Viet people

{{Short description|Southeast Asian ethnic group}} {{Redirect|Viet||Viet (disambiguation)|and|Viets (disambiguation)|and|Vietnamese (disambiguation)}} {{Redirect|Người Việt|the California newspaper|Nguoi Viet Daily News}} {{Protection padlock|small=yes}} {{More footnotes needed|date=September 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Viet people / Kinh people | native_name = người Việt / người Kinh | native_name_lang = vi | image = Aodaicuacungdinh.jpg | image_caption = Vietnamese women wearing [[áo nhật bình]] along with [[Khăn vấn#Khăn vành dây (formal for females)|khăn vành dây]]. | population = {{circa}} '''90 million''' (2025) | region1 = {{flag|Vietnam}} | pop1 = 82,085,826 ([[2019 Vietnamese census|2019]]) | ref1 = <ref name="Census2019">{{cite book | author = [[General Statistics Office of Vietnam]] | year = 2019 | url = https://www.gso.gov.vn/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Ket-qua-toan-bo-Tong-dieu-tra-dan-so-va-nha-o-2019.pdf | title = Kết quả Toàn bộ Tổng điều tra dân số và nhà ở năm 2019 (Completed Results of the 2019 Viet Nam Population and Housing Census) | publisher = Statistical Publishing House (Vietnam) | isbn= 978-604-75-1532-5 | archive-date = 10 January 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210110045640/https://www.gso.gov.vn/du-lieu-va-so-lieu-thong-ke/2020/11/ket-qua-toan-bo-tong-dieu-tra-dan-so-va-nha-o-nam-2019/ |url-status=live}}</ref> | region2 = {{spaces|5}}Overseas communities | pop2 = ''Majority'' of the [[Vietnamese diaspora]] | languages = [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Vietnamese sign languages]] | religions = Mainly [[Vietnamese folk religion|folk religion]] syncretized with [[Buddhism]]; [[Irreligion|irreligious]]; significant [[Christianity in Vietnam|Christian]] minority; others<ref>[[Pew Research Center]]: ''[http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape.aspx The Global Religious Landscape 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719060225/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape.aspx |date=19 July 2013 }}''.</ref> | related = Other [[Vietic]] ethnic groups ([[Gin people|Gin]], [[Muong people|Muong]], [[Chứt people|Chứt]], [[Thổ people|Thổ]] peoples) }} {{Contains special characters|Vietnamese}}

The '''Viet people''' ({{langx|vi|người Việt{{noitalic|}}}}),<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2013 |title=Viet people – the majority ethnic group of Vietnam |url=https://vovworld.vn/en-US/content/ODc0Mjk=.vov |access-date=6 May 2023 |website=[[Voice of Vietnam|VOV]]World |publisher=[[Voice of Vietnam]] |language=en}}</ref> also known in [[Vietnam]] as the '''Kinh people''' ({{langx|vi|người Kinh{{noitalic|}}|lit=}}, to distinguish from [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam|other ethnicities]]) are a Southeast Asian [[ethnicity]] native to modern-day northern [[Vietnam]], who [[Nam tiến|expanded southwards]] in the last millennium. They speak [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], the most widely used [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] language, and are one of the four main [[Vietic languages|Vietic]]-speaking groups in Vietnam, the others being the [[Muong people|Mường]], [[Thổ people|Thổ]], and [[Chứt people|Chứt]].

The Viet accounted for 85.32% of Vietnam's population in the 2019 census and are officially designated as the ''Kinh'' people to distinguish them from minority groups in the country, such as the [[Muong people|Mường]], [[Tày people|Tày]], [[Hmong people|Hmong]], and [[Chams|Cham]]. Diasporic descendants of the Kinh in [[Guangxi]], China, known as the [[Gin people]], are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by China. The Viet also constitute the majority of the [[Vietnamese diaspora]] worldwide.

==Terminology== According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as ''Việt'' (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), ''Kinh'' (related to medieval administrative designation), or ''Keeu'' and ''Kæw'' (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam, [[Old Chinese]] ''*kraw'') by [[Kra–Dai]] speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun ''ta'' (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ''ta'' corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "''nước ta''" (our country) and "''tiếng ta''" (our language) in contrast to "''nước tây''" (western countries) and "''tiếng tây''" (western languages).{{sfn|Churchman|2010|p=33}}

===Việt=== The term "{{linktext|Việt}}" ({{CJKV|p=Yuè|cy=Yuht|v={{linktext|Việt}}|c={{linktext|越}}}}) in [[Early Middle Chinese]] was first written using the [[logogram|logograph]] "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in [[oracle bone]] and bronze inscriptions of the late [[Shang dynasty]] ({{circa|lk=no|1200}} BC), and later as "越".<ref name="Norman&Mei">{{cite journal | title = The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some Lexical Evidence | first1 = Jerry | last1 = Norman | first2 = Tsu-lin | last2 = Mei |author1-link=Jerry Norman (sinologist) |author2-link=Mei Tsu-lin| journal = Monumenta Serica | year = 1976 | volume = 32 | pages = 274–301 | doi = 10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121 }}</ref> At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.<ref name="Meacham">{{cite journal| title = Defining the Hundred Yue| first = William| last = Meacham| journal = Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association| volume = 15| year = 1996| pages = 93–100| doi = 10.7152/bippa.v15i0.11537| doi-broken-date = 12 July 2025| url = http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/view/405/394| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140228202613/http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/view/405/394| archive-date = 28 February 2014| hdl = 10722/208513| hdl-access = free}}</ref><ref name= "Theobald">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Theobald |first=Ulrich |year=2018 |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Myth/shang-event.html |title=Shang Dynasty – Political History |encyclopedia=ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art |quote=Enemies of the Shang state were called fang 方 "regions", like the Tufang 土方, which roamed the northern region of Shanxi, the [[Guifang|Guifang 鬼方]] and Gongfang 𢀛方 in the northwest, the [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiangfang 羌方]], Suifang 繐方, '''Yuefang 戉方''', Xuanfang 亘方 and [[Zhou dynasty|Zhoufang 周方]] in the west, as well as the [[Dongyi|Yifang 夷方]] and Renfang 人方 in the southeast.}}</ref> In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle [[Yangtze]] were called the [[Yangyue]], which was later used to describe peoples living further south.<ref name="Meacham"/> Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, Việt ({{CJKV|p=Yuè}}) referred to the [[Yue (state)|State of Yue]] in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.<ref name="Norman&Mei"/><ref name="Meacham"/> From the 3rd century BC, the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called [[Minyue]], [[Âu Việt]] (Ouyue), [[Lạc Việt]] (Luoyue), etc., collectively called the [[Baiyue]] (Bách Việt, {{CJKV|p=Bǎiyuè|cy=Baak Yuet|v=Bách Việt|l=Hundred Yue/Viet|c={{linktext|百越}}}}; ).<ref name="Norman&Mei"/><ref name="Meacham"/> The term Bách Việt ({{CJKV|p=Bǎiyuè}}) first appeared in the book ''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' compiled around 239 BC.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Annals of Lü Buwei |translator-first=John |translator-last=Knoblock |translator-first2=Jeffrey |translator-last2=Riegel |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2000 |page=510 |isbn=978-0-8047-3354-0 |quote=For the most part, there are no rulers to the south of the Yang and Han Rivers, in the confederation of the Hundred Yue tribes.}}</ref><ref>''Lüshi Chunqiu'' "Examination on Relying on Rulers" [https://ctext.org/lv-shi-chun-qiu/shi-jun "Relying on Rulers"] text: "揚、漢之南，'''百越'''之際，敝凱諸、夫風、餘靡之地，縛婁、陽禺、驩兜之國，多無君" translation: South of the [[Yangtze|Yang]] and [[Han River (Hubei)|Han]] rivers, among the '''Hundred Yuè''', the lands of Bikaizhu, Fufeng, Yumi, the nations of Fulou, Yang'ou, Huandou, most had no rulers"</ref> By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as {{lang|vi|người Việt}} ({{Vi-nom|𠊛越}}; Viet people) or {{lang|vi|người Nam}} ({{Vi-nom|𠊛南}}; southern people).{{sfn|Lieberman|2003|p=405}} [[File:Người Việt 𠊛越.png|thumb|Người Việt 𠊛越 (Vietnamese people) written here in the book, 大南國史演歌 Đại Nam quốc sử diễn ca]]

===Kinh=== Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet–Muong (northern Vietic language), with influence from a hypothetical Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, evolved into what is now the [[Vietnamese language]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Phan|first=John|date=2010|title=Re-Imagining "Annam": A New Analysis of Sino–Viet–Muong Linguistic Contact|url=http://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/03-1_Phan_2010.pdf|journal=Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies|volume=4|access-date=24 October 2021|archive-date=7 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307035705/http://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/03-1_Phan_2010.pdf}}</ref>{{sfn|Taylor|2013|p=5}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNoWDgAAQBAJ&dq=annamese+middle+chinese&pg=PT174|isbn=978-0-19-062730-0|title=Viet Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present|date=10 February 2017|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Its speakers called themselves the ''người Kinh'' ({{Chunom|𠊛京}}; {{Literal translation|Kinh people}}), meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the [[Red River Delta]] with [[Hanoi]] as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京' ({{CJKV|p=Jīng|v=Kinh}}). Other variants of Proto-Viet–Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called ''Trại'' (寨), or "outpost" people", by the 13th century. These became the modern [[Muong people|Mường people]].{{sfn|Taylor|2013|pp=4–6}} According to Victor Lieberman, Kinh people may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking.{{sfn|Lieberman|2003|p=405}}

==History== ===Origins and prehistoric period=== According to the Vietnamese legend ''The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan'' (''Hồng Bàng'' thị truyện), written in the 15th century, the first Vietnamese were descended from the [[Vietnamese dragon|dragon]] lord [[Lạc Long Quân]] and the [[Xian (Taoism)|fairy]] [[Âu Cơ]]. They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as the [[Hùng king]].{{sfn|Kelley|2016|pp=165–167}} The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figure [[Shennong|Shennong/Thần Nông]].{{sfn|Kelley|2016|p=175}}

The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the ''Lạc'', ''[[Lạc Việt]]'', or the [[Dongsonian]],{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=41–42}} an ancient tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglot [[Austroasiatic language|Austroasiatic]] and [[Kra–Dai language|Kra–Dai]] speakers who occupied the [[Red River Delta]] in northern Vietnam.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=42}}<ref>{{citation |surname1=Kelley |given1=Liam C. |title=Vietnam at the Vanguard: New Perspectives Across Time, Space, and Community |pages=88–107 |year=2021 |editor-surname1=Gillen |editor-given1=Jamie |editor-surname2=Kelley |editor-given2=Liam C. |editor-surname3=Le |editor-given3=Ha Pahn |chapter=Competing Imagined Ancestries: The Lạc Việt, the Vietnamese, and the Zhuang |publisher=Springer Singapore |isbn=978-9-81165-055-0 |surname2=Hong |given2=Hai Dinh}}</ref>

One hypothesis suggests that the forerunners of the ethnic Kinh descend from a [[Vietic languages|subset]] of [[proto-Austroasiatic]] people in southern China, either around [[Yunnan]], [[Lingnan]], or the [[Yangtze River]], as well as mainland [[Southeast Asia]]. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into [[Mon people|Monic]] speakers, who settled further to the west, and the [[Khmer people|Khmeric]] speakers, who migrated further south. The [[Munda people|Munda]] of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice.<ref name="Blench2018">Blench, Roger. 2018. [https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/52438/3/JSEALS_Special_Publication_3.pdf Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic]. In ''Papers from the Seventh International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics'', 174–193. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society Special Publication No. 3. University of Hawai{{okina}}i Press.</ref><ref name="Blench2017">Blench, Roger. 2017. ''[http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Austroasiatic/Waterworld.pdf Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic]''. Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.</ref><ref name="Sidwell2015b">Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. ''Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic''. Paper presented at the workshop ''Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia'', 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Peiros |first=Ilia |year=2011 |title=Some thoughts on the problem of the Austro-Asiatic homeland |url=http://www.jolr.ru/files/(68)jlr2011-6(101-114).pdf |access-date=4 August 2019 |work=Journal of Language Relationship}}</ref>

Some linguists, such as James Chamberlain and Joachim Schliesinger, have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated northwards from the [[North Central Coast|North Central Region]] of Vietnam to the [[Red River Delta]], which had originally been inhabited by [[Tai languages|Tai]] [[Tai peoples|speakers]].{{sfn|Chamberlain|2000|p=40}}{{sfnp|Schliesinger|2018a|pp=21, 97}}{{sfnp|Schliesinger|2018b|pp=3–4, 22, 50, 54}}{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=46–47}} However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in [[Jiaozhi]] (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the [[Han dynasty|Han]]-[[Tang dynasty|Tang]] periods.{{sfnp|Churchman|2010|p=36}}

Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day [[Bolikhamsai Province]] and [[Khammouane Province]] in Laos as well as in parts of [[Nghệ An Province]] and [[Quảng Bình Province]] in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=52}}

But so far, many scholars link the origin of the [[Vietic languages]] to [[northern Vietnam]], around the Red River Delta.<ref name="Sagart 2008">{{cite book |last1=Sagart |first1=Laurent |title=Past Human Migrations in East Asia |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-134-14963-6 |editor-last1=Sanchez-Mazas |editor-first1=Alicia |pages=133–157 |chapter=The expansion of setaria farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archaeological model |doi=10.4324/9780203926789 |id={{HAL|hal-04864187}} |quote=The cradle of the Vietic branch of Austroasiatic is very likely in north Vietnam, at least 1000km to the south‑west of coastal Fújiàn |editor-last2=Blench |editor-first2=Roger |editor-last3=Ross |editor-first3=Malcolm D. |editor-last4=Peiros |editor-first4=Ilia |editor-last5=Lin |editor-first5=Marie}}</ref><ref name="Ferlus 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Ferlus |first1=Michael |date=2009 |title=A Layer of Dongsonian Vocabulary in Vietnamese |journal=Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society |volume=1 |pages=95–108 |id={{HAL|halshs-00932218v3}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Alves |first=Mark |date=10 May 2019 |title=Data from Multiple Disciplines Connecting Vietic with the Dong Son Culture |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333720204}}{{self-published inline|date=April 2025}}</ref>

Michael Churchman, Tuong Vu, and Frederic Pain argue that a distinct Vietnamese identity or language did not exist in full prior to and during the Han-Tang period. Churchman states that during this period, the tribes in northern Vietnam and southern China did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense.{{sfnp|Churchman|2010|pp=27–29, 31, 32, 33}} Vu believes that a Han-Viet group existed that spoke both a Chinese dialect called "Annamese Middle Chinese" and Proto-Viet–Muong, but the inhabitants of the Red River Valley did not have a single identity or language.{{sfn|Vu|2016|pp=43–46}} Pain also argues that Vietnamese cultural identity was the result of Chinese influence on native elements that fully emerged in the post-Chinese rule period during the [[Song dynasty]].<ref name=Pain2020>{{cite journal|author=Pain, Frederic|year=2020|title="Giao Chỉ" ("Jiāozhǐ") as a diffusion center of Chinese diachronic changes: syllabic weight contrast and phonologisation of its phonetic correlates|journal=Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies|volume=40|issue=3|pages=1–57|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02956831/document}} p. 11</ref> Thus, attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate.{{sfnp|Churchman|2010|p=25}}

===Ancient to early medieval period=== The Đông Sơn culture was pioneered by the Lạc Việt peoples, who also founded the [[Văn Lang]] [[chiefdom]], ruled by the semi-mythical [[Hùng king]]s.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=53}} To the south of the Dongsonians/Lạc Việt was the [[Sa Huỳnh culture]] of the [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] [[Chamic language|Chamic people]].{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=56}} Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc Việt interacted with the [[Âu Việt]], a splinter group of [[Tai people]] from southern China,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chapuis |first1=Oscar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jskyi00bspcC&pg=PA13 |title=A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc |date=1 January 1995 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-313-29622-2}}</ref> and [[Sinitic]] peoples from further north.{{sfn|Schafer|1967|p=14}} According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, [[Thục Phán]], the leader of the Âu Việt, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last [[Hùng Duệ Vương|Hùng king]].{{sfn|Kelley|2016|pp=167–168}} Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of [[Âu Lạc]] kingdom, uniting the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=53}}

In 179 BC, [[Zhao Tuo]], a Chinese general who established the [[Nanyue]] state in modern-day southern China, annexed Âu Lạc, which initiated Sino-Vietic interaction that lasted for a millennium.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=69}} In 111 BC, the [[Han dynasty|Han Empire]] conquered Nanyue, which also brought northern Vietnam under Han rule.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=75}}

By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the [[Tang Empire]] ruled over the region, historians such as [[Henri Maspero]] proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the Mường and [[Chut people|Chứt]] due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese.{{sfn|Maspero|1912|p=10}} In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided by [[Nanzhao]] almost ended Tang rule.{{sfn|Schafer|1967|p=63}} The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, marking the separation between the [[Muong people|Mường]] and the Vietnamese.{{sfn|Maspero|1912|p=10}}{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=248}}

According to Jennifer Holmgren, the first six centuries of Chinese rule saw more Vietnamization of local Chinese than Sinicization of local Vietnamese.{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=100}} Compared to the first six centuries of Chinese rule when demographics were relatively stable, Chinese migration during the Tang period was of sufficient magnitude to cause basic changes to certain portions of Vietnamese society in northern Vietnam. Most of these Chinese migrants came as soldiers or merchants, took a wife from the indigenous population, and settled down. They were individuals that settled down in a nuclear family, causing the average household size to decrease. Despite the increase of Chinese migrants to Vietnam, it was still much more constrained compared to Chinese migration to Guangdong and Guangxi due to the structure of Vietnamese society, which limited the ability of Chinese rulers to register and tax the local population. Vietnamese society retained their language and heritage. Other peoples like the Muong, Tay, and Nung people fled Chinese control into the uplands, where Chinese registers could not reach them. Non-Chinese foreign migration was also significant in the south due to pressures elsewhere such as the expanding Cham kingdom.{{sfn|Taylor|1983|pp=140–143}}

In 938, the Vietnamese leader [[Ngô Quyền]] who was a native of [[Thanh Hoa|Thanh Hóa]], led Vietnamese forces to defeat the Chinese armada at [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (938)|Bạch Đằng River]]. He proclaimed himself king over a polity that could be perceived as "Vietnamese".{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=127, 131 [Quote (p.131): From the tenth century, Vietnamese history comes into its own. After millennia of undocumented prehistory and a thousand years of imperial rule documented only in Chinese, new indigenous historical sources throw increasing light on political, economic, and cultural developments in the territory that had comprised the Protectorate of Annam. How new were these developments? A tenth-century ruler revived for a second time the ancient name of the kingdom of Nán Yuè in its Vietnamese form, Nam Việt. But this new kingdom would then adopt a new name, Đại Việt (Great Việt), and unlike its classical Yuè predecessors and short-lived tenth-century counterparts in south China, it successfully resisted reintegration into the empire. The new autonomous Việt realm inherited both the Sino-Vietnamese hereditary aristocracy and the provincial geography of Tang Annam. From north to south, it was a diverse region of five provinces and border marches. Restive ethnic Tai and other upland groups, formerly allied to the defunct Nanzhao kingdom, straddled the mountainous northern frontier. Lowland Jiao province in the central plain of the Red and Bạch Đằng rivers was the most Sinicized region, home to most of the northern settlers and traders and an influential Sino-Vietnamese Buddhist community, as well as Vietic-speaking rice farmers. Here the Vietnamese language was emerging as settlers adopted the Proto-Việt-Mường tongue of their indigenous neighbors, infusing it with much of their Annamese Middle Chinese vocabulary]}}

===Medieval and early modern period=== [[File:Trang phục Kinh.jpg|250px|thumb|left|One of the traditional costumes of Vietnamese people]]

[[Ngô Quyền]] died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=139}} In 968, a leader named [[Đinh Bộ Lĩnh]] united them and established the Đại Việt (Great Việt) kingdom.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=141}} With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose [[Hoa Lư Ancient Capital|Hoa Lư]] in the southern edge of the [[Red River Delta]] as the capital instead of Tang-era [[Đại La]], adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework.{{sfn|Lieberman|2003|p=352}} The independence of Đại Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allows it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness".<ref>{{cite book|title=The Jiankang Empire in Chinese and World History |author=Andrew Chittick |page=340 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19093-754-6}}</ref> In 979, Emperor [[Đinh Tiên Hoàng]] was assassinated, and Queen [[Dương Vân Nga]] married Dinh's general [[Lê Hoàn]] and appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring Chinese [[Song dynasty]] and [[Champa]] Kingdom, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=144–145}} A [[Khmer inscriptions|Khmer inscription]] dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in [[Angkor]].{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=157}} Chinese writers Song Hao, [[Fan Chengda]] and [[Zhou Qufei]] all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing".{{sfn|Marsh|2016|pp=84–85}} The early 11th-century [[Cham language|Cham]] inscription of Chiên Đàn, [[My Son]], erected by king of Champa [[Harivarman IV]] (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon.<ref>{{citation|last=Golzio|first=Karl-Heinz|year=2004|title=Inscriptions of Campā based on the editions and translations of Abel Bergaigne, Étienne Aymonier, Louis Finot, Édouard Huber and other French scholars and of the work of R. C. Majumdar. Newly presented, with minor corrections of texts and translations, together with calculations of given dates|publisher=Shaker Verlag|pages=163–164|quote=Original Old Cam text: ...(pa)kā ra vuḥ '''kmīra''' '''yvan'''· si mak· nan· di yām̃ hajai tralauṅ· svon· dadam̃n· sthāna tra ra vuḥ urām̃ dinan· pajem̃ karadā yam̃ di nagara campa.}}</ref> Many Kinh Vietnamese also lived in Champa and were well-assimilated, like other Austroasiatic groups living in the state.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Thao |first1=Dinh Huong |last2=Dinh |first2=Tran Huu |last3=Mitsunaga |first3=Shigeki |last4=Duy |first4=La Duc |date=2024 |title=Investigating demic versus cultural diffusion and sex bias in the spread of Austronesian languages in Vietnam |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=19 |issue=6 |article-number=e0304964 |bibcode=2024PLoSO..1904964T |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0304964 |pmc=11182502 |pmid=38885215 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Successive Vietnamese royal families from the Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, Trần and Hồ dynasties, who had [[Hoa people|Hoa]]/Chinese ancestry, ruled the kingdom peacefully from 968 to 1407. Emperor [[Lý Thái Tổ]] (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital from [[Hoa Lư Ancient Capital|Hoa Lư]] to [[Đại La]], the center of the [[Red River Delta]] in 1010.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=148}} They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, with Cham, Indian and Chinese cultures influencing Vietnamese music instruments, dance and religious worship.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=153–154}} Confucianism also slowly gained attention and influence.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=155}} The earliest surviving corpus and text in the [[Vietnamese language]] were dated to the early 12th century whilst surviving [[chữ Nôm]] script inscriptions were dated to the early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=135, 138}}

The Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]] unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=169, 170}} The [[Ming dynasty]] of China conquered Đại Việt in 1406, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leader [[Lê Lợi]].{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=194–197}} The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor [[Lê Thánh Tông]] (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars. He also adopted Confucianism and transformed Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state that flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with [[gunpowder]] weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rival [[Champa]] in 1471 and launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and [[Lan Na]] kingdoms in the 1480s.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=204–211}}

===16th century – Modern period=== [[File:Quan di vong thoi nha Nguyen Minh Mang 1828.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Vietnamese soldiers in 1828]] [[File:Quanlai.jpg |200px|thumb|Vietnamese [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|bureaucrat officials]], 1883–1886]] [[File:Vietmandarins.jpg|thumb|200x200px|Vietnamese mandarins in front of the [[Imperial City of Huế|imperial palace]] in 1939.]] With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Đại Việt kingdom swiftly declined. Extreme climate, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=213–214}} From 1533 to 1790s, four powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled their own domains. In the northern Vietnamese polity of Đàng Ngoài (outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northeast Vietnam. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm).{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=221–223}} Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south and settled on the old Cham lands, with Cham inhabitants assimilating into the new Vietnamese state.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=224–225}}<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Ho |first1=Hoang-Anh |last2=Martinsson |first2=Peter |last3=Olsson |first3=Ola |title=The origins of cultural divergence: evidence from Vietnam |journal=Journal of Economic Growth |date=March 2022 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=45–89 |doi=10.1007/s10887-021-09194-x |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vietnamese also settled in the [[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|highlands of Vietnam]] and intermixed with the natives over centuries.<ref name=":2" /> European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651, [[Alexandre de Rhodes]] published a 300-pages [[catechism]] in [[Latin]] and romanized-Vietnamese (''chữ Quốc Ngữ'') or the [[Vietnamese alphabet]].{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|pp=233–234}}

Conflict among Vietnamese ended in 1802 as Emperor [[Gia Long]], who was aided by French mercenaries, defeated the [[Tay Son dynasty|Tay Son]] kingdoms and reunited Vietnam. By 1847, the Vietnamese state under Emperor [[Thieu Tri|Thiệu Trị]], a people that were identified as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population.{{sfn|Lieberman|2003|p=433}} This demographic model continues to persist through the [[French Indochina]], [[French Indochina in World War II|Japanese occupation]] and modern day.

Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the [[French Cochinchina|French colony of Cochinchina]].{{sfn|McLeod|1991|p=61}} By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] and [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]]. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of [[French Indochina]] in 1887.{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=520}}{{sfn|Cook|2001|p=396}} The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.{{sfn|Frankum|2011|p=172}} A Western-style system of modern education introduced new [[humanism|humanist]] values into Vietnam.{{sfn|Nhu Nguyen|2016|p=37}} [[File:South Vietnamese soldiers 1972.jpg|thumb|Vietnamese soldiers in 1972]] Despite having a long recorded ethnic history, the formation of the ethnic Vietnamese or Kinh identity, only begun by the late 19th and early 20th century, with the help of the colonial administration. Following the colonial government's efforts of ethnic classification, nationalism, especially [[Ethnic nationalism|ethnonationalism]] and eugenic [[social Darwinism]], were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. Ethnic tensions sparked by Vietnamese ethnonationalism peaked during the late 1940s at the beginning phase of the [[First Indochina War]] (1946–1954), which resulted in violence between Khmer and Vietnamese in the [[Mekong Delta]].

The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with the [[Vietnam War]], a conflict that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Vietnamese people. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following the [[reunification of Vietnam|end of the Vietnam War]] in 1975, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of economic reforms such as the [[Đổi Mới]] policies in the late 20th century.

== Genetics == Several studies show close genetic affinities between the Kinh Vietnamese and Thais<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vu-Trieu |first1=A. |last2=Djoulah |first2=S. |last3=Tran-Thi |first3=C. |last4=Ngyuyen-Thanh |first4=T. |last5=Le Monnier De Gouville |first5=I. |last6=Hors |first6=J. |last7=Sanchez-Mazas |first7=A. |title=HLA-DR and -DQB1 DNA polymorphisms in a Vietnamese Kinh population from Hanoi |journal=European Journal of Immunogenetics |date=October 1997 |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=345–356 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2370.1997.d01-107.x |pmid=9442802 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Le |first1=Vinh S. |last2=Tran |first2=Kien T. |last3=Bui |first3=Hoa T.P. |last4=Le |first4=Huong T.T. |display-authors=3 |date=2019 |title=A Vietnamese human genetic variation database |journal=Human Mutation |volume=40 |issue=10 |pages=1664–1675 |doi=10.1002/humu.23835 |pmid=31180159 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kutanan |first1=Wibhu |last2=Liu |first2=Dang |last3=Kampuansai |first3=Jatupol |last4=Srikummool |first4=Metawee |display-authors=3 |date=2021 |title=Reconstructing the Human Genetic History of Mainland Southeast Asia: Insights from Genome-Wide Data from Thailand and Laos |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=38 |issue=8 |pages=3459–3477 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msab124 |pmid=33905512 |pmc=8321548 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Woravatin |first1=Wipada |last2=Stoneking |first2=Mark |last3=Srikummool |first3=Metawee |last4=Kampuansai |first4=Jatupol |display-authors=3 |date=2023 |title=South Asian maternal and paternal lineages in southern Thailand and the role of sex-biased admixture |id={{HAL|hal-04367499v1}} |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=18 |issue=9 |article-number=e0291547 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0291547 |doi-access=free |pmid=37708147 |pmc=10501589 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1891547W }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Nam Ngoc |last2=Hoang |first2=Trong Luc |last3=Nguyen |first3=Trang Hong |last4=Le |first4=Phuong Thi |last5=Nguyen |first5=Chi Hung |last6=Tran |first6=Viet Vinh |last7=Chu |first7=Hoang Ha |last8=Hoang |first8=Ha |title=The mitochondrial DNA HVI and HVII sequences and haplogroup distribution in a population sample from Vietnam |journal=Annals of Human Biology |date=17 November 2022 |volume=49 |issue=7–8 |pages=367–371 |doi=10.1080/03014460.2022.2152488 |pmid=36437685 }}</ref> or [[Kra–Dai peoples]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Dang |last2=Duong |first2=Nguyen Thuy |last3=Ton |first3=Nguyen Dang |last4=Phong |first4=Nguyen Van |display-authors=3 |date=2020 |title=Extensive Ethnolinguistic Diversity in Vietnam Reflects Multiple Sources of Genetic Diversity |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=2503–2519 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa099 |pmid=32344428 |pmc=7475039 }}</ref><ref>{{cite bioRxiv |biorxiv=10.1101/2020.11.08.373225 |title=Genomic Insights into the Demographic History of Southern Chinese |date=2020 |last1=Huang |first1=Xiufeng |last2=Xia |first2=Zi-Yang |last3=Bin |first3=Xiaoyun |last4=He |first4=Guanglin |last5=Guo |first5=Jianxin |last6=Lin |first6=Chaowen |last7=Yin |first7=Lianfei |last8=Zhao |first8=Jing |last9=Ma |first9=Zhuofei |last10=Ma |first10=Fuwei |last11=Li |first11=Yingxiang |last12=Hu |first12=Rong |last13=Wei |first13=Lan-Hai |last14=Wang |first14=Chuan-Chao }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Zhaoqing |last2=Chen |first2=Hao |last3=Lu |first3=Yan |last4=Gao |first4=Yang |display-authors=3 |date=2022 |title=Genetic evidence of tri-genealogy hypothesis on the origin of ethnic minorities in Yunnan |journal=BMC Biology |volume=20 |issue=166 |page=166 |doi=10.1186/s12915-022-01367-3 |doi-access=free |pmid=35864541 |pmc=9306206 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Xiufeng |last2=Xia |first2=Zi-Yang |last3=Bin |first3=Xiaoyun |last4=He |first4=Guanglin |display-authors=3 |date=2022 |title=Genomic Insights Into the Demographic History of the Southern Chinese |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=10 |article-number=853391 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2022.853391 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":02" /> especially [[Dai people]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yuchen |last2=Lu |first2=Dongsheng |last3=Chung |first3=Yeun-Jun |last4=Xu |first4=Shuhua |date=2018 |title=Genetic structure, divergence and admixture of Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean populations |journal=Hereditas |volume=155 |issue=19 |doi=10.1186/s41065-018-0057-5 |doi-access=free |article-number=19|pmid=29636655 |pmc=5889524 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Yujing |last2=Dai |first2=Run |last3=Chen |first3=Wanlu |last4=Li |first4=Qi |date=2020 |title=Genetic polymorphisms of pharmacogenomic VIP variants in the Dai population from Yunnan province |journal=Molecular Genetics & Genomic Medicine |volume=8 |issue=7 |doi=10.1002/mgg3.1231 |pmc=7336744 |pmid=32347657 |article-number=e1231}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Hsin-Chou |last2=Chen |first2=Chia-Wen |last3=Lin |first3=Yu-Ting |last4=Chu |first4=Shih-Kai |date=2021 |title=Genetic ancestry plays a central role in population pharmacogenomics |journal=Communications Biology |volume=4 |issue=171 |page=171 |doi=10.1038/s42003-021-01681-6 |pmc=7864978 |pmid=33547344}}</ref><ref>{{Cite bioRxiv |last1=Tran |first1=Trang T.H. |last2=Hoang |first2=Tham H. |last3=Tran |first3=Mai H. |last4=Nguyen |first4=Nguyen T. |display-authors=3 |date=2025 |title=VN1K: a genome graph-based and function-driven multi-omics and phenomics resource for the Vietnamese population |biorxiv=10.1101/2025.04.15.648991 }}</ref> Like Kra–Dai groups from mainland China, the Kinh possess "genetic characteristics of the [[Baiyue]] lineage." There's also evidence that the Kinh diverged from the [[Hlai people|Hlai]], who have the most enriched Baiyue ancestry among Kra–Dai groups, much earlier than the [[Dai people|Dai]] diverged from Hlai.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Hao |last2=Lin |first2=Rong |last3=Lu |first3=Yan |last4=Zhang |first4=Rui |display-authors=3 |date=2022 |title=Tracing Bai-Yue Ancestry in Aboriginal Li People on Hainan Island |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=39 |issue=10 |article-number=msac210 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msac210 |pmc=9585476 |pmid=36173765}}</ref>

According to some studies, the Kinh can be modeled as having genetic input from a sister lineage related to the ancestors of Southern Chinese groups, and to a lesser extent from a sister lineage related to [[Laotians]], [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] (i.e. [[Proto-Malay]], [[Semang|Negrito]], and [[Bidayuh|Bidayut]]) and Thais (i.e. [[Mlabri people|Mlabri]] and [[H'tin people|H'tin]]). Gene flow between Khmers and Kinh is unidirectional with more evidence of Kinh contributing to the Khmer genome than vice versa.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Pischedda |first1=S. |last2=Barral-Arca |first2=R. |last3=Gómez-Carballa |first3=A. |last4=Pardo-Seco |first4=J. |display-authors=3 |date=2017 |title=Phylogeographic and genome-wide investigations of Vietnam ethnic groups reveal signatures of complex historical demographic movements |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=12630 |page=12630 |bibcode=2017NatSR...712630P |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-12813-6 |pmc=5626762 |pmid=28974757}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kampuansai |first1=Jatupol |last2=Wongkomonched |first2=Rattanasak |last3=Kutanan |first3=Wibhu |last4=Srikummool |first4=Metawee |display-authors=3 |date=2023 |title=Genetic diversity and ancestry of the Khmuic-speaking ethnic groups in Thailand: a genome-wide perspective |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=13 |issue=15710 |page=15710 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-43060-7 |pmid=37735611 |pmc=10514191 |bibcode=2023NatSR..1315710K |quote=A genome-wide autosomal study involving approximately 55,000 SNPs has elucidated the genetic element of Khmuic-related ancestry (as exemplified by Htin and Mlabri) within the Kinh, the predominant ethnic group in Vietnam. The admixture of Chinese and Southeast Asian lineages, particularly the Proto-Malay and Khmuic residences, has likely played a significant role in shaping the present-day Vietnamese population. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mawan |first1=Aornpriya |last2=Prakhun |first2=Nonglak |last3=Muisuk |first3=Kanha |last4=Srithawong |first4=Suparat |display-authors=3 |date=2021 |title=Autosomal Microsatellite Investigation Reveals Multiple Genetic Components of the Highlanders from Thailand |journal=Genes |volume=12 |issue=3 |page=383 |doi=10.3390/genes12030383 |pmid=33800398 |pmc=8000784 |doi-access=free |quote=...the Mlabri are clustered with the other AA populations from Thailand and this cluster is close to South Asian and other Southeast Asian populations, e.g., Vietnamese, Laotian, Indonesian, except the populations from Myanmar. }}</ref> Likewise, there is no evidence of [[Chams]] contributing to the Kinh genome from the [[Nam tiến|Nam Tiến conquests]].<ref name=":3" /> Among ancient populations, Kinh Vietnamese are the closest to [[Đông Sơn culture#Identity|Núi Nấp]] and [[Khmer people#Genetics|Vat Komnou]] populations although the latter most likely reflects shared East Asian-related ancestry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Cheronet |first2=Olivia |last3=Mallick |first3=Swapan |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |display-authors=3 |date=2019 |title=Ancient genomes document multiple waves of migration in Southeast Asian prehistory |journal=Science |volume=361 |issue=6397 |pages=92–95 |doi=10.1126/science.aat3188 |pmid=29773666 |pmc=6476732 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Changmai |first1=Piya |last2=Pinhasi |first2=Ron |last3=Pietrusewsky |first3=Michael |last4=Stark |first4=Miriam T. |display-authors=3 |date=2022 |title=Ancient DNA from Protohistoric Period Cambodia indicates that South Asians admixed with local populations as early as 1st–3rd centuries CE |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=22507 |page=22507 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-26799-3 |pmid=36581666 |pmc=9800559 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1222507C }}</ref> They are cladal with Iron Age and Historical Mainland Southeast Asian populations compared to other Austroasiatic-related populations.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Yin|first=Zi|last2=Gupta|first2=Yash Munnalal|last3=Prakhun|first3=Nonglak|last4=Kampuansai|first4=Jatupol|display-authors=3|date=2026|title=Exploring the genomic population structure and history of Austroasiatic speakers in Mainland Southeast Asia|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-09471-0#Sec9|journal=Communications Biology|volume=9|issue=300|via=Nature}}</ref>

The majority of the Kinh belong to maternal haplogroups M (39%) and N (61%). In particular, M's subhaplogroup of [[Haplogroup D (mtDNA)|Haplogroup D]] (22%) and M7 (20%) and N's subhaplogroups of R9'F (27%) and [[Haplogroup B (mtDNA)|Haplogroup B]] (25%) are common. In northern Vietnam, haplogroups, A, B4, F1a and G are common.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Duong |first1=Nguyen Thuy |last2=Macholdt |first2=Enrico |last3=Ton |first3=Nguyen Dang |last4=Arias |first4=Leonardo |last5=Schröder |first5=Roland |last6=Van Phong |first6=Nguyen |last7=Thi Bich Thuy |first7=Vo |last8=Ha |first8=Nguyen Hai |last9=Thi Thu Hue |first9=Huynh |last10=Thi Xuan |first10=Nguyen |last11=Thi Phuong Oanh |first11=Kim |last12=Hien |first12=Le Thi Thu |last13=Hoang |first13=Nguyen Huy |last14=Pakendorf |first14=Brigitte |last15=Stoneking |first15=Mark |date=3 August 2018 |title=Complete human mtDNA genome sequences from Vietnam and the phylogeography of Mainland Southeast Asia |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=11651 |bibcode=2018NatSR...811651D |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-29989-0 |pmc=6076260 |pmid=30076323 |last16=Van Hai |first16=Nong}}</ref> Haplogroups A and C are particularly common in northwest Vietnam, with haplogroups M and M7 peaking in northeast Vietnam and settlements near the [[Gulf of Tonkin]]. Haplogroup M71 also peaks in central Vietnam. In contrast, haplogroups M and M7 are quite rare for northwest Vietnam and far south Vietnam, near the Mekong Delta.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /> In southern Vietnam, haplogroups D (9%) and N peak (67%) and to an extent, R9'F (29%). R9'F is instead more common in the Red River Delta (32-36%), followed by central (21%) and northwest Vietnam (16%).<ref name=":3" />

Meanwhile, common paternal haplogroups for Vietnamese are O1a1a2,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Mengge |last2=Huang |first2=Yuguo |last3=Liu |first3=Kaijun |last4=Wang |first4=Zhiyong |last5=Zhang |first5=Menghan |last6=Yuan |first6=Haibing |last7=Duan |first7=Shuhan |last8=Wei |first8=Lanhai |last9=Yao |first9=Hongbing |last10=Sun |first10=Qiuxia |last11=Zhong |first11=Jie |last12=Tang |first12=Renkuan |last13=Chen |first13=Jing |last14=Sun |first14=Yuntao |last15=Li |first15=Xiangping |last16=Su |first16=Haoran |last17=Yang |first17=Qingxin |last18=Hu |first18=Liping |last19=Yun |first19=Libing |last20=Yang |first20=Junbao |last21=Nie |first21=Shengjie |last22=Cai |first22=Yan |last23=Yan |first23=Jiangwei |last24=Zhou |first24=Kun |last25=Wang |first25=Chuanchao |last26=He |first26=Guanglin |last27=Liu |first27=Chao |last28=Wang |first28=Mengge |last29=Tang |first29=Renkuan |last30=Yun |first30=Libing |last31=Yang |first31=Junbao |last32=Wang |first32=Chuan-Chao |last33=Yan |first33=Jiangwei |last34=Zhu |first34=Bofeng |last35=Hu |first35=Liping |last36=Nie |first36=Shengjie |last37=Yao |first37=Hongbing |last38=Zhu |first38=Bofeng |last39=Liu |first39=Chao |last40=He |first40=Guanglin |title=Multiple Human Population Movements and Cultural Dispersal Events Shaped the Landscape of Chinese Paternal Heritage |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=3 July 2024 |volume=41 |issue=7 |article-number=msae122 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msae122 |pmid=38885310 |pmc=11232699 }}</ref> O1b1a1a<ref name=":6" /> and N4-F2930.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ilumäe |first1=Anne-Mai |last2=Reidla |first2=Maere |last3=Chukhryaeva |first3=Marina |last4=Järve |first4=Mari |last5=Post |first5=Helen |last6=Karmin |first6=Monika |last7=Saag |first7=Lauri |last8=Agdzhoyan |first8=Anastasiya |last9=Kushniarevich |first9=Alena |last10=Litvinov |first10=Sergey |last11=Ekomasova |first11=Natalya |last12=Tambets |first12=Kristiina |last13=Metspalu |first13=Ene |last14=Khusainova |first14=Rita |last15=Yunusbayev |first15=Bayazit |last16=Khusnutdinova |first16=Elza K. |last17=Osipova |first17=Ludmila P. |last18=Fedorova |first18=Sardana |last19=Utevska |first19=Olga |last20=Koshel |first20=Sergey |last21=Balanovska |first21=Elena |last22=Behar |first22=Doron M. |last23=Balanovsky |first23=Oleg |last24=Kivisild |first24=Toomas |last25=Underhill |first25=Peter A. |last26=Villems |first26=Richard |last27=Rootsi |first27=Siiri |title=Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup N: A Non-trivial Time-Resolved Phylogeography that Cuts across Language Families |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=July 2016 |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=163–173 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.05.025 |pmid=27392075 |pmc=5005449 }}</ref>

==Religions== {{Main|Religion in Vietnam}}

{{Pie chart |caption = Religion in Vietnam (2019)<ref name="Census2019"/> |label1 = [[Vietnamese folk religion]] or non religious |value1 = 86.32 |color1 = #C00000 |label2 = [[Catholic Church in Vietnam|Catholicism]] |value2 = 6.1 |color2 = DarkOrchid |label3 = [[Buddhism]] |value3 = 4.79 |color3 = Gold |label4 = [[Hòa Hảo|Hoahaoism]] |value4 = 1.02 |color4 = Tomato |label5 = [[Protestantism]] |value5 = 1 |color5 = DodgerBlue |label6 = Others |value6 = 0.77 |color6 = GreenYellow }}

According to the 2019 census, the religious demographics of Vietnam are as follows:<ref name="Census2019" /> *86.32% [[Vietnamese folk religion]] or unaffiliated *6.1% [[Catholic Church in Vietnam|Catholicism]] *4.79% [[Buddhism]] (mainly [[Mahayana]]) *1.02% [[Hòa Hảo|Hoahaoism]] *1% [[Protestantism]] *<1% [[Caodaism]] *0.77 Others It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese nationals may be unaffiliated with any religion, yet practice forms of traditional folk religion or Mahayana Buddhism.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Hong Van | first1=Vu | title=From Religious Heritage to Cultural Heritage: Study the Heritage of Buddhism in Vietnam | date=2020 | doi=10.20944/preprints202003.0092.v1 |website=Preprints.org| doi-access=free }}</ref> Vietnamese folk religion is not an organized religious system, but a set of local worship traditions devoted to the "thần", a term which can be translated as "spirits", "Gods" or with the more exhaustive locution "generative powers". These Gods can be [[List of nature deities|nature deities]] or [[National god|national]], community or kinship [[Tutelary deity|tutelary deities]] or ancestral Gods and the [[Veneration of the dead|ancestral Gods]] of a specific family. Ancestral Gods are often deified heroic persons. [[Vietnamese mythology]] preserves narratives telling of the actions of many of the cosmic Gods and cultural heroes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2019 |title=Vietnamese Folk Religion Beliefs |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/vietnamese-folk-religion-the-religion-of-the-majority-in-vietnam.html |access-date=18 December 2024 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}}</ref>

Estimates for the year 2010 published by the Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project:<ref>{{cite web| website=Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project| url= http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/vietnam/religious_demography/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111040451/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/vietnam/religious_demography/|archive-date=11 January 2021| title=Vietnam}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=July 2024|reason=[[WP:GLOBALRELIGIOUSFUTURES]]}}

*Vietnamese folk religion, 45.3% *Unaffiliated, 29.6% *Buddhism, 16.4% *Christianity, 8.2% *Other, 0.5%

==Diaspora== {{Main|Vietnamese diaspora}}

[[File:Vietnamnese Abroad.svg|thumb|Map of the countries with a significant Vietnamese population]] [[File:San Jose Tet parade, 2009.jpg|thumb|[[Tết]] parade in [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], 2009]] [[File:Ethnolinguistic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia.png|thumb|Ethnolinguistic groups of Mainland Southeast Asia]] Originally from northern Vietnam and southern China, the Viet have expanded south and conquered much of the land belonging to the former [[Champa]] Kingdom and [[Post-Angkor period|post-Angkor Cambodia]] over the centuries. They are the dominant ethnic group in most provinces of Vietnam. Kinh Vietnamese mostly reside in the lowlands of Vietnam.<ref name=":1" />

Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Viet migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Viet migrants in China form the [[Gin people|Gin]] ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and around [[Guangxi Province]]. Vietnamese form the largest ethnic minority group in [[Cambodia]], at 5% of the population.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20260115042322/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cambodia/ CIA – The World Factbook, Cambodia], retrieved 11 December 2012</ref> Under the [[Khmer Rouge]], they were heavily persecuted and survivors of the regime largely fled to Vietnam.

During [[French Indochina]], Vietnam (then divided into three regions) was regarded as the most important colony in Asia, and the Viet held a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in the colony.<ref>Carine Hahn, ''Le Laos'', Karthala, 1999, page 77</ref> As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world.<ref name=diaspora>[http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas La Diaspora Vietnamienne en France un cas particulier] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000103/http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas |date=3 December 2013 }} (in French)</ref>

After the [[First Indochina War]], a number of Vietnamese migrated to France. During the partition of [[North Vietnam]] and [[South Vietnam]], additional Vietnamese students arrived to study in France, along with individuals engaged in commerce to trade with France.<ref name=diaspora /> Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the [[Khmer Rouge]] era reduced the [[Vietnamese Cambodian]] population in [[Cambodia]] from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.<ref>"[http://countrystudies.us/cambodia/40.htm Cambodia – Population]". [[Library of Congress Country Studies]].</ref>

The [[fall of Saigon]] and end of the [[Vietnam War]] prompted the start of the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw [[Vietnamese boat people|millions of Vietnamese]] fleeing the country from the new communist regime. Recognizing an international [[Indochina refugee crisis|humanitarian crisis]], many countries accepted Vietnamese [[refugee]]s, primarily the United States, Australia, France, and Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.civilization.ca/cultur/vietnam/vilea03e.html|title=Online Exhibitions – Exhibitions – Canadian Museum of History|website=www.civilization.ca}}</ref> Meanwhile, under the communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study in [[Eastern Bloc]] countries of [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development.<ref>{{harvnb|Hillmann|2005|p=87}}</ref>

==See also== {{Columns-list |colwidth=15em|*[[Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia]] *[[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]] *[[Baiyue]] *[[Lạc Việt]] *[[Nam Việt]] *[[List of Vietnamese people]] *[[Vietnamese clothing]] *[[Vietnamese cuisine]] *[[Vietnamese music]] *[[Vietnamese name]] *[[History of Vietnam]] *[[Culture of Vietnam]]}}

==Notes== {{Reflist|group=n}} {{Notelist}}

==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

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Archaeologists. 9th International Conference |publisher=[[Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm]] |isbn=978-91-970616-0-5 | last= von Dewall | first= Magdalene | chapter=Towards an archaeological discourse on bronze and the social life of things in Southeast Asian late Bronze Age mortuary practice | pages= 80–96 | oclc= 56213568 }} *{{cite book |last= Keith |first= Charles |year = 2012 |title = Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to Nation |publisher = [[University of California Press]] |isbn = 978-0-520-95382-6 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last= Kelley |first= Liam C. |chapter = Constructing Local Narratives: Spirits, Dreams, and Prophecies in the Medieval Red River Delta |pages = 78–106 |title = China's Encounters on the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two Millennia |editor-first1 = James A. |editor-last1=Anderson |editor-first2 = John K. |editor-last2 = Whitmore |location = United States |publisher = Brills |year = 2014 |isbn = 978-9-004-28248-3}} 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Physical and political |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GHYDAAAAQAAJ&q=french+settled+saigon+cochinchina&pg=PA269 |publisher=Publisher not identified}}  *{{citation|last = Schafer |first= Edward Hetzel |author-link=Edward H. Schafer|year = 1967 |title = The Vermilion Bird: T'ang Images of the South |publisher = University of California Press|location = Los Angeles|isbn=978-0-520-01145-8}} *{{cite book |last= Smith |first= T. |year = 2007 |title = Britain and the Origins of the Vietnam War: UK Policy in Indo-China, 1943–50 |publisher = [[Palgrave Macmillan UK]] |isbn = 978-0-230-59166-0 }}  *{{cite book |last= Taylor |first= Keith Weller |year=1983 |title=The Birth of the Vietnam |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-07417-0}} *{{cite book |last= Taylor |first= Keith W. |year=2013 |title=A History of the Vietnamese |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-24435-1}} *{{cite book |last= Thomas |first= Martin |year = 2012 |title = Rubber, coolies and communists: In Violence and Colonial Order: Police, Workers and Protest in the European Colonial Empires, 1918–1940 (Critical Perspectives on Empire from Part II – Colonial case studies: French, British and Belgian) |pages = 141–176 |doi = 10.1017/CBO9781139045643.009 |isbn = 978-1-139-04564-3 }} *{{cite book |last= Tonnesson |first= Stein |year = 2011 |title = Vietnam 1946: How the War Began |publisher = [[University of California Press]] |isbn = 978-0-520-26993-4 }} * {{cite book |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190677602.001.0001 |date=2017 |last1=Tran |first1=Anh Q. |title=Gods, Heroes, and Ancestors: An Interreligious Encounter in Eighteenth-Century Vietnam |volume=1 |isbn=978-0-19-067760-2 }} *{{cite book |last= Tucker |first= Spencer |title=Vietnam |publisher=University of Kentucky Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8131-2121-5}} *{{cite book |last= Tucker |first= Spencer C. |year = 2011 |title = The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History, 2nd Edition [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History |publisher = [[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn = 978-1-85109-961-0 }} *{{cite book |last= Turner |first= Robert F. |year=1975 |title=Vietnamese communism, its origins and development |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RclmAAAAMAAJ&q=100,000+execution+north+vietnam+land+reform |publisher=[[Hoover Institution Press]], Stanford University |isbn=978-0-8179-6431-3}}   *{{cite book |last= Vo |first= Nghia M. |year = 2011 |title = Saigon: A History |publisher = [[McFarland & Company]] |isbn = 978-0-7864-8634-2 }}  *{{cite book |last= Waite |first= James |year = 2012 |title = The End of the First Indochina War: A Global History |publisher = [[Routledge]] |isbn = 978-1-136-27334-6 }} *{{cite book |last= Walker |first= Hugh Dyson |year=2012 |title=East Asia: A New History |publisher= AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-6516-1}} *{{cite book |last= Willbanks |first= James H. |year = 2013 |title = Vietnam War Almanac: An In-Depth Guide to the Most Controversial Conflict in American History |publisher = [[Skyhorse Publishing]] |isbn = 978-1-62636-528-5 }} *{{cite book |last= Woods |first= L. Shelton |year=2002 |title=Vietnam: a global studies handbook |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1-57607-416-9}}   *{{citation |surname = Yü |given = Ying-shih |chapter = Han foreign relations |pages = 377–463 |title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220 |editor-given1 = Denis C. |editor-surname1 = Twitchett |editor-given2 = John King |editor-surname2 = Fairbank |location = Cambridge |publisher = Cambridge University Press |year = 1986 }}  {{refend}}

===Journal articles and theses=== {{Refbegin|30em}}    *{{cite journal |last=Crozier |first=Brian |year=1955 |title=The Diem Regime in Southern Vietnam |journal=Far Eastern Survey |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=49–56 |jstor=3023970 |doi=10.2307/3023970}}     * {{cite report |last1=Gallup |first1=Luke John |title=The Wage Labor Market and Inequality in Vietnam in the 1990s |series=Policy Research Working Papers |date=September 2002 |doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2896 |hdl=10986/19272 |hdl-access=free}} *{{cite journal |last=Gittinger |first=J. Price |year=1959 |title=Communist Land Policy in North Viet Nam |journal=Far Eastern Survey |volume=28 |issue=8 |pages=113–126 |jstor=3024603 |doi=10.2307/3024603}} *{{cite journal |last=Goodkind |first=Daniel |year=1995 |title=Rising Gender Inequality in Vietnam Since Reunification |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=342–359 |jstor=2761129 |doi=10.2307/2761129}}  *{{cite journal |last1=Hirschman |first1=Charles |last2=Preston |first2=Samuel |first3=Manh Loi |last3=Vu |year=1995 |title=Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=783–812 |jstor=2137774 |doi=10.2307/2137774}}      * {{cite journal |last1=Maspero |first1=Henri |title=Etudes sur la phonétique historique de la langue annamite. Les initiales |journal=Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient |date=1912 |volume=12 |pages=1–124 |doi=10.3406/befeo.1912.2713 |language=fr}} *{{cite journal |last1=Matsumura |first1=Hirofumi |first2=Lan Cuong |last2=Nguyen |first3=Kim Thuy |last3=Nguyen |last4=Anezaki |first4=Tomoko |year=2001 |title=Dental Morphology of the Early Hoabinian, the Neolithic Da But and the Metal Age Dong Son Civilized Peoples in Vietnam |journal=Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=59–73 |doi=10.1127/zma/83/2001/59 |jstor=25757578 |pmid=11372468}} *{{cite journal |last1=Matsumura |first1=Hirofumi |last2=Yoneda |first2=Minoru |last3=Yukio |first3=Dodo |last4=Oxenham |first4=Marc |first5=Lan Cuong |last5=Nguyen |first6=Kim Thuy |last6=Nguyen |first7=My Dung |last7=Lam |first8=The Long |last8=Vu |last9=Yamagata |first9=Mariko |last10=Sawada |first10=Junmei |last11=Shinoda |first11=Kenichi |last12=Takigawa |first12=Wataru |display-authors=4 |year=2008 |title=Terminal Pleistocene human skeleton from Hang Cho Cave, northern Vietnam: implications for the biological affinities of Hoabinhian people |journal=Anthropological Science |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=201–217 |doi=10.1537/ase.070416 |doi-access=free}}  *{{cite thesis |last=Ngo |first=Lan A. |year=2016 |hdl=10822/1040724 |title=Nguyễn–Catholic History (1770s–1890s) and the Gestation of Vietnamese Catholic National Identity |publisher=[[Georgetown University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences]] |degree=PhD}}  *{{cite journal |last=Nhu Nguyen |first=Quynh Thi |year=2016 |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1121509.pdf |title=The Vietnamese Values System: A Blend of Oriental, Western and Socialist Values |journal=International Education Studies |via=[[Institute of Education Sciences]] |volume=9 |issue=12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015045249/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1121509.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2018}}  *{{cite journal |last1=Obermeyer |first1=Ziad |last2=Murray |first2=Christopher J L |last3=Gakidou |first3=Emmanuela |year=2008 |title=Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme [Table 3] |journal=[[BMJ]] |volume=336 |doi=10.1136/bmj.a137 |issue=7659 |pages=1482–6 |pmc=2440905 |pmid=18566045}} *{{cite journal |last1=Odell |first1=Andrew L. |last2=Castillo |first2=Marlene F. |year=2008 |url=https://www.duanemorris.com/articles/static/odell_inpr_aut08.pdf |title=Vietnam in a Nutshell: An Historical, Political and Commercial Overview |journal=NYBSA International Law Practicum |via=[[Duane Morris]] |volume=21 |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012072232/https://www.duanemorris.com/articles/static/odell_inpr_aut08.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2018}}   * {{cite journal |last1=Quach |first1=Thanh Tâm |title=Charles Fourniau: Annam-Tonkin 1885-1896. Lettrés et paysans vietnamiens face à la conquête coloniale. Travaux du Centre d'Histoire et Civilisations de la péninsule Indochinoise |journal=Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient |date=1991 |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=360–363 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/befeo_0336-1519_1991_num_78_1_1802}}    *{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Keith |title=An Evaluation of the Chinese Period in Vietnamese History |journal=The Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=23 |issue=1 |year=1980}}   *{{citation |last=Vu |first=Tuong |year=2016 |title=State formation on China's southern frontier: Vietnam as a shadow empire and hegemon |publisher=HumaNetten Nr 37Hösten}}  * {{cite journal |last1=Wagstaff |first1=Adam |last2=van Doorslaer |first2=Eddy |last3=Watanabe |first3=Naoko |title=On decomposing the causes of health sector inequalities with an application to malnutrition inequalities in Vietnam |journal=Journal of Econometrics |date=January 2003 |volume=112 |issue=1 |pages=207–223 |doi=10.1016/S0304-4076(02)00161-6 |hdl=10986/19426 |hdl-access=free}}    * {{cite journal |last1=Zinoman |first1=Peter |title=Colonial Prisons and Anti-colonial Resistance in French Indochina: The Thai Nguyen Rebellion, 1917 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |date=January 2000 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=57–98 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00003590}} {{refend}}

===Web sources=== {{Refbegin|30em}}   *{{cite news |author=BBC News |year=1997 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/analysis/42854.stm |title=Vietnam: changing of the guard |work=[[BBC News]]}}      *{{cite news |last=Gillet |first=Kit |year=2011 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2011/jul/28/ho-chi-minh-trail-motorbike |title=Riding Vietnam's Ho Chi Minh trail |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}       *{{cite web |last=McKinney |first=Brennan |year=2009 |url=http://voices.yahoo.com/the-human-migration-homo-erectus-ice-age-3357450.html |title=The Human Migration: Homo Erectus and the Ice Age |publisher=[[Yahoo! Voices]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112203432/http://voices.yahoo.com/the-human-migration-homo-erectus-ice-age-3357450.html |archive-date=12 November 2012 |access-date=22 January 2013}}  *{{cite news |author=The New York Times |date=3 July 1976 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/03/archives/2-parts-of-vietnam-officially-reunited-leadership-chosen-north-and.html |title=2 Parts of Vietnam Officially Reunited; Leadership Chosen |work=[[The New York Times]]}}      *{{cite news |last=Shenon |first=Philip |date=23 April 1995 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/23/world/20-years-after-victory-vietnamese-communists-ponder-how-to-celebrate.html |title=20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate |work=[[The New York Times]]}} *{{cite news |author=Spokesman-Review |year=1977 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1314&dat=19770628&id=XjxOAAAAIBAJ&pg=6918,5104561 |title=Vietnam outlines collectivization goals |newspaper=[[The Spokesman-Review]]}}  *{{cite web |author=Thanh Niên |year=2015 |url=http://www.thanhniennews.com/arts-culture/horrific-photos-recall-vietnamese-famine-of-1945-37591.html |title=Horrific photos recall Vietnamese Famine of 1945 |work=Vo An Ninh |publisher=[[Thanh Niên]] |access-date=13 March 2021 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031143909/http://www.thanhniennews.com/arts-culture/horrific-photos-recall-vietnamese-famine-of-1945-37591.html}}   *{{cite web |author=Vietnam Net |year=2015 |url=https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/society/138833/rare-photos-of-vietnam-s-famine-in-1945.html |title=Rare photos of Vietnam's famine in 1945 |work=Vo An Ninh |publisher=Vietnam Net |access-date=13 March 2021 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016125854/https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/society/138833/rare-photos-of-vietnam-s-famine-in-1945.html}}     {{refend}}

==Further reading== {{Refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book |editor-last1=Dutton |editor-first1=George |editor-last2=Werner |editor-first2=Jayne |editor-last3=Whitmore |editor-first3=John K. |year=2012 |title=Sources of Vietnamese Tradition |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-51110-0 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |first1=Bruce M. |last1=Lockhart |first2=William J. |last2=Duiker |title=The A to Z of Vietnam |date=14 April 2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3192-4 |ref=none}} *{{Citation |publisher=Lonely Planet |title=Vietnam |last=Ray |first=Nick |author2-last=Balasingamchow |author2-first=Yu-Mei |display-authors=1 |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-74220-389-8 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=Culture and Customs of Vietnam |last1=McLeod |first1=Mark |last2=Nguyen |first2=Thi Dieu |publisher=Greenwood |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-313-361135 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Keith Weller |year=1983 |title=The Birth of the Vietnam |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-07417-0 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Keith Weller |year=2013 |title=A History of the Vietnamese |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87586-8 |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last1=Amer |first1=Ramses |title=Vietnam's Policies and the Ethnic Chinese since 1975 |journal=Sojourn |date=1996 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=76–104 |jstor=41056928 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author=Andaya, Barbara Watson |url=https://archive.org/details/flamingwombrepos0000anda |url-access=registration |title=The flaming womb: repositioning women in early modern Southeast Asia |year=2006 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0-8248-2955-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/flamingwombrepos0000anda/page/146 146] |access-date=28 June 2010 |ref=none}} *{{cite report |author1=Bob Baulch |author2=Truong Thi Kim Chuyen |author3=Dominique Haughton |author3-link=Dominique Haughton |author4=Jonathan Haughton |title=Ethnic Minority Development in Vietnam –A Socioeconomic Perspective |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2002/05/30/000094946_02051604452763/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf |publisher=The World Bank–Development Research Group |volume=WPS 2836 |date=May 2002 |access-date=13 December 2012 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author=Chen, King C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vY4tBfqGvZ4C&q=ethnic+chinese+controlled+percent+of+the+wholesale+trade&pg=PA54 |title=China's War With Vietnam, 1979: Issues, Decisions, and Implications |publisher=Hoover Press |year=1987 |isbn=0-8179-8572-7 |access-date=8 May 2012 |ref=none}} *Cœdès, George. (1966). [https://books.google.com/books?id=qgrAFlAC4-QC ''The Making of South East Asia''] (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. {{ISBN |0520050614}}. Retrieved 7 August 2013. *{{cite book |title=The Tongking Gulf Through History |year=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4336-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7mlKjn3FfoMC |edition=illustrated |access-date=4 January 2013 |editor1-first=Nola |editor1-last=Cooke |editor2-first=Tana |editor2-last=Li |editor3-first=James |editor3-last=Anderson |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author1=Cooke, Nola |author2=Li, Tana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k74xZYbnynwC&q=%22tay+son%22+chinese+massacre |title=Water Frontier: Commerce and the Chinese in the Lower Mekong Region, 1750–1880 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2004 |isbn=0-7425-3083-3 |access-date=28 June 2012 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Cœdès |first=George |title=The Indianized States of South-East Asia |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0-8248-0368-X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDyJBFTdiwoC |edition=3 |access-date=4 January 2013 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |volume=8 |year=2003 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica |isbn=0-85229-961-3 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Gernet |first=Jacques |title=A History of Chinese Civilization |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-49781-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0 |url-access=registration |edition=2, illustrated, revised, reprint |ref=none}} *Hall, Kenneth R., ed. (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC ''Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400–1800'']. Volume 1 of Comparative urban studies. Lexington Books. {{ISBN |0739128353}}. Retrieved 7 August 2013. *{{cite book |last=Hall |first=Kenneth R. |title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500 |year=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-0-7425-6762-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC |edition=illustrated |access-date=4 January 2013 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author1=Gibney, Matthew J |author2=Hansen, Randall |url=https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt/page/664 664] |quote=hoa refugee -wikipedia. |title=Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=30 June 2005 |isbn=1-57607-796-9 |access-date=26 April 2012 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLE_ToRyuLsC&q=southeast+asian+ports+intermarriage+daoyi+zhilue+champa+chinese+traders+local+women+cham+ports&pg=PA133 |title=Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth Through the Fourteenth Century |author=Heng, Derek |year=2009 |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-89680-271-1 |access-date=28 June 2010 |ref=none}} *{{cite journal |title= |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=37 |issue=1 |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIpRAQAAIAAJ |access-date=4 January 2013 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author=Khánh, Trâǹ |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/ethnic-chinese-and-economic-development-in-vietnam/638085AB7D0A0A6FB28F2C2EFB93C838 |title=The Ethnic Chinese and Economic Development in Vietnam |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1993 |access-date=26 April 2012 |isbn=978-981-3016-67-5 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author=Lai, H. Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZjruI0_XmcC&q=hakka+in+vietnam |title=On Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |publisher=Rowman Altamira |year=2004 |isbn=0-7591-0458-1 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=The Chinese State at the Borders |year=2007 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1333-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFzhWyoYG_wC |edition=illustrated |editor=Diana Lary |access-date=4 January 2013 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author=Logan, William Stewart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiYG5lXd4XsC&q=cantonese+hanoi |title=Hanoi: Biography of a City |publisher=UNSW Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-86840-443-8 |access-date=13 December 2012 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author=MacKerras, Colin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QLKpECdc4eIC&q=ethnic+chinese+owned+percent+of+the+sector&pg=PA120 |title=Ethnicity in Asia |publisher=Routledge-Curzon |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-25817-0 |access-date=26 April 2012 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author1=Marr, David G. |author2=White, Christine Pelzer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5FLg3N8nmEC&q=ethnic+chinese+control+percent+of+retail+trade&pg=PA77 |title=Postwar Vietnam: Dilemmas in Socialist Development–Issue 3 of Southeast Asia Program Series |publisher=SEAP Publications |year=1988 |isbn=0-87727-120-8 |access-date=6 May 2012 |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last1=Marr |first1=David G |date=2010 |title=Vietnamese, Chinese, and Overseas Chinese during the Chinese Occupation of Northern Indochina (1945–1946) |journal=Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies |volume=4 |pages=129–139}} *{{cite book |last=Stratton |first=Eric |title=Evolution Of Indian Stupa Architecture In East Asia |year=2002 |publisher=Vedams eBooks (P) Ltd |isbn=81-7936-006-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Urg4O5-YhmcC |edition=illustrated |access-date=4 January 2013 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author=Suryadinata, Leo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VFDk4oyUAScC&q=vietnam+%22chinese+bang%22 |title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=15 September 1997 |isbn=0-312-17576-0 |access-date=21 October 2012 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=Essays Into Vietnamese Pasts |editor1-last=Taylor |editor1-first=Keith Weller |editor2-last=Whitmore |editor2-first=John K. |year=1995 |publisher=SEAP Publications |isbn=0-87727-718-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A60OggwLPrAC |access-date=4 January 2013 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5YntZEIUHMC&q=marriage+chinese |title=Cham Muslims of the Mekong Delta: place and mobility in the cosmopolitan periphery |author=Taylor, Philip |year=2007 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971-69-361-9 |access-date=9 January 2011 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last1=Railways |first1=Imperial Japanese Government |last2=Tetsudōin |first2=Japan |title=An Official Guide to Eastern Asia: East Indies |volume=5 |date=1917 |hdl=2027/njp.32101073674309 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-8909-0 |title=Identity and Ethnic Relations in Southeast Asia |date=2011 |last1=Tong |first1=Chee Kiong |isbn=978-90-481-8908-3 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last1=Tsai |first1=Shih-shan Henry |title=The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty |date=1996 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-2687-6 |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last1=Ungar |first1=E. S. |title=The Struggle Over the Chinese Community in Vietnam, 1946-1986 |journal=Pacific Affairs |date=1987 |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=596–614 |doi=10.2307/2759185 |jstor=2759185 |ref=none}} *{{citation |last=Wade |first=Geoff |title=Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource |url=http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/ |publisher=Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore |year=2005 |access-date=6 November 2012 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |first=Barbara A. |last=West |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |publisher=Infobase Publishing |date=19 May 2010 |isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs1q9VEoEkoC&q=chinese+merchant+champa+wang+yuanmao+quanzhou+man+king+barbarian+daughters&pg=PA215 |title=Money, markets, and trade in early Southeast Asia: the development of indigenous monetary systems to AD 1400 |author=Wicks, Robert S. |year=1992 |publisher=SEAP Publications |isbn=0-87727-710-9 |page=215 |access-date=28 June 2010 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices |author=Santasombat, Yos |year=2017 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-981-10-4695-7 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Kiernan |first=Ben |year=2019 |title=Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-190-05379-6 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=Sources of Vietnamese Tradition |series=Introduction to Asian Civilizations |editor1-first=George |editor1-last=Dutton |editor2-first=Jayne |editor2-last=Werner |editor3-first=John K. |editor3-last=Whitmore |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-231-13862-8 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc |last=Chapuis |first=Oscar |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-313-29622-7 |ref=none}} *{{cite journal |last=Kim |first=Nam |author2=Lai Van Toi |author3=Trinh Hoang Hiep |title=Co Loa: an investigation of Vietnam's ancient capital |journal=Antiquity |date=2010 |volume=84 |issue=326 |pages=1011–1027 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00067041 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=The Origins of Ancient Vietnam |author=Nam C. Kim |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-998089-5 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=Culture and Customs of Vietnam |last1=McLeod |first1=Mark |last2=Nguyen |first2=Thi Dieu |publisher=Greenwood |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-313-36113-5 |publication-date=30 June 2001 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |title=Ancient Southeast Asia |last1=Miksic |first1=John Norman |last2=Yian |first2=Goh Geok |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-415-73554-4 |ref=none}} *{{cite report |last1=Huang |first1=Lan Xiang (黃蘭翔) |title=華人聚落在越南的深植與變遷：以會安為例 |url=http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/capas/publication/newsletter/N26/2609.pdf |author2=本院台灣史研究所副研究員 |publisher=Research Center for Humanities and Social Sciences, Academica Sinica |date=December 2004 |access-date=10 February 2014 |ref=none |archive-date=1 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801084614/http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/capas/publication/newsletter/N26/2609.pdf}} *{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Qingxin (李庆新) |title=越南明香与明乡社 |url=http://www.sinoss.net/qikan/uploadfile/2010/1130/12580.pdf |publisher=广东省社会科学院历史研究所广东广州 510610 |date=30 November 2010 |access-date=27 June 2012 |ref=none |archive-date=8 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108023217/https://www.sinoss.net/qikan/uploadfile/2010/1130/12580.pdf}} *{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tKUMAQAAMAAJ&q=%22H%E1%BA%A3i+Nam%22+%22H%C3%A0+Ti%C3%AAn%22 |title=Thông báo văn hoá dân gian 2006 |author=Nguyen, Xuan Tinh |year=2007 |publisher=Nhà xuá̂t bản Khoa học xa̋ hội |location=Vietnam |access-date=13 December 2010 |display-authors=etal |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Goscha |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Goscha |date=2016 |title=Vietnam: A New History |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=978-0-465-09436-3 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Dror |first=Olga |title=Making Two Vietnams: War and Youth Identities, 1965–1975 |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-47012-4 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Nguyen |first=Duy Lap |title=The Unimagined Community: Imperialism and Culture in South Vietnam |date=2020 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-1-5261-4396-9 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Nguyen |first=Lien-Hang T. |title=Hanoi's War: An International History of the War for Peace in Vietnam |date=2012 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-3551-7 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Thái Nguyên |first1=Văn |last2=Mừng Nguyẽ̂n |first2=Văn |year=1958 |title=A Short History of Viet-Nam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nQ1wAAAAMAAJ&q=early+ly+dynasty+van+xuan+independent+china+544 |publisher=Vietnamese-American Association |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Chesneaux |first=Jean |year=1966 |title=The Vietnamese Nations: Contribution to a History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVpuAAAAMAAJ&q=early+ly+dynasty+van+xuan+independent+china+544 |publisher=Current Book Distributors |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author= |year=1972 |title=Peasant and Labour |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0wNAQAAIAAJ&q=early+ly+dynasty+van+xuan+independent+china+544 |publisher= |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Yue Hashimoto |first=Oi-kan |year=1972 |title=Phonology of Cantonese |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-08442-0 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Phan |first=Khoang |year=1976 |title=Việt sử: xứ đàng trong, 1558–1777. Cuộc nam-tié̂n của dân-tộc Việt-Nam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5BsaAAAAMAAJ&q=vietnam+1558+bao+lam |language=vi |publisher=Nhà Sách Khai Trí |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Vu |first=Tu Lap |year=1979 |title=Vietnam: Geographical Data |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-oWGAAAAIAAJ&q=vietnam+climate |publisher=[[Foreign Languages Publishing House (Vietnam)|Foreign Languages Publishing House]] |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Holmgren |first=Jennifer |year=1980 |title=Chinese colonisation of northern Vietnam: administrative geography and political development in the Tongking Delta, first to sixth centuries A.D. |publisher=Australian National University, Faculty of Asian Studies: distributed by Australian University Press |isbn=978-0-909879-12-9 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Keith Weller |year=1983 |title=The Birth of Vietnam |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-04428-9 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author= |year=1985 |title=Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CqkiAQAAMAAJ&q=lang+gao+tooth+vietnam |publisher=E. Schweizerbart'sche |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Miettinen |first=Jukka O. |year=1992 |title=Classical Dance and Theatre in South-East Asia |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-588595-8 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Adhikari |first1=Ramesh |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=Colin H. |last3=Weiss |first3=John |year=1992 |title=Industrial and Trade Policy Reform in Developing Countries |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7190-3553-1 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author= |year=1995 |title=Proceedings of the Regional Dialogue on Biodiversity and Natural Resources Management in Mainland Southeast Asian Economies, Kunming Institute of Botany, Yunnan, China, 21–24 February 1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yfaOAAAAIAAJ&q=vietnam+tropical+forest+25%25 |publisher=Natural Resources and Environment Program, Thailand Development Research Institute Foundation |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=de Laet |first1=Sigfried J. |last2=Herrmann |first2=Joachim |year=1996 |title=History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-92-3-102812-0 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Tonnesson |first1=Stein |last2=Antlov |first2=Hans |year=1996 |title=Asian Forms of the Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/asianformsofnati0000unse |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-7007-0442-2 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Jones |first=John R. |year=1998 |title=Guide to Vietnam |publisher=Bradt Publications |isbn=978-1-898323-67-9 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Li |first=Tana |year=1998 |title=Nguyễn Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries |publisher=[[SEAP Publications]] |isbn=978-0-87727-722-4 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author= |year=1999 |title=Vietnam: Selected Issues |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |isbn=978-1-4519-8721-8 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Litvack |first1=Jennie |last2=Litvack |first2=Jennie Ilene |last3=Rondinelli |first3=Dennis A. |year=1999 |title=Market Reform in Vietnam: Building Institutions for Development |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-1-56720-288-5 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Đức Trần |first1=Hồng |last2=Thư Hà |first2=Anh |year=2000 |title=A Brief Chronology of Vietnam's History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYZuAAAAMAAJ&q=Th%E1%BB%A5c+Ph%C3%A1n+257+bc |publisher=[[Thế Giới Publishers]] |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author= |year=2001 |title=Selections from Regional Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5sUuAQAAIAAJ&q=pakistan+embassy+hanoi+2000 |publisher=[[Institute of Regional Studies]] |volume=20 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Green |first=Thomas A. |year=2001 |title=Martial Arts of the World: A-Q |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1-57607-150-2 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Levinson |first1=David |last2=Christensen |first2=Karen |year=2002 |title=Encyclopedia of Modern Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo00davi |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |isbn=978-0-684-31247-7 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Pelley |first=Patricia M. |year=2002 |title=Postcolonial Vietnam: New Histories of the National Past |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-2966-4 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Largo |first=V. |year=2002 |title=Vietnam: Current Issues and Historical Background |publisher=[[Nova Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-59033-368-6 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Dodd |first1=Jan |last2=Lewis |first2=Mark |year=2003 |title=Vietnam |publisher=[[Rough Guides]] |isbn=978-1-84353-095-4 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author=Protected Areas and Development Partnership |year=2003 |title=Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Four Countries of the Lower Mekong River Region |publisher=ICEM |isbn=978-0-9750332-4-1 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Anthony L. |year=2005 |title=Southeast Asia and New Zealand: A History of Regional and Bilateral Relations 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Encyclopedia of World Music: The Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-99404-0 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Calò |first=Ambra |year=2009 |title=Trails of Bronze Drums Across Early Southeast Asia: Exchange Routes and Connected Cultural Spheres |publisher=[[Archaeopress]] |isbn=978-1-4073-0396-3 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Gitesh |year=2009 |title=Traces of Indian Culture in Vietnam |publisher=[[Rajkamal Prakashan]] |isbn=978-81-905401-4-8 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Koblitz |first=Neal |year=2009 |title=Random Curves: Journeys of a Mathematician |publisher=[[Springer Science + Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-540-74078-0 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |author=Asian Development Bank |year=2010 |title=Asian Development Outlook 2010 Update |publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]] |isbn=978-92-9092-181-3 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Gustafsson |first=Mai Lan |year=2010 |title=War and Shadows: The Haunting of Vietnam 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Brazil, 1550–1800 |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |isbn=978-90-272-4608-0 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Kỳ Phương |first1=Trần |last2=Lockhart |first2=Bruce M. |year=2011 |title=The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art |publisher=[[NUS Press]] |isbn=978-9971-69-459-3 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Thaker |first1=Aruna |last2=Barton |first2=Arlene |year=2012 |title=Multicultural Handbook of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-118-35046-1 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Vo |first=Nghia M. |year=2012 |title=Legends of Vietnam: An Analysis and Retelling of 88 Tales |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |isbn=978-0-7864-9060-8 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Chico |first=Beverly |year=2013 |title=Hats and Headwear around the World: A Cultural Encyclopedia: A Cultural Encyclopedia |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1-61069-063-8 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Boobbyer |first1=Claire |last2=Spooner |first2=Andrew |year=2013 |title=Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos Footprint Handbook |publisher=[[Footprint Travel Guides]] |isbn=978-1-907263-64-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/vietnamcambodial0000boob |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Fröhlich |first1=Holger L. |last2=Schreinemachers |first2=Pepijn |last3=Stahr |first3=Karl |last4=Clemens |first4=Gerhard |year=2013 |title=Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development in Southeast Asia: Innovations and Policies for Mountainous Areas |publisher=[[Springer Science + Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-642-33377-4 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Choy |first=Lee Khoon |year=2013 |title=Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=978-981-4518-49-9 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Cosslett |first1=Tuyet L. |last2=Cosslett |first2=Patrick D. |year=2013 |title=Water Resources and Food Security in the Vietnam Mekong Delta |publisher=[[Springer Science + Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-02198-0 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=de Mora |first1=Javier Calvo |last2=Wood |first2=Keith |year=2014 |title=Practical Knowledge in Teacher Education: Approaches to teacher internship programmes |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-1-317-80333-1 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Yao |first=Alice |year=2016 |title=The Ancient Highlands of Southwest China: From the Bronze Age to the Han Empire |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-936734-4 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Thanh Hai |first=Do |year=2016 |title=Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics, Security and Legality |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-1-317-39820-2 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Ozolinš |first=Janis Talivaldis |year=2016 |title=Religion and Culture in Dialogue: East and West Perspectives |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-3-319-25724-2 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael C. |year=2016 |title=Textiles and Clothing of Việt Nam: A History 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|year=2017 |title=Sustainable Development of Rice and Water Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia and Mekong River Basin |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-981-10-5613-0 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Zhu |first1=Ying |last2=Ren |first2=Shuang |last3=Collins |first3=Ngan |last4=Warner |first4=Malcolm |year=2017 |title=Business Leaders and Leadership in Asia |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-1-317-56749-3 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Lamport |first=Mark A. |year=2018 |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-4422-7157-9 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Dinh Tham |first=Nguyen |year=2018 |title=Studies on Vietnamese Language and Literature: A Preliminary Bibliography |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5017-1882-3 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Dayley |first=Robert |year=2018 |title=Southeast Asia in the New International Era |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0-429-97424-3 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last=Chen |first=Steven |year=2018 |title=The Design Imperative: The Art and Science of Design Management |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-3-319-78568-4 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Wilcox |editor-first=Wynn |title=Vietnam and the West: New Approaches |date=2010 |publisher=[[SEAP Publications]], Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=978-0-87727-782-8 |ref=none}} *{{cite news |author=The Harvard Crimson |year=1972 |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1972/12/13/med-school-professor-praises-north-vietnams/ |title=Med School Professor Praises North Vietnam's Medical Care |newspaper=[[The Harvard Crimson]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |last=Swanson |first=Susan |year=1978 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1978/03/16/vietnamese-celebrate-womens-day-in-old-and-new-ways/d3502136-2573-4dc0-8ddf-22485acc6765/ |title=Vietnamese Celebrate 'Women's Day' in Old and New Ways |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |last=Cockburn |first=Patrick |year=1994 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/us-finally-ends-vietnam-embargo-1391770.html |title=US finally ends Vietnam embargo |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |date=12 July 1995 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/12/world/opening-vietnam-overview-us-grants-vietnam-full-ties-time-for-healing-clinton.html |title=Opening to Vietnam: The Overview; U.S. Grants Vietnam Full Ties; Time for Healing, Clinton Says |work=[[The New York Times]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |author=BBC News |year=2004 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3752682.stm |title=Vietnam's new-look economy |work=[[BBC News]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |author=BBC News |year=2005 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4494347.stm |title=The legacy of Agent Orange |work=[[BBC News]] |ref=none}} *{{cite web |author=DigInfo |year=2007 |url=http://www.diginfo.tv/2007/12/05/07-0601-d.php |title=TOSY TOPIO – Table Tennis Playing Robot |publisher=DigInfo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521023057/http://www.diginfo.tv/2007/12/05/07-0601-d.php |archive-date=21 May 2009 |ref=none}} *{{cite web |author=China Daily |year=2008 |url=http://english.sina.com/sports/p/2008/1229/208116.html |title=Vietnam win first int'l title |work=[[China Daily]] |publisher=Sina English |ref=none}} *{{cite news |author=The Economist |year=2008 |url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2008/04/26/a-bit-of-everything |title=A bit of everything [Vietnam's quest for role models] |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021084608/http://www.economist.com/node/11041548?story_id=E1_TTDQTVQR |archive-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=live |access-date=16 October 2018 |ref=none}} *{{cite web |author=Vietnam+ |year=2008 |url=https://en.vietnamplus.vn/high-speed-railway-engineers-to-be-trained-in-japan/10244.vnp |title=High speed railway engineers to be trained in Japan |publisher=Vietnam+ |ref=none}} *{{cite web |last=Khanh |first=Vu |year=2008 |url=http://sggpnews.org.vn/lifestyle/cultural-values-of-traditional-vietnamese-wedding-3422.html |title=Cultural values of traditional Vietnamese wedding |publisher=[[Sài Gòn Giải Phóng]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |author=BBC News |year=2009 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8429351.stm |title=Vietnam lawyer charged with subversion |work=[[BBC News]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |last=Mydans |first=Seth |date=24 December 2009 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/24/world/asia/24vietnam.html |title=Vietnam Charges Lawyer With Capital Crime |work=[[The New York Times]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |author=The Japan Times |year=2009 |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/12/12/national/vietnam-opts-for-japanese-bullet-trains/ |title=Vietnam opts for Japanese bullet trains |publisher=[[The Japan Times]] |newspaper=The Japan Times Online |ref=none}} *{{cite web |last=Corapi |first=Annie |year=2010 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/08/25/healthiest.ethnic.cuisines/index.html |title=The 10 healthiest ethnic cuisines |publisher=CNN Health |ref=none}} *{{cite magazine |last=Borel |first=Brooke |year=2010 |url=https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2010-02/ping-pong-playing-terminator |title=A Ping-Pong-Playing Terminator |magazine=[[Popular Science]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |last=Huong |first=Minh |year=2010 |url=https://vietnamnews.vn/Sunday/Features/201033/Folk-poetry-preservation-a-labour-of-love.html |title=Folk poetry preservation a labour of love |newspaper=[[Việt Nam News]] |ref=none |access-date=13 March 2021 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016103825/https://vietnamnews.vn/Sunday/Features/201033/Folk-poetry-preservation-a-labour-of-love.html}} *{{cite news |author=Thanh Niên |year=2010 |url=http://www.thanhniennews.com/business/vietnams-2010-growth-fastest-in-three-years-13750.html |title=Vietnam's 2010 growth fastest in three years |newspaper=[[Thanh Niên]] |ref=none |access-date=13 March 2021 |archive-date=5 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005044057/http://www.thanhniennews.com/business/vietnams-2010-growth-fastest-in-three-years-13750.html}} *{{cite news |author=Việt Nam News |year=2010 |url=https://vietnamnews.vn/Economy/206910/tech-science-spending-too-low.html |title=Tech, science spending too low |newspaper=[[Việt Nam News]] |ref=none |access-date=13 March 2021 |archive-date=9 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009054714/https://vietnamnews.vn/Economy/206910/tech-science-spending-too-low.html}} *{{cite magazine |last=Nguyen |first=Andrea |year=2011 |url=https://www.saveur.com/article/Travels/Heaven-in-a-Bowl |title=Heaven in a Bowl: The Original *Pho* |magazine=[[Saveur]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |last=Kinver |first=Mark |year=2011 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-15430787 |title=Javan rhino 'now extinct in Vietnam' |work=[[BBC News]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |author=Nhân Dân |year=2011 |url=http://en.nhandan.org.vn/culture/item/1426202-.html |title=Pink lotus leads vote for Vietnam's national flower |newspaper=[[Nhân Dân]] |ref=none}} *{{cite web |last1=Ha |first1=K. Oanh |last2=Giang |first2=Nguyen Kieu |last3=Denslow |first3=Neil |year=2012 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-12/vietnam-air-aims-to-be-southeast-asia-s-no-2-carrier-by-2020.html |title=Vietnam Air Aims to Win Southeast Asia's No. 2 Title by 2020 |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029184008/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-12/vietnam-air-aims-to-be-southeast-asia-s-no-2-carrier-by-2020.html |archive-date=29 October 2013 |ref=none}} *{{cite news |last=MacLeod |first=Calum |year=2012 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2012/11/07/agent-orange/1660871/ |title=Fifty years later, U.S., Vietnam deal with Agent Orange |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |ref=none}} *{{cite web |last=Pham |first=Hiep |year=2012 |url=http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20121011111248502 |title=Government's student loan scheme inadequate to ensure access |publisher=[[University World News]] |ref=none}} *{{cite web |last=Phuong |first=Le |year=2012 |url=http://vovworld.vn/en-US/culture/vietnams-cultural-integration-seen-by-researchers-123534.vov |title=Vietnam's cultural integration seen by researchers |publisher=[[Voice of Vietnam]] |ref=none}} *{{cite news |author=The Telegraph |year=2012 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/vietnam/9220224/Vietnam-begins-naval-exercises-with-the-US.html |title=Vietnam begins naval exercises with the US |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |ref=none}} *{{cite web |last=Cham |first=Tran |year=2012 |url=https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/government/54432/china-continues-its-plot-in-the-east-sea.html |title=China continues its plot in the East Sea |work=VNE |publisher=Vietnam Net |ref=none |access-date=13 March 2021 |archive-date=17 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017123536/https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/government/54432/china-continues-its-plot-in-the-east-sea.html}} *{{cite news |author=Tuổi Trẻ News |year=2012 |url=http://www.tuoitrenews.vn/cmlink/tuoitrenews/business/vietnam-to-be-listed-top-economies-by-2050-hsbc-1.58480 |title=Vietnam to be listed top economies by 2050: HSBC |newspaper=[[Tuổi Trẻ]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120116170035/http://www.tuoitrenews.vn/cmlink/tuoitrenews/business/vietnam-to-be-listed-top-economies-by-2050-hsbc-1.58480 |archive-date=16 January 2012 |ref=none}} *{{cite news |author=Việt Nam News |year=2012 |url=https://vietnamnews.vn/economy/220657/top-three-telecoms-control-95-per-cent-of-market-share.html |title=Top three telecoms control 95 per cent of market share |newspaper=[[Việt Nam News]] |ref=none |access-date=13 March 2021 |archive-date=25 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190225033818/https://vietnamnews.vn/economy/220657/top-three-telecoms-control-95-per-cent-of-market-share.html}} *{{cite web |author=UPI.com |year=2013 |url=https://www.upi.com/Oil-production-starts-offshore-Vietnam/79191369130468/ |title=Oil 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|title=Understanding utilitarian and hedonic values determining the demand for rhino horn in Vietnam |journal=Human Dimensions of Wildlife |date=3 September 2018 |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=417–432 |doi=10.1080/10871209.2018.1449038 |bibcode=2018HDW....23..417D |ref=none}} * {{cite thesis |last1=Truong |first1=Ngan |title=Solid Waste Management in Vietnam: Current situation, challenges and strategies for development |date=2018 |id={{CORE output|161428547}} |url=https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:amk-201805189003 |ref=none}} *{{cite book |last1=Truong |first1=Nhu |last2=Vo |first2=Dang H. |last3=Nguyen |first3=Dzung |year=2018 |url=https://mrlg.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Mekong-State-of-Land-DISCUSSION-DRAFT-single-layout.pdf |title=Mekong State of Land |via=Mekong Region Land Governance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006021518/https://mrlg.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Mekong-State-of-Land-DISCUSSION-DRAFT-single-layout.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2018 |access-date=16 October 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|first=Michael |title=Before Chinese and Vietnamese in the Red River Plain: The Han–Tang Period |journal=Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies |url=http://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/04-2_Churchman_2010.pdf |volume=4 |year=2010 |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309155610/https://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/04-2_Churchman_2010.pdf}} *{{cite journal |author=Cornell University |url=https://seap.einaudi.cornell.edu/rice-vietnamese-culture-and-economy |title=Rice in Vietnamese Culture and Economy |journal=Mario Einaudi Center for International Studies – Southeast Asia Program |date=15 February 2024 |ref=none}} *{{cite journal |journal=Ritsumeikan Language and Culture Studies |last=Van Van |first=Hoang |url=http://r-cube.ritsumei.ac.jp/repo/repository/rcube/4129/LCS_22_1pp7-18_HOANG.pdf |title=The Current Situation and Issues of the Teaching of English in Vietnam |publisher=[[Ritsumeikan Asia 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