{{Short description|American psychologist}} Kipling D. Williams is an American social psychologist and Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Psychological Sciences at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. He is known for his research on ostracism,<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |title=Professor: Pain of ostracism can be deep, long-lasting |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-05-professor-pain-ostracism-deep-long-lasting.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20220528175233/https://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-05-professor-pain-ostracism-deep-long-lasting.html |archive-date=2022-05-28 |access-date=2026-04-21 |language=en}}</ref> social exclusion,<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Haupt |first=Angela |date=2026-01-21 |title=What to Do If Your Friends Keep Leaving You Out |url=https://time.com/7353626/left-out-by-friends-group-excluded-what-to-do/ |access-date=2026-04-21 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref> and the psychological and behavioral consequences of being ignored or excluded by others.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=http://www2.psych.purdue.edu/Social/faculty/kip.htm |title=Kip Williams, PhD<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2008-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412055144/http://www2.psych.purdue.edu/Social/faculty/kip.htm |archive-date=2008-04-12 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Professor: Pain of ostracism can be deep, long-lasting |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/618666 |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=EurekAlert! |language=en}}</ref>
== Education == He received B.S. in Psychology at the University of Washington in 1975.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HSS: Ostracism: The Effects of Being Ignored and Excluded |url=https://socsc.smu.edu.sg/newsletter/hss-ostracism-effects-being-ignored-and-excluded |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=socsc.smu.edu.sg}}</ref>
Williams received his Ph.D. in Social Psychology from The Ohio State University in 1981.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Kipling D. Williams {{!}} SPSP |url=https://spsp.org/membership/awards/heritage-wall/williams |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=spsp.org}}</ref> His graduate training at Ohio State helped shape his foundational interests in social influence, group processes, and interpersonal dynamics. He was an associate editor of both the ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin''<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Wirth |first1=James H. |last2=Wesselmann |first2=Eric D. |date=2026-01-02 |title=A festschrift honoring Dr. Kipling Williams: The expansion of ostracism research |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00224545.2025.2572647 |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology |language=en |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1080/00224545.2025.2572647 |pmid=41456338 |issn=0022-4545|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and ''Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kipling Williams - The Silent Treatment: A Weapon of Mass Destruction |url=https://podcasts.apple.com/lu/podcast/ep-191-kipling-williams-the-silent-treatment-a/id1256689090?i=1000585081625&l=de-DE |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=de-DE}}</ref> He is currently the editor of Social Influence.{{When|date=May 2026|reason=used currently without explanation of date}}<ref name=":3" /><ref name="Kip Williams">[http://williams.socialpsychology.org/ Kip Williams<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
== Academic career == Williams has held academic appointments at several universities, including Macquarie University and the University of New South Wales in Australia, the University of Toledo, and Drake University, before joining the faculty at Purdue University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kipling D. Williams - Professional |url=http://www3.psych.purdue.edu/~willia55/Prof/prof.htm |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=www3.psych.purdue.edu}}</ref> At Purdue, he served as a professor in the Department of Psychological Sciences and is now a Distinguished Professor Emeritus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kipling Williams |url=https://williams.socialpsychology.org/ |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=williams.socialpsychology.org |language=en}}</ref>
== Research and Contributions == Williams's research spans several areas of social psychology, but he is most widely recognized for his work on ostracism the experience of being ignored and excluded by others.<ref name=":2" />
His recent research continues to drive the field's understanding of how being ignored and excluded impact psychological well‑being including social pain, isolation, coping strategies, and long‑term outcomes such as depression and social withdrawal.<ref name=":0" /> For example, his 2022 review with Steve A. Nida synthesizes decades of research on ostracism's emotional, cognitive, and behavioral effects and highlights future directions for interventions and recovery strategies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rosen |first1=Lisa H. |last2=Rubin |first2=Linda J. |last3=Vergara |first3=Erin |last4=Barnicle |first4=Kelsey |last5=Romines |first5=Ashton |last6=Dali |first6=Savannah |date=2026 |title=Responding to ostracism in children: The role of parental recollections of the playground |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/02654075251378113 |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=615–635 |doi=10.1177/02654075251378113 |issn=0265-4075|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Ostracism and Social Exclusion === Williams defines ostracism as "any act or acts of ignoring and excluding of an individual or groups by an individual or a group" without necessarily involving overt verbal or physical abuse. This conceptualization emphasizes the ''silent'' and ''subtle'' nature of many exclusionary acts.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=James |first1=Kari E. |last2=McKimmie |first2=Blake M. |last3=Maccallum |first3=Fiona |date=2025 |title=Resilience in diversity: a restricted range of roles is associated with more severe moral injury |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioural-and-cognitive-psychotherapy/article/resilience-in-diversity-a-restricted-range-of-roles-is-associated-with-more-severe-moral-injury/854C9138BE5823AD06FBE7F8A303158F |journal=Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy |language=en |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=398–409 |doi=10.1017/S1352465825000116 |pmid=40356309 |issn=1352-4658|doi-access=free }}</ref>
His work has shown that even brief episodes of ostracism threaten fundamental human needs such as belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence, and that ostracism can cause emotional pain, stress, and behavioral changes.<ref>{{Citation |last=Williams |first=Kipling D. |title=Chapter 6 Ostracism |date=2009 |series=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology |volume=41 |pages=275–314 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0065260108004061 |access-date=2026-04-21 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/s0065-2601(08)00406-1 |isbn=978-0-12-374472-2|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Williams developed the Temporal Need-Threat Model, a framework used to explain the psychological stages people experience in response to social exclusion beginning with reflexive responses, followed by attempts to cope, and potentially long-term resignation when ostracism persists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Riva |first1=Paolo |last2=Marinucci |first2=Marco |last3=Telari |first3=Alessia |last4=Pancani |first4=Luca |date=2026-01-02 |title=Updating the temporal need-threat model of ostracism: challenges and future directions |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00224545.2025.2572648 |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology |language=en |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=26–38 |doi=10.1080/00224545.2025.2572648 |pmid=41078353 |issn=0022-4545|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
In the reflexive stage, individuals are nearly universally negatively impacted by even brief episodes of ostracism, involving self-reported pain and brain activity associated with the detection of pain, threatened needs of belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence, and negative emotions, such as sadness and anger.<ref name=":5" />
=== Cyberball Paradigm === {{main|Social rejection#Ball toss / cyberball experiments}} Williams along with Christopher Cheung and Wilma Choi created the Cyberball paradigm, a widely used experimental tool in social psychology for studying ostracism in controlled settings.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Kipling D. |last2=Jarvis |first2=Blair |date=2006 |title=Cyberball: A program for use in research on interpersonal ostracism and acceptance |journal=Behavior Research Methods |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=174–180 |doi=10.3758/bf03192765 |pmid=16817529 |issn=1554-351X}}</ref> In this virtual ball-tossing game, participants are ostracized by not being thrown the ball by virtual players, which reliably induces feelings of exclusion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=K. D. |last2=Cheung |first2=C. K. |last3=Choi |first3=W. |date=2000 |title=Cyberostracism: effects of being ignored over the Internet |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=748–762 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.748 |issn=0022-3514 |pmid=11079239}}</ref>
Cyberball has been updated multiple times (the latest known version being Cyberball 5.0) and remains a standard research tool in studies of social exclusion, rejection, discrimination, and interpersonal acceptance.<ref name=":4" />
=== Social loafing === Kipling D. Williams is closely associated with the development and empirical study of the concept of social loafing, a phenomenon in social psychology describing the tendency of individuals to exert less effort when working in groups compared to when working alone.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Karau |first1=Steven J. |last2=Williams |first2=Kipling D. |date=1993 |title=Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.65.4.681 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=681–706 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.65.4.681 |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }}</ref>The concept was formally articulated in the influential study by Bibb Latané, Williams, and Stephen Harkins (1979), which demonstrated that individual effort decreases as group size increases under certain conditions.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Latané |first1=Bibb |last2=Williams |first2=Kipling |last3=Harkins |first3=Stephen |date=1979 |title=Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.37.6.822 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=822–832 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.37.6.822 |bibcode=1979JPSP...37..822L |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
This foundational work, ''"Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing"'', has been widely cited in the psychological literature and is regarded as a key contribution to the study of group dynamics. It provided experimental evidence for diffusion of responsibility and motivational losses in collective tasks, helping to establish social loafing as a major topic within social and organizational psychology.<ref name=":7" />
Williams further contributed to the theoretical and empirical development of the concept through a substantial body of research, including multiple peer-reviewed publications examining the conditions under which social loafing occurs and how it can be mitigated. A major synthesis of this research is presented in the meta-analytic review by Steven J. Karau and Williams (1993), which integrated findings across numerous studies and proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding effort reduction in group settings.<ref name=":6" />
This body of work has had significant influence across disciplines, including psychology, management, education, and organizational behavior.<ref name=":4" /> It has informed research on teamwork, productivity, and collective performance, as well as practical strategies for reducing motivational losses in group contexts, such as increasing individual accountability, enhancing task significance, and improving group cohesion.<ref name=":1" />
==Selected publications==
* Kipling D. Williams (1997). Social ostracism. In R. M. Kowalski (Ed.), ''Aversive interpersonal behaviors'' (pp. 133–170). Plenum Press.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Kipling D. Williams - Publications |url=http://www1.psych.purdue.edu/~willia55/Pub/pub.htm |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=www1.psych.purdue.edu}}</ref> * Kipling D. Williams, K. D., & Sommer, K. L. (1997). Social ostracism by one's coworkers: Does rejection lead to loafing or compensation? ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Kipling D. |last2=Sommer |first2=Kristin L. |date=1997 |title=Social Ostracism by Coworkers: Does Rejection Lead to Loafing or Compensation? |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167297237003 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |language=en |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=693–706 |doi=10.1177/0146167297237003 |issn=0146-1672|url-access=subscription }}</ref> * Kipling D. Williams, K. D., & Zadro, L. (2001). Ostracism: On being ignored, excluded, and rejected. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), ''Interpersonal rejection'' (pp. 21–53). Oxford University Press.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Williams |first1=Kipling D. |title=Ostracism |date=2006-09-07 |work=Interpersonal Rejection |pages=21–53 |publisher=Oxford University PressNew York |isbn=0-19-513015-4 |last2=Zadro |first2=Lisa |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195130157.003.0002 }}</ref> * Forgas, J. P., & Kipling D. Williams (Eds.). (2001). ''Social influence: Direct and indirect processes''. Psychology Press.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Forgas |first1=Joseph P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfGl17y_yCUC |title=Social Influence: Direct and Indirect Processes |last2=Williams |first2=Kipling D. |date=2001 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-84169-039-1 |language=en}}</ref> * Forgas, J. P., Kipling D. Williams, & Wheeler, L. (Eds.). (2001). ''The social mind: Cognitive and motivational aspects of interpersonal behavior''. Cambridge University Press.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Forgas |first1=Joseph P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55m9ieKIZQQC |title=The Social Mind: Cognitive and Motivational Aspects of Interpersonal Behavior |last2=Williams |first2=Kipling D. |last3=Wheeler |first3=Ladd |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54125-1 |language=en}}</ref> * Forgas, J. P., & Kipling D. Williams (Eds.). (2002). ''The social self: Cognitive, interpersonal, and intergroup perspectives''. Psychology Press.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315800516/social-self-joseph-forgas-kipling-williams |title=The social self: cognitive, interpersonal, and intergroup perspectives |date=2012 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-315-80051-6 |editor-last=Forgas |editor-first=Joseph P. |series=Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology series |location=New York |doi=10.4324/9781315800516 |editor-last2=Williams |editor-first2=Kipling D.}}</ref> * Forgas, J. P., Kipling D. Williams, & von Hippel, W. (Eds.). (2003). ''Social judgments: Implicit and explicit processes''. Cambridge University Press.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Social judgments: implicit and explicit processes |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-521-82248-0 |editor-last=Forgas |editor-first=Joseph P. |edition=1. publ |series=The Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology series |location=Cambridge}}</ref> * Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Kipling D. Williams (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. ''Science''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eisenberger |first1=Naomi I. |last2=Lieberman |first2=Matthew D. |last3=Williams |first3=Kipling D. |date=2003-10-10 |title=Does rejection hurt? An FMRI study of social exclusion |journal=Science (New York, N.Y.) |volume=302 |issue=5643 |pages=290–292 |doi=10.1126/science.1089134 |issn=1095-9203 |pmid=14551436 |bibcode=2003Sci...302..290E }}</ref> * Forgas, J. P., Kipling D. Williams, & von Hippel, W. (Eds.). (2005). ''Social motivation: Conscious and unconscious processes''. Cambridge University Press.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Forgas |first1=Joseph P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIlxPwAACAAJ |title=Social Motivation: Conscious and Unconscious Processes |last2=Williams |first2=Kipling D. |last3=Laham |first3=Simon M. |date=2009-06-18 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-11413-4 |language=en}}</ref> * Kipling D. Williams, K. D., Forgas, J. P., & von Hippel, W. (Eds.). (2005). ''The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying''. Psychology Press.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9780203942888/social-outcast-kipling-williams-joseph-forgas-william-von-hippel |title=The social outcast: ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying |date=2005 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-203-94288-8 |editor-last=Forgas |editor-first=Joseph P. |series=Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology series |location=New York |doi=10.4324/9780203942888 |editor-last2=Hippel |editor-first2=William von |editor-last3=Williams |editor-first3=Kipling D.}}</ref> * Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. ''Annual Review of Psychology''.<ref name=":8" /> * Brewer, N., & Kipling D. Williams (Eds.). (2007). ''Psychology and law: An empirical perspective''. Cambridge University Press.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brewer |first1=Neil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJPWxOIhIcEC |title=Psychology and Law: An Empirical Perspective |last2=Williams |first2=Kipling D. |date=2007-07-01 |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-59385-590-1 |language=en}}</ref> * Gonsalkorale, K., & Kipling D. Williams (2007). The KKK won't let me play: Ostracism even by a despised outgroup hurts. ''European Journal of Social Psychology''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gonsalkorale |first1=Karen |last2=Williams |first2=Kipling D. |date=2007 |title=The KKK won't let me play: ostracism even by a despised outgroup hurts |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejsp.392 |journal=European Journal of Social Psychology |language=en |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=1176–1186 |doi=10.1002/ejsp.392 |issn=0046-2772}}</ref> * Zadro, L., Arriaga, X. B., & Kipling D. Williams (2008). Relational ostracism. In J. P. Forgas & J. Fitness (Eds.), ''Social relationships: Cognitive, affective, and motivational processes'' (pp. 305–320). Psychology Press.<ref name=":8" /> * Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model. ''Advances in Experimental Social Psychology''.<ref>{{Citation |last=Williams |first=Kipling D. |title=Chapter 6 Ostracism |date=2009 |series=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology |volume=41 |pages=275–314 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0065260108004061 |access-date=2026-04-21 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/s0065-2601(08)00406-1 |isbn=978-0-12-374472-2|url-access=subscription }}</ref> * Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2006). Cyberball: A program for use in research on interpersonal ostracism and acceptance. ''Behavior Research Methods''.<ref name=":9" /> * Goodwin, S. A., Kipling D. Williams, & Carter-Sowell, A. R. (2010). The psychological sting of stigma: The costs of attributing ostracism to racism. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology''.<ref name=":8" /> * Jamieson, J. P., Harkins, S. G., & Kipling D. Williams (2010). Need threat can motivate performance after ostracism. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jamieson |first1=Jeremy P. |last2=Harkins |first2=Stephen G. |last3=Williams |first3=Kipling D. |date=2010 |title=Need threat can motivate performance after ostracism |journal=Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=690–702 |doi=10.1177/0146167209358882 |issn=1552-7433 |pmid=20388870}}</ref> * Nezlek, J. B., Wesselmann, E. D., Wheeler, L., & Kipling D. Williams (2012). Ostracism in everyday life. ''Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nezlek |first1=John B. |last2=Wesselmann |first2=Eric D. |last3=Wheeler |first3=Ladd |last4=Williams |first4=Kipling D. |date=2012 |title=Ostracism in everyday life. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0028029 |journal=Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice |language=en |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=91–104 |doi=10.1037/a0028029 |issn=1930-7802|url-access=subscription }}</ref> * Hartgerink, C. H. J., van Beest, I., Wicherts, J. M., & Kipling D. Williams (2015). The ordinal effects of ostracism: A meta-analysis of 120 Cyberball studies. ''PLOS ONE''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hartgerink |first1=Chris H. J. |last2=van Beest |first2=Ilja |last3=Wicherts |first3=Jelte M. |last4=Williams |first4=Kipling D. |date=2015 |title=The ordinal effects of ostracism: a meta-analysis of 120 Cyberball studies |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=5 |article-number=e0127002 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0127002 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4449005 |pmid=26023925 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1027002H }}</ref> * Kipling D. Williams, K. D., & Nida, S. A. (Eds.). (2017). ''Ostracism, exclusion, and rejection''. Routledge.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.routledge.com/Ostracism-Exclusion-and-Rejection/Williams-Nida/p/book/ |title=Ostracism, exclusion, and rejection |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-1-84872-557-7 |editor-last=Williams |editor-first=Kipling D. |location=New York |editor-last2=Nida |editor-first2=Steve A.}}</ref> * Harkins, S. G., Kipling D. Williams, & Burger, J. M. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Oxford handbook of social influence''. Oxford University Press.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28375 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Social Influence |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985987-0 |editor-last=Harkins |editor-first=Stephen G. |volume=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859870.001.0001 |editor-last2=Williams |editor-first2=Kipling D. |editor-last3=Burger |editor-first3=Jerry}}</ref> * Rudert, S. C., Greifeneder, R., & Kipling D. Williams (Eds.). (2019). ''Current directions in ostracism, social exclusion, and rejection research''. Routledge.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Current Directions in Ostracism, Social Exclusion and Rejection Research |url=https://www.routledge.com/Current-Directions-in-Ostracism-Social-Exclusion-and-Rejection-Research/Rudert-Greifeneder-Williams/p/book/9780815368144 |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=Routledge & CRC Press |language=en}}</ref> * Hales, A. H., Wood, N. R., & Kipling D. Williams (2024). Ostracism and extremism. In M. Pfundmair, A. H. Hales, & K. D. Williams (Eds.), ''Exclusion and extremism: A psychological perspective''. Cambridge University Press.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Hales |first1=Andrew H. |title=Ostracism and Extremism: How Extreme Groups Can Address Threatened Needs |date=2024 |work=Exclusion and Extremism: A Psychological Perspective |pages=7–26 |editor-last=Hales |editor-first=Andrew H. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/exclusion-and-extremism/ostracism-and-extremism/17948CB9E6E4188D7AEE0CB0BF9443B5 |access-date=2026-04-21 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-40813-4 |last2=Wood |first2=Natasha R. |last3=Williams |first3=Kipling D. |editor2-last=Williams |editor2-first=Kipling D. |editor3-last=Pfundmair |editor3-first=Michaela}}</ref><br />
==References== <references />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Williams, Kipling}} Category:21st-century American psychologists Category:American social psychologists Category:Living people Category:Year of birth missing (living people)