.}} until 3 July, when they left for China.<ref>Report of Rear-Admiral John Rodgers to the Secretary of the Navy, 5 July 1871</ref><ref>deck logs for the USS ''Colorado'', USS ''Alaska'', USS ''Benicia'', USS ''Monocacy'', and USS ''Palos'' from 10 June 1871 to 3 July 1871</ref>

==Aftermath== The United States had hoped that their victory would persuade the Koreans to return to the negotiating table. But the Koreans refused to negotiate. In fact, these events led the regent Daewon-gun to strengthen his policy of isolation and issue a national proclamation against appeasing foreigners.<ref>Nahm (1986), p. 149-150; Lee (1984), p. 266.</ref> Additionally the Koreans soon sent reinforcements in large numbers that were armed with more modern weapons to confront the American troops. Realizing that the odds had shifted, the U.S. fleet consequently departed and set sail for China on 3 July.<ref name="TWE">{{Cite web|title=TWE Remembers: The Korean Expedition of 1871 and the Battle of Ganghwa (Shinmiyangyo)|url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/twe-remembers-korean-expedition-1871-and-battle-ganghwa-shinmiyangyo|access-date=2021-04-15|website=Council on Foreign Relations|language=en|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415151301/https://www.cfr.org/blog/twe-remembers-korean-expedition-1871-and-battle-ganghwa-shinmiyangyo|url-status=live}}</ref>

There were no further attacks on foreign ships. In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwa Island and threatened to fire on Seoul. Treaties with European countries and the U.S. soon followed.

Nine sailors (Chief Quartermaster Grace, Quartermasters Troy, Franklin and Rogers, Boatswain's Mate McKenzie, Ordinary Seaman Andrews, Carpenter Hayden, and Landsmen Lukes and Merton) and six Marines (Corporal Brown and Privates Coleman, Dougherty, McNamara, Owens, and Purvis) were awarded the Medal of Honor, the first for actions in a foreign conflict.

==Treaty of Amity and Commerce== {{Main|United States–Korea Treaty of 1882}}

From April to May 1882, the United States, represented by Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt of the United States Navy, and Korea negotiated and approved a 14-article treaty.<ref>Yŏng-ho Ch'oe ''et al.'' (2000). {{Google books|A9LoA9L1ABcC|''Sources of Korean Tradition,'' p. 235|page=235}}; excerpt, "''Korea signed a similar accord with the United States (the ''Treaty of Chelump'o'', 1882) that was followed by similar agreements with other Western nations'';" Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921-1922. (1922). {{Google books|9OdAAAAAYAAJ|''Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament,'' p. 29.|page=29}}; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Korea. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated May 22, 1882."</ref><ref name="nationalinterest" /> The treaty established mutual friendship and mutual assistance in case of attack;<ref>Korean Mission {{Google books|9OdAAAAAYAAJ|''Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament,'' p. 29.|page=29}}; excerpt, "... Article 1."</ref> and also addressed such specific matters as extraterritorial rights for American citizens in Korea<ref>Korean Mission {{Google books|9OdAAAAAYAAJ|p. 29.|page=29}}; excerpt, "... Article 4."</ref> and most favored nation trade status.<ref>Korean Mission {{Google books|9OdAAAAAYAAJ|p. 29.|page=29}}; excerpt, "... Article 14."</ref>

The treaty remained in effect until the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910.

== Gallery == <gallery mode="nolines" widths="300" heights="200"> File:Corea-map.jpg|Map of the Ganghwa forts File:Interior of Fort McKee, June 1871 HD-SN-99-01927.JPEG|''Korean casualties, after the attack on Fort Sondolmok (Fort McKee)'' by Felice Beato<ref>[A similar version of the same scene is at [https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=vm2Nsh3g&id=D2FF504E3D19AA0AC17E66EC40EF1B185E439F7E&thid=OIP.vm2Nsh3gDX3s48oxTHc7EQHaFy&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fn7.alamy.com%2fzooms%2f98c7b92594be43bba7a955a848875aaf%2ffort-with-dead-korean-soldiers-after-capture-by-us-sailors-and-marines-kwdmtw.jpg&exph=500&expw=640&q=sujagi+flag+returned&simid=608056028871002751&selectedIndex=43&ajaxhist=0] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926181755/https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=vm2Nsh3g&id=D2FF504E3D19AA0AC17E66EC40EF1B185E439F7E&thid=OIP.vm2Nsh3gDX3s48oxTHc7EQHaFy&mediaurl=http%3A%2F%2Fn7.alamy.com%2Fzooms%2F98c7b92594be43bba7a955a848875aaf%2Ffort-with-dead-korean-soldiers-after-capture-by-us-sailors-and-marines-kwdmtw.jpg&exph=500&expw=640&q=sujagi+flag+returned&simid=608056028871002751&selectedIndex=43&ajaxhist=0|date=26 September 2021}}.]</ref> File:First known photo of Koreans 1871.jpg|Korean ship in 1871, taken by the Americans during the expedition File:Council of War USS Colorado June 1871.jpg|U.S. Navy officers holding a council of war aboard the Asiatic Squadron flagship, the steam frigate {{USS|Colorado|1856|2}}, off Korea in June 1871. The squadron's commander, Rear Admiral John Rodgers, leans over the table on the right. File:Korean official bearing the first despatches on board the USS Colorado HD-SN-99-01928.JPEG|Korean official bearing the first dispatches on board the ''Colorado'', June 1871 File:1871sujagi.jpg|Captured ''Sujagi'' aboard USS ''Colorado''. From right to left: U.S. Marine Corporal Charles Brown, U.S. Marine Private Hugh Purvis, and the sailor on the left is believed to be Cyrus Hayden (U.S. Navy). All three were awarded the Medal of Honor. File:Korean battle flags seized by US Navy.jpg|Other flags captured by the Americans during the battle </gallery>

==Notes== {{reflist}}

==References== * {{cite book|title=A new history of Korea |edition=revised |author=Lee, Ki-baek |translator1=E.W. Wagner |translator2=E.J. Shultz|year=1984|location=Seoul|publisher=Ilchogak|isbn=89-337-0204-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofkore0000leek}} * {{cite book|title=Korea: A history of the Korean people |edition=2nd |author=Nahm, Andrew C.|year=1996|location=Seoul | publisher=Hollym|isbn=1-56591-070-2}} * {{cite book|title=Sinmiyangyo: The 1871 Conflict Between the United States and Korea |author=Duvernay, Thomas A.|year=2021|location=Seoul | publisher=Seoul Selection|asin=B08BF9J9HB}} * Gordon H. Chang, "Whose 'Barbarism'? Whose 'Treachery'? Race and Civilization in the Unknown United States-Korea War of 1871," ''Journal of American History'', Vol. 89, No. 4 (March 2003), pp. 1331–1365 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3092545 in JSTOR] * Yŏng-ho Ch'oe; William Theodore De Bary; Martina Deuchler and Peter Hacksoo Lee. (2000). ''Sources of Korean Tradition: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries.'' New York: Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-231-12030-2}}; {{ISBN|978-0-231-12031-9}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/248562016 OCLC 248562016]

==External links== {{Commons category|United States expedition to Korea in 1871}} * {{webarchive |url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100407175236/http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/marine_amphib_korea.htm |title=US Naval Historical Center on 1871 US Korean campaign |date=2010-04-07}} * [http://homeofheroes.com/wallofhonor/korea1871/5_conclusion.html medal of Honor Link {1871} reference only] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616072903/http://www.homeofheroes.com/wallofhonor/korea1871/5_conclusion.html |date=16 June 2012 }} * [http://www.shinmiyangyo.org/ 1871 US Korea Campaign] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811160050/http://www.shinmiyangyo.org/old/ |date=11 August 2020 }} * [http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/1462.html The early US-Korea relations – Excerpt from "A Brief History of the US-Korea Relations Prior to 1945"] * {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041011181532/http://www.kimsoft.com/2000/sherman.htm |title=Gateway to Shimiyangyo |date=2004-10-11}} * {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929064742/http://ganghwa.x-y.net/xy_bb/board.php?id=gang&board_sec=0&page=1&mode=view&no=69 |title=My Ganghwa dot com, a Korean site dedicated to the Ganghwa Isle |date=2006-09-29}} * [http://www.navyhistory.org/marine-amphibious-landing-in-korea-1871/ Marine Amphibious Landing in Korea, 1871]

Category:1871 in Korea Category:19th-century military history of the United States Category:Conflicts in 1871 Category:Invasions of Korea Category:July 1871 Category:June 1871 Category:Korea–United States relations Category:Military history of Korea Category:Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant Korea Category:United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries Category:Wars involving Joseon Korea Category:Wikipedia articles containing unlinked shortened footnotes Category:Naval bombing operations and battles