Tswana language

{{Short description|Bantu language of Botswana and South Africa}} {{EngvarB|date=May 2013}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}} {{Infobox language | name = Tswana | nativename = ''Setswana'' | states = {{Plainlist| * [[Botswana]] * [[South Africa]] }} | region = | ethnicity = [[Tswana people|Batswana]] | speakers = {{sigfig|4.07|2}} million in South Africa (2011) {{sigfig|1.07|2}} million in Botswana | date = 1993 | ref = e18 | speakers2 = unknown numbers in Namibia and Zimbabwe 2.7 million [[L2 speakers]] in South Africa (2002)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webb |first=Victor N. |title=Language in South Africa: The Role of Language in National Transformation, Reconstruction and Development |date=2002 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-90-272-9763-1 |location=Philadelphia |page=78}}</ref> | familycolor = Niger-Congo | fam2 = [[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]] | fam3 = [[Volta-Congo languages|Volta-Congo]] | fam4 = [[Benue–Congo languages|Benue–Congo]] | fam5 = [[Bantoid languages|Bantoid]] | fam6 = [[Southern Bantoid languages|Southern Bantoid]] | fam7 = [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] | fam8 = [[Southern Bantu]] | fam9 = [[Sotho–Tswana languages|Sotho–Tswana]] | dia1 = Rolong | dia2 = Hurutshe | dia3 = Kwena | dia4 = Lete | dia5 = Melete | dia6 = Ngwaketse | dia7 = Ngwatu | dia8 = Kgatla | dia9 = Tawana | dia10 = Tlharo | dia11 = Tlhaping | dia12 = Thlahaping | dia13 = Thlaro | dia14 = [[Pretoria Sotho]] | script = [[Latin script|Latin]] (Tswana alphabet) [[Tswana Braille]] [[Ditema tsa Dinoko]] | nation = {{Plainlist| * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}} }} | minority = {{Plainlist| * {{flag|Namibia}} }} | iso1 = tn | iso2 = tsn | iso3 = tsn | lingua = 99-AUT-eg | glotto = tswa1253 | glottorefname = Tswana }} {{Infobox ethnonym|root=Tswana|person='''Mo'''tswana|language='''Se'''tswana|country=[[Botswana|'''Bo'''tswana]]|people=[[Tswana people|'''Ba'''tswana]]}} [[File:Botswana - Lengas.png|thumb|Distribution of Tswana (in yellow) in Botswana]] [[File:South Africa Tswana speakers proportion map.svg|thumb|Geographical distribution of Tswana in South Africa: proportion of the population that speaks Tswana at home. {{div col|colwidth=10em|content= {{legend|#EDF8E9|0–20%}} {{legend|#BAE4B3|20–40%}} {{legend|#74C476|40–60%}} {{legend|#31A354|60–80%}} {{legend|#006D2C|80–100%}} }}]] [[File:South Africa Tswana speakers density map.svg|thumb|Geographical distribution of Setswana in South Africa: density of Setswana home-language speakers. {{div col|colwidth=10em|content= {{legend|#ffffcc|<1 /km²}} {{legend|#ffeda0|1–3 /km²}} {{legend|#fed976|3–10 /km²}} {{legend|#feb24c|10–30 /km²}} {{legend|#fd8d3c|30–100 /km²}} {{legend|#fc4e2a|100–300 /km²}} {{legend|#e31a1c|300–1000 /km²}} {{legend|#bc0026|1000–3000 /km²}} {{legend|#800026|>3000 /km²}} }}]]

'''Tswana''', also known by its [[Endonym and exonym|native name]] '''Setswana''',{{Efn|Also spelled '''SeTswana'''; archaically spelled '''Sechuana'''}} is a [[Bantu language]] indigenous to [[Southern Africa]] and spoken by about 8.2 million people.<ref name=e18/> It is closely related to the [[Sepedi language|Sepedi]] and [[Sesotho]] languages,<ref name=makalela2009>{{Cite journal |last=Makalela |first=Leketi |date=2009 |title=Harmonizing South African Sotho Language Varieties: Lessons From Reading Proficiency Assessment |journal=International Multilingual Research Journal |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=120–133 |doi=10.1080/19313150903073489 |s2cid=143275863}}</ref> as well as the Sekgaladi{{sfn|Janson|Tsonope|1991|pp=36–40}} and likely the [[Lozi language|Silozi language]].<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Mbeha|first=Gustav Nyambe|title=Silozi, a Mixed Language: An Analysis of the Noun Class System and Kinship Terms|institution=University of Capetown|degree=Master of Arts|year=2017|pages=15-16|hdl=11427/27889}}</ref>

Tswana is an official language of [[South Africa]] and [[Zimbabwe]]. It is a [[lingua franca]] in Botswana and parts of South Africa, particularly [[North West Province]]. Setswana speaking ethnic groups are found in several provinces of South Africa, primarily in the [[North West (South African province)|North West]], where about four million people speak the language. An urbanised variety is known as Sepitori, and is the principal unique language of the city of [[Pretoria]]. The three South African provinces with the most speakers are [[Gauteng]] (circa 11%), [[Northern Cape]], and North West (over 70%). Until 1994, South African [[Tswana people|Batswana]] were notionally citizens of [[Bophuthatswana]], one of the [[bantustan]]s of the [[apartheid]] regime. The Setswana language in the Northwest Province has variations in which it is spoken according to the ethnic groups found in the Tswana culture (Bakgatla, Barolong, Bakwena, Batlhaping, Bahurutshe, Bafokeng, Batlokwa, Bataung, and Batswapong, among others); the written language remains the same. A small number of speakers are also found in [[Zimbabwe]] (unknown number) and [[Namibia]] (about 10,000 people).<ref name="e18"/>

== History == The first European to describe the language was the [[Germans|German traveller]] [[Hinrich Lichtenstein]], who lived among a Batswana tribe known as [[Batlhaping tribe|Batlhaping]] in 1806 although his work was not published until 1930. He mistakenly regarded Tswana as a [[dialect]] of the isiXhosa, and the name that he used for the language ''"Beetjuana"'' may also have covered Sepedi and Sesotho.

The first major work on Tswana was carried out by the British [[missionary]] [[Robert Moffat (missionary)|Robert Moffat]], who had also lived among the [[Batlhaping tribe|Batlhaping]], and published ''Bechuana Spelling Book'' and ''A Bechuana Catechism'' in 1826. In the following years, he published several [[books of the Bible]], and in 1857, he was able to publish a complete translation of the Bible.<ref name="janson_1991_36-37">{{Harvnb|Janson|Tsonope|1991|pp=36–37}}</ref>

The first grammar of Tswana was published in 1833 by the missionary James Archbell although it was modelled on isiXhosa grammar. The first grammar of Tswana which regarded it as a separate language from isiXhosa (but still not as a separate language from the Sepedi and Sesotho) was published by the French missionary, E. Casalis in 1841. He changed his mind later, and in a publication from 1882, he noted that the Sepedi and Sesotho were distinct from Tswana.<ref>{{Harvnb|Janson|Tsonope|1991|pp=38–39}}</ref>

[[Sol Plaatje|Solomon Plaatje]], a South African intellectual and [[linguist]], was one of the first writers to extensively write in and about the Tswana language.<ref name="janson_1991_36-37" />

== Phonology == === Vowels === The [[vowel|vowel inventory]] of Setswana can be seen below.<ref>{{Harvnb|University of Botswana|2001|p=16}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! ! [[Front vowel|Front]] ! [[Back vowel|Back]] |- ! [[Close vowel|Close]] | {{IPA link|i}} {{grapheme|i}} | {{IPA link|u}} {{grapheme|u}} |- ! [[Near-close vowel|Near-close]] | {{IPA link|ɪ}} {{grapheme|e}} | {{IPA link|ʊ}} {{grapheme|o}} |- ! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]] | {{IPA link|ɛ}} {{grapheme|ê}} | {{IPA link|ɔ}} {{grapheme|ô}} |- ! [[Open vowel|Open]] | colspan="2" | {{IPA link|a}} {{grapheme|a}} |}

Some dialects have two additional vowels, the [[close-mid vowel]]s {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|University of Botswana|2001|p=19}}</ref> The circumflex on e and o in general Setswana writing is only encouraged at elementary levels of education and not at upper primary or higher; usually these are written without the circumflex.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Otlogetswe |first=Thapelo J |date=2016 |title=The Design of Setswana Scrabble |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311718411 |journal=South African Journal of African Languages |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=153–161 |doi=10.1080/02572117.2016.1252008|s2cid=63584935 }}</ref>

=== Consonants === The [[consonant|consonant inventory]] of Tswana can be seen below.<ref>{{Harvnb|University of Botswana|2001|p=10}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! colspan="3" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- !{{small|plain}} !{{small|[[sibilant]]}} !{{small|[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]}} |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} {{grapheme|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} {{grapheme|n}} | | | {{IPA link|ɲ}} {{grapheme|ny}} | {{IPA link|ŋ}} {{grapheme|ng}} | | |- ! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive]]/ [[Affricate]] !{{small|voiceless}} | {{IPA link|p}} {{grapheme|p}} | {{IPA link|t}} {{grapheme|t}} | {{IPA link|ts}} {{grapheme|ts}} | {{IPA link|tɬ}} {{grapheme|tl}} | {{IPA link|tʃ}} {{grapheme|tš}} | {{IPA link|k}} {{grapheme|k}} | | |- !{{small|voiced}} | {{IPA link|b}} {{grapheme|b}} | {{IPA link|d}} {{grapheme|d}} | | | {{IPA link|dʒ}} {{grapheme|j}} | | | |- !{{small|aspirated}} | {{IPA link|pʰ}} {{grapheme|ph}} | {{IPA link|tʰ}} {{grapheme|th}} | {{IPA link|tsʰ}} {{grapheme|tsh}} | {{IPA link|tɬʰ}} {{grapheme|tlh}} | {{IPA link|tʃʰ}} {{grapheme|tšh}} | {{IPA link|kʰ}} {{grapheme|kh}} | {{IPA link|kχʰ}} {{grapheme|kg}} | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]] | {{IPA link|f}} {{grapheme|f}} | | {{IPA link|s}} {{grapheme|s}} | | {{IPA link|ʃ}} {{grapheme|š}} | | {{IPA link|χ}} {{grapheme|g}} | {{IPA link|h}} {{grapheme|h}} |- ! colspan="2" | [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]] | | {{IPA link|r}} {{grapheme|r}} | | {{IPA link|l}} {{grapheme|l}} | | | | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Semivowel]] | {{IPA link|w}} {{grapheme|w}} | | | | {{IPA link|j}} {{grapheme|y}} | | | |}

The [[consonant]] {{IPA|[d]}} is an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/l/}} when the latter is followed by the [[vowel]]s {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/u/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|University of Botswana|2001|p=3}}</ref> Two more sounds, '''v''' {{IPA|/v/}} and '''z''' {{IPA|/z/}}, exist only in loanwords.

Setswana also has three [[click consonant]]s, but these are only used in [[interjection]]s or [[ideophones]], and tend only to be used by the older generation, and are therefore falling out of use. The three click consonants are the [[dental click]] {{IPA|/ǀ/}}, orthographically {{angle bracket|c}}; the [[lateral click]] {{IPA|/ǁ/}}, orthographically {{angle bracket|x}}; and the [[alveolar click]] {{IPA|/ǃ/}}, orthographically {{angle bracket|q}}. These are found for example in ''qô-qô'' (used to announce arrival or knocking on the door; being replaced by ''ko-ko''), ''x-x'' (used to express annoyance) and ''c-c-c''.<ref>{{Harvnb|University of Botswana|2001|pp=11–12}}</ref>

There are some minor [[dialect|dialectal variations]] among the consonants between speakers of Setswana. For instance, {{IPA|/χ/}} is realised as either {{IPA|/x/}} or {{IPA|/h/}} by many speakers; {{IPA|/f/}} is realised as {{IPA|/h/}} in most dialects; and {{IPA|/tɬ/}} and {{IPA|/tɬʰ/}} are realised as {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/tʰ/}} in northern dialects.<ref>{{Harvnb|University of Botswana|2001|pp=14–15}}</ref>

The consonant {{IPA|/ŋ/}} can exist at the end of a word without being followed by a vowel (as in [[Jwaneng]] and [[Barolong Seboni]]).

=== Stress === [[stress (linguistics)|Stress]] is fixed in Tswana and thus always falls on the [[ultima (linguistics)|penult]] of a word, although some [[compound (linguistics)|compounds]] may receive a secondary stress in the first part of the word. The [[syllable]] on which the stress falls is lengthened. Thus, [[woman|mosadi]] (woman) is realised as {{IPA|[mʊ̀ˈsáːdì]}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|University of Botswana|2001|p=32}}</ref>

=== Tone === Tswana has two [[tone (linguistics)|tones]], high and low, but the latter has a much wider distribution in words than the former. Tones are not marked [[orthography|orthographically]], which may lead to ambiguity.<ref>{{Harvnb|University of Botswana|2001|pp=31–32}}</ref>

: '''go bua''' {{IPA|/χʊ búa/}} ''"to speak"'' : '''go bua''' {{IPA|/χʊ bua/}} ''"to skin an animal"''

: '''o bua Setswana''' {{IPA|/ʊ́búa setswána/}} ''"He speaks Setswana"'' : '''o bua Setswana''' {{IPA|/ʊbúa setswána/}} ''"You speak Setswana"''

An important feature of the tones is the so-called spreading of the high tone. If a [[syllable]] bears a high tone, the following two syllables will have high tones unless they are at the end of the word.<ref>{{Harvnb|University of Botswana|2001|p=34}}</ref>

: '''simolola''' {{IPA|/símʊlʊla/}} > {{IPA|/símʊ́lʊ́la/}} ''"to begin"'' : '''simologêla''' {{IPA|/símʊlʊχɛla/}} > {{IPA|/símʊ́lʊ́χɛla/}} ''"to begin for/at"''

==Orthography==

Setswana orthography is based on the Latin alphabet. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- ! Letter(s) | a || b || c || d || e || ê || f || g || h || i || j || k || l || m || n || o || ô || p || ph || q || r || s |š|| t || th || tl || tlh || tsh || u || v || w || x || y || z |} The letter š was introduced in 1937, but the corresponding sound is still sometimes written as ⟨sh⟩. The letters ⟨ê⟩ and ⟨ô⟩ are used in textbooks and language reference books, but not so much in daily standard writing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lekgogo |first1=Olemme |last2=Winskel |first2=Heather |date=December 2008 |title=Learning to read Setswana and English: Cross-language transference of letter knowledge, phonological awareness and word reading skills |journal=Perspectives in Education |volume=26|issue=4 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Тсвана-русская практическая транскрипция |url=https://iling-ran.ru/langworld/transcript/tswana.shtml |access-date=2022-07-19 |website=iling-ran.ru}}</ref>

== Grammar ==

=== Nouns === [[Noun]]s in Setswana are grouped into nine [[noun class]]es and one subclass, each having different [[prefix]]es. The nine classes and their respective prefixes can be seen below, along with a short note regarding the common characteristics of most nouns within their respective classes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cole|1955|pp=68–69}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! Class ! Singular ! Plural ! Characteristics |- ! 1. | mo- | ba- | align="left" | ''Persons'' |- ! 1a. | – | bô- | align="left" | ''Names, kinship, animals'' |- ! 2. | mo- | me- ma- | rowspan="3" align="left" | ''Miscellaneous (including bodyparts, tools, instruments, animals, trees, plants)'' |- ! 3. | le- | ma- |- ! 4. | se- | di- |- ! 5. | n- m- ny- ng- | rowspan="2" | din- dim- diny- ding- | align="left" | ''Animals (but also miscellaneous)'' |- ! 6. | lo- | align="left" | ''Miscellaneous (including a number of collective nouns)'' |- ! 7. | bo- | ma- | align="left" | ''Abstract nouns'' |- ! 8. | colspan="2" | go- | align="left" | ''Infinitive forms of verbs'' |- ! 9. | colspan="2" | fa- go- mo- | align="left" | ''Adverbs'' |}

Some nouns may be found in several classes. For instance, many class 1 nouns are also found in class 1a, class 3, class 4, and class 5.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cole|1955|p=70}}</ref>

== Further reading == {{refbegin}} *{{Cite JIPA|last=Bennett|first=Wm. G.|last2=Diemer|first2=Maxine|last3=Kerford|first3=Justine|last4=Probert|first4=Tracy|last5=Wesi|first5=Tsholofelo|title=Setswana (South African)|volume=46|issue=2|pages=235–246|doi=10.1017/S0025100316000050|printdate=August 2016 |soundfiles=yes}} {{refend}}

== References ==

=== Notes === {{Noteslist}}

=== Citations === {{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography === * {{Citation | last = Cole | first = Desmond | author-link = Desmond Cole | title = An Introduction to Tswana Grammar | year = 1955 | place = Cape Town | publisher = Longmans, Green and Co.}} * {{Citation | last1 = Janson | first1 = Tore | author1-link = Tore Janson | last2 = Tsonope | first2 = Joseph | author2-link = Joseph Tsonope | title = Birth of a National Language: The History of Setswana | year = 1991 | publisher = Heinemann Botswana | isbn = 0-435-91620-3}} * {{Citation | author = University of Botswana | author-link = University of Botswana | title = The Sound System of Setswana | year = 2001 | publisher = Lightbooks | isbn = 99912-71-21-X}}

==External links== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110726230507/http://multimedia.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/audio/languagelessons/botswana/Bw_Setswana_Language_Lessons.pdf Peace Corps Botswana: An Introduction to the Setswana Language] *[http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=ED205044 Setswana: Grammar Handbook. Peace Corps Language Handbook Series] *{{Cite web | title = E-books for children with narration in Setswana | work = Unite for Literacy library | access-date = 2014-06-21 | url = http://www.uniteforliteracy.com/ }} *{{Cite web |title = The languages of South Africa |access-date = 2014-06-21 |url = http://www.southafrica.info/about/people/language.htm |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110304001836/http://www.southafrica.info/about/people/language.htm |archive-date = 4 March 2011 }} *[https://wisc.pb.unizin.org/lctlresources/chapter/about-setswana/ About Setswana] {{Navboxes top}} {{Languages of Botswana}} {{Languages of South Africa}} {{Languages of Zimbabwe}} {{Languages of Namibia}} {{Navboxes bottom}} {{Subject bar|auto=1|Africa|South Africa|Languages|iw=tn|phrasebook=Tswana}} {{Authority control}}

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