{{Short description|Species of fish}} {{Speciesbox | image = Sillaginodes_punctatus_juvenile.jpg | image_caption = Juvenile | parent_authority = [[Theodore Nicholas Gill|T. N. Gill]], 1861 | taxon = Sillaginodes punctatus | authority = ([[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1829) | synonyms = {{Specieslist | Sillaginodes punctata | Cuvier, 1829 | Sillago punctata | Cuvier, 1829 | Isosillago punctata | Cuvier, 1829 | Isosillago maculata | [[William John Macleay|Macleay]], 1878 }} | range_map = KG whiting World Distribution Map.jpg | range_map_caption = Range of the King George whiting }}
The '''King George whiting''' (''Sillaginodes punctatus''), also known as the '''spotted whiting''' or '''spotted sillago''', is a [[coastal fish|coastal marine fish]] of the [[Sillaginidae|smelt-whitings]] family [[Sillaginidae]]. The King George whiting is [[Endemism|endemic]] to [[Australia]], inhabiting the south coast of the country from [[Jurien Bay, Western Australia]] to [[Botany Bay]], [[New South Wales]] in the east.<ref name="fishes">{{cite web|author=Bray, D.|title=King George Whiting, ''Sillaginodes punctata''|url=https://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/4242|website=Fishes of Australia|access-date=26 August 2014|archive-date=11 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311153037/https://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/4242|url-status=live}}</ref> The King George whiting is the only member of the [[genus]] ''Sillaginodes'' and the largest member of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae, growing to a length of 80 cm and 4.8 kg in weight. The species is readily distinguishable from other Australian whitings by its unique pattern of spots, as well as its highly elongate shape. King George whiting are often found in [[bay]]s and protected waterways over [[sand]] and [[seagrass]] beds, also venturing out onto deep [[continental shelf]] [[reef]]s during adulthood. The species is a [[benthic]] [[carnivore]], consuming a variety of [[crustacean]]s, [[polychaete]] worms, [[mollusc]]s and [[fish]]. The King George whiting forms the basis of one of southern Australia's most important commercial [[fisheries]], reportedly worth over five million [[Australian dollar]]s per year. The species is also heavily targeted by recreational [[angling|angler]]s, who value the whiting for its sporting and eating qualities.
==Taxonomy and naming== The King George whiting is the only species nested in the genus ''Sillaginodes'', which itself is in the family Sillaginidae, containing all the smelt whitings.<ref>{{ITIS | id = 551124 | taxon = ''Sillaginodes punctatus'' }}</ref> The Sillaginidae are part of the [[Percoidei]], a suborder of the order [[Perciformes]].<ref name ="Fishbase">{{FishBase| genus = Sillaginodes | species = punctatus |month = November | year = 2014}}</ref> The King George whiting was first officially named by [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]] in 1829 as ''Sillago punctata'', based on an individual taken from [[King George Sound]] in [[Western Australia]].<ref name="McKayFAO">{{cite book |last=McKay |first=R.J. |url=https://www.fao.org/3/t0538e/t0538e04.pdf |title=FAO Species Catalogue: Vol. 14. Sillaginid Fishes Of The World |publisher=Food and Agricultural Organisation |year=1992 |isbn=92-5-103123-1 |pages=19–20}}</ref> In 1861, [[Theodore Gill]] created the monotypic genus ''Sillaginodes'' based on a number or morphological characteristics and assigned ''S. punctatus'' to it. A number of [[synonym (taxonomy)|synonyms]] have been applied after the [[holotype|initial correct naming]], apparently due to Cuvier not designating a [[holotype]], or it being lost. A [[lectotype]] was finally designated by McKay in 1985.<ref name = "McKay1985">{{cite journal |last=McKay |first=R.J. |year=1985 |title=A Revision of the Fishes of the Family Sillaginidae |journal=Memoirs of the Queensland Museum |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–73 }}</ref> The species has a variety of common names (many now obsolete), with the most common, "King George whiting", taken from the name of the body of water where the initial description was made. It is also often called the spotted whiting in reference to its obliquely positioned bars of brown spots, with other names used in [[Marketplace|markets]], especially outside of Australia.<ref name = "McKay1985"/>
==Description== The King George whiting has the same overall profile as the rest of the [[Sillaginidae|sillaginid]] fishes, an elongate, slightly compressed body with a tapering head and terminal mouth. The genus ''Sillaginodes'' is distinguished by a first [[dorsal fin]] with twelve or thirteen [[Fish anatomy#Spines and rays|spines]] and the second dorsal fin with a single spine and 25 to 27 [[Fish anatomy#Spines and rays|soft rays]].<ref name="fishes" /> The [[vertebrae]] number between 42 and 44 in the genus.<ref name = "McKayFAO" />
The King George whiting is the only member of the [[genus]] ''Sillaginodes'' and is further distinguished from any other possible [[taxa]] assigned to that genus by a number of distinct [[anatomical]] features. It is the largest of the Sillaginid fishes with 129 to 147 [[lateral line]] scales, and like all fishes in the family is best distinguished by the shape of its [[swim bladder]]. In plan view, the swim bladder has a land [[slug]]-like appearance, with a [[Posterior (anatomy)|posteriorly]] tapering extension and two anterolateral extensions or 'horns'. There are no [[Duct (anatomy)|duct]]-like processes on the ventral surface unlike taxa in the genus ''[[Sillago]]''.<ref name = "McKayFAO" />
In situations where identification is needed quickly, the colour of the King George whiting is also very distinctive, with a pale golden brown to olive brown top colour and white to silver colour on its underside. The species also as distinct [[:wikt:oblique|oblique]]ly positioned rows of brown spots running the length of its body, which are apparent to see even after removal from the water and after death. The [[caudal fin|caudal]], [[anal fin|anal]] and [[pectoral fin]]s are usually a light brown, with some having olive green caudal fins.<ref name = "Hutchins" >{{cite book | author = Hutchins, B. | author2 = Swainston, R. | name-list-style = amp | title = Sea Fishes of Southern Australia. Complete Field Guide for Anglers and Divers | publisher = Swainston Publishing | year = 1986 | location = Melbourne | pages = 187 }}</ref>
It is the largest member of Sillaginidae, growing to a maximum length of 72 cm long and 4.8 kg in weight.<ref name = "Hutchins" />
==Distribution and habitat== [[File:17 Mt Dutton Bay 01.JPG|thumb|right|Typical habitat of young King George whiting: [[seagrass]] beds amongst sand patches]] The King George whiting is endemic to Southern [[Australia]], ranging lower [[Western Australia]], [[South Australia]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and occasionally even lower [[New South Wales]]. The westernmost reported capture was in [[Jurien Bay, Western Australia|Jurien Bay]] and the furthest east King George whiting have been reported from is [[Botany Bay]] in New South Wales (although this appears to be a rare occurrence).<ref name = "McKayFAO" />
King George whiting are most commonly found in [[tide|tidal]] [[bay]]s, [[estuaries]] and [[Creek (tidal)|creeks]] along the coast of the mainland and numerous [[islands]] scattered throughout the species' range. There is a distinct difference in habitat between the [[adult]] and [[Juvenile (organism)|juvenile]] fish, with the juveniles more inclined to inhabit shallower waters in protected [[bay]]s, creeks and [[estuary|estuaries]].<ref name = "Kuiter" >{{cite book | last = Kuiter | first = R.H. | title = Coastal fishes of south-eastern Australia | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | year = 1993 | location = U.S.A | isbn =1-86333-067-4 }}</ref> A favourite habitat of young fish appears to be ''[[Zostera]]'' and ''[[Posidonia]]'' [[seagrass]] beds in protected bays, apparently using the seagrass as protection and for foraging purposes.<ref name = "Robertson1977">{{cite journal | last = Robertson | first = A.I. | title = Ecology of Juvenile King George Whiting Sillaginodes punctatus (Cuvier & [[Achille Valenciennes|Valenciennes]]) (Pisces: Perciformes) in Western Port, Victoria | journal = Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–43 | publisher = CSIRO | year = 1977 | doi=10.1071/mf9770035 | bibcode = 1977MFRes..28...35R }}</ref> Juveniles tend to form schools of varying sizes, occasionally schooling with other species, including other members of the family Sillaginidae.<ref name = "Hutchins" /> Adults tend to be [[wiktionary:solitary|solitary]] and found in deeper water in a range of habitats including bays, offshore [[Beach|surf gutters]], broken bottom and deep [[reef]], also venturing into shallower water on occasion.
==Biology==
===Diet=== The King George whiting's distinctive body shape and mouth placement is an adaptation to bottom feeding, which is the predominant method of feeding for all whiting species. All larger whiting feed by using their protrusile jaws and tube-like mouths to suck up various types of prey from in, on or above the ocean [[Substrate (marine biology)|substrate]].<ref name = "Hyndes1997">{{cite journal | author = Hyndes, G.A. | author2 = Platell, M.E. | author3 = Potter, I.C. | name-list-style = amp |year=1997 |title=Relationships between diet and body size, mouth morphology, habitat and movements of six sillaginid species in coastal waters: implications for resource partitioning |journal=Marine Biology |volume=128 |issue=4 |pages=585–598 |doi=10.1007/s002270050125| bibcode = 1997MarBi.128..585H | s2cid = 84171376 }}</ref> There is a large body of evidence that shows whiting do not rely on [[visual]] cues when feeding, instead using a system based on the vibrations emitted by their prey.<ref name = "Gunn1985"> {{cite journal | author = Gunn, J.S. | author2 = Wilward, N.E. | name-list-style = amp | title = The food, feeding habits and feeding structures of the whiting species ''Sillago sihama'' (Forsskål) and ''Sillago analis'' Whitley from Townsville, North Queensland, Australia | journal = Journal of Fish Biology | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 411–427 | publisher = Fisheries Society of the British Isles | year = 1985 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1985.tb04281.x| bibcode = 1985JFBio..26..411G }}</ref>
Studies of [[Gut (zoology)|gut]] content have shown that the primary food items of King George whiting are [[amphipod]]s, [[copepod]]s and [[polychaete worm]]s.<ref name = "Coleman1984">{{cite journal | author = Coleman, N. | author2 = Mobley, M. | name-list-style = amp | title = Diets of Commercially Exploited Fish from Bass Strait and Adjacent Victorian Waters, South-eastern Australia | journal = Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | volume = 35 | issue = 5 | pages = 549–560 | publisher = CSIRO | year = 1984 | doi=10.1071/mf9840549 | bibcode = 1984MFRes..35..549C }}</ref> Unlike any of its relatives, the King George whiting does not appear to feed on [[mollusc]]s, which is unusual because in many parts of Southern Australia, the main bait used by recreational fishers to catch whiting is the [[Cockle (bivalve)|cockle]]; a mollusc, but then, it has been deshelled. An excellent bait for catching King George Whiting is raw [[Melicertus|king prawn]], such as [[banana prawn]]. They are better bought in the shell and peeled shortly before using, as this keeps the bait fresh. Also rare in the diet are [[echinoderms]], which are frequent prey for other species of ''Sillago''. This may be a function of niche partitioning, as in many areas the King George whiting's habitat overlaps with other species of the genus ''Sillago''.<ref name = "Hyndes1997" /> Other minor components of the diet include [[crustaceans]] such as [[shrimp|carid]]s, [[leptostracan]]s, [[stomatopod]]s, [[crab]]s, [[tanaid]]s, [[cumacean]]s and [[isopod]]s as well as other fish and [[benthic]] [[algae]].
As previously mentioned, younger fish tend to school when foraging, and have been known to forage in groups with other species such as [[white trevally|silver trevally]], [[tarwhine]] and other species of whiting.<ref name = "Hutchins" /> Larger fish tend to occupy areas with larger species such as [[Australasian snapper]], [[blue morwong]] and larger trevally.
===Predators=== King George whiting, especially juveniles, are known to be common [[prey]] for a number of larger inshore fishes and [[wading birds]]. The most prominent inshore predators are [[Australian salmon]], members of the [[Flathead (fish)|flathead]] family, the [[barracouta]] (a [[snake mackerel]]), [[Australian barracuda|snook]] as well as various species of [[shark]]s and [[stingray|ray]]s.<ref name = "Kailola">{{Cite journal | author = Kailola, P.J. | author2 = Williams, M.J. | author3 = Stewart, R.E. | display-authors = etal | title = Australian fisheries resources | journal = Bureau of Resource Sciences | year = 1993 }}</ref> Various species of diving birds, particularly the [[pied cormorant]] are also common predators of the species,<ref name = "Humphries1992" >{{cite journal | author = Humphries, P. | author2 = Hyndes, G.A. | author3 = Potter, I.C. | name-list-style = amp | title = Comparisons between the diets of distant taxa (Teleost and Cormorant) in an Australian estuary | journal = Estuaries | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 327–334 | publisher = Springer New York | year = 1992 | doi=10.2307/1352780| jstor = 1352780 | s2cid = 84801870 }}</ref> as are marine mammals such as [[bottlenose dolphin|bottlenose]] and [[common dolphin]]s.<ref name="Long1997">{{cite journal|author=Long, M.|author2=Reid, R.J.|author3=Kemper, C.M.|name-list-style=amp |title=Cadmium accumulation and toxicity in the bottlenose dolphin ''Tursiops truncatus'', the common dolphin ''Delphinus delphis'', and some dolphin prey species in South Australia |journal=Australian Mammalogy |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=25–33 |publisher=Australian Mammal Society |year=1997 |url=http://www.australianmammals.org.au/publications/pubs_ausMamCat/ausMam_Vol20_1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719145504/http://australianmammals.org.au/publications/pubs_ausMamCat/ausMam_Vol20_1.html |archive-date=July 19, 2008 }}</ref>
===Reproduction=== King George whiting reach [[sexual maturity]] at three to four years of age, with [[male]]s reaching 30 cm in length and [[female]]s 34 cm. These lengths are used as guides when setting minimum legal lengths for the species, allowing adequate time for an individual to reproduce before being taken.<ref name="Mcgarvey02">{{cite journal|author=McGarvey, R.|author2=Fowler, A.J.|name-list-style=amp |title=Seasonal growth of King George whiting (''Sillaginodes punctata'') estimated from length-at-age samples of the legal size harvest |journal=Fishery Bulletin |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=545–558 |year=2002 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FDG/is_3_100/ai_90925226 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060209194945/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FDG/is_3_100/ai_90925226 |archive-date=2006-02-09 }}</ref> [[Spawn (biology)|Spawning]] occurs in a range of areas, depending on the [[geographic]] locality of the individual; some spawning in deeper water up to 9 m deep, others in estuaries.<ref name = "Lenanton" >{{cite journal | last = Lenanton | first = R.C.J. | title = Alternative Non estuarine Nursery Habitats for some Commercially and Recreationally Important Fish Species of South-western Australia | journal = Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | pages = 881–900 | publisher = CSIRO | year = 1982 | doi=10.1071/mf9820881 | bibcode = 1982MFRes..33..881L }}</ref> May and June are the most common times for spawning, with some spawning events recorded as early as February and as late as July.<ref name ="Fishbase"/> Juvenile fish are recruited to areas by [[ocean currents]], with studies showing the species is too weak a swimmer to be able to undertake long distance journeys.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jenkins, G.P. | author2 = Welsford, D.C. | name-list-style = amp | title = The swimming abilities of recently settled post-larvae of ''Sillaginodes punctata'' | journal = Journal of Fish Biology | volume = 60 | issue = 4 | pages = 1043–1050 | publisher = Blackwell Synergy | year = 2002 | doi=10.1006/jfbi.2002.1914| doi-broken-date = 12 July 2025 }}</ref> The location of spawning also has implications for the location of the juveniles, as with some estuary breeding individuals.
==Relationship to humans== The King George whiting is a highly rated food fish and is common in southern Australia and so has become a major component of the [[commercial fishing|commercial]] and [[angling|recreational fisheries]] in this region, with [[aquaculture]] potential still being explored but apparently of low value.<ref name="fishes" />
===Commercial fishery=== The main commercial King George whiting fishery is centred on South Australia from [[Ceduna, South Australia|Ceduna]] in the west to [[Gulf St Vincent]] in the east. Smaller fisheries are present in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and south west Western Australia. Common catching practices include haul [[seine net]]s, [[gill net]]s as well as [[longline fishing|longline]] and [[handline]] methods. This fishery is one of the most important in the country, reportedly worth five million [[Australian dollar]]s a year,<ref name = "McKayFAO" /> as King George whiting fetch premium price in [[Market (economics)|market]]s. This single species alone was reported as comprising 60% of the total annual catch in [[South Australia]] during the late 1980s.<ref name = "Hbook" >{{cite book | author = Scott, T.D. | author2 = Glover, C.J. | author3 = Southcott, R.V. | name-list-style = amp| title = The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of south Australia| edition = 2nd | publisher = State handbook Committee, Government Printer | year = 1990 | location = Adelaide }}</ref> The fish are sold either whole or as [[fillet (cut)|fillet]]s and are generally rated as one of the very best quality Australian fish for the table, and are ubiquitous in [[Fish and chips]] shops.
===Recreational fishery=== {{See also|Smelt-whiting fishing}} In Southern Australia, the King George whiting is often the sole target for [[fishermen]] who seek it for its high quality eating.<ref name="fishes" /> A number of [[coastal]] towns rely heavily on the species as a [[tourism]] drawcard for anglers seeking a range of fish and crustacean species, but King George whiting is often the most desired catch.<ref name = "favfish" >{{cite book | last = Horrobin | first = P. | title = Guide to Favourite Australian Fish | publisher = Universal Magazines | year = 1997 | location = Singapore | pages = 104–105 }}</ref> They are a relatively easy species to catch, with no special [[Bait (luring substance)|bait]]s, rigs or techniques required and are often caught from [[jetties]], [[beaches]] and [[rock (geology)|rock]]s; meaning a [[boat]] is not necessary. Simple rigs such varieties of running [[fishing sinker|ball sinker]] or paternoster rigs are commonly used, with a fixed sinker employed in area of high tidal movement.<ref name = "starlo" >{{cite book | last = Starling | first = S. | title = The Australian Fishing Book | publisher = Bacragas Pty. Ltd. | year = 1988 | location = Hong Kong | pages = 490 | isbn = 0-7301-0141-X }}</ref> As mentioned previously, molluscs, particularly the [[Plebidonax deltoides|Goolwa cockle]] are common bait, with varieties of [[worm]]s, [[maggots|gents]], [[squid]], [[cuttlefish]], fish pieces and especially raw king prawn are commonly successful. The larger fish inhabiting deep reefs are often caught on whole [[pilchard]]s while fishing for snapper and morwong.<ref name = "starlo" />
The King George whiting has differing size and bag limits for anglers in different states. In Victoria, there is a minimum size limit of 27 cm and a bag limit of 20 per person.<ref name = "legalvic" >{{Cite web | last = FishVictoria | title = Whiting, King George |url=http://www.fishvictoria.com/the-fish/marine-&-estuarine-fin-fish/whiting,-king-george/ | access-date = 2020-02-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821172010/http://www.fishvictoria.com/the-fish/marine-%26-estuarine-fin-fish/whiting%2C-king-george/ | archive-date = 2007-08-21 | url-status = dead }}</ref> South Australia is divided into two zones concerning the taking of this species, with fish caught east of longitude 136° restricted to a minimum length of 32 cm and fish caught to the west of longitude 136° having a minimum length of 30 cm. In both divisions, the bag limit is 10 fish per person.<ref name = "legalsac" >{{Cite web | last = Primary Industries SA | title = King George whiting | date = 15 August 2019 | url = http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/fisheries/recreational_fishing/target_species/king_george_whiting | access-date = 21 July 2007 | archive-date = 30 August 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070830022125/http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/fisheries/recreational_fishing/target_species/king_george_whiting | url-status = dead }}</ref> Western Australia has set a minimum legal limit of 28 cm and a bag limit of 8 per person.<ref name="legalwa">{{Cite web|last=Western angler |title=King George whiting |url=http://www.westernangler.com.au/default.asp?action=article&ID=154 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909180721/http://www.westernangler.com.au/default.asp?action=article&ID=154 |archive-date=2007-09-09 }}</ref>
===Aquaculture=== Due to the King George whitings' popularity as a food fish, extensive investigations into the viability of the species as an aquaculture species have occurred, with most initial investigations indicating the long [[Larva|larval cycle]] is a major barrier to the successful farming of the fish. Other problems have arisen in a [[parasite]] previously unknown in the species only affecting the fish in captivity. [[Thyroid]] [[growth hormone]]s may be used in the future to hasten growth of larvae and make such ventures more feasible.<ref name = "Aquaculture" >{{cite book | last = Partridge | first = G. | title = Further development of techniques for the culture of King George whiting for commercial aquaculture or for enhancement of fish stocks in Western Australia – Final Report | publisher = Challenger TAFE | date = 2000 | location = Fremantle }}</ref>
==References== {{Reflist|2}}
==External links== * [http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/fisheries/recreational_fishing/target_species/king_george_whiting Primary Industries - King George whiting] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830022125/http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/fisheries/recreational_fishing/target_species/king_george_whiting |date=2007-08-30 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070830132116/http://www.fishsa.com/kgwhitng.php Fishing for King George whiting] * [https://reeflifesurvey.com/species/sillaginodes-punctatus Sillaginodes punctatus King George Whiting]
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2333864}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Sillaginidae|King George whiting]] [[Category:Marine fish of Southern Australia]] [[Category:Endemic fauna of Australia]] [[Category:Fish described in 1829|King George whiting]] [[Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier|King George whiting]] [[Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier]]