{{Short description|Arawakan language spoken in South America}} {{distinguish|Baniwa of Guainia|Ramarama language}} {{Expand Portuguese|Língua baníua|date=October 2020}} {{cleanup lang|date=March 2021|iso=mul}} {{Infobox language | name = Baniwa of Içana | altname = | states = Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil | ethnicity = Baniwa people | speakers = {{sigfig|18,420|2}} | date = 2007–2012 | ref = e25 | familycolor = arawakan | fam1 = Arawakan | fam2 = Northern | fam3 = Upper Amazon | fam4 = Eastern Nawiki | nation = {{flag|Brazil}} (Amazonas<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-21 |title=Amazonas passa a ter 16 línguas indígenas oficiais; saiba quais são |url=https://g1.globo.com/am/amazonas/noticia/2023/07/21/amazonas-passa-a-ter-16-linguas-indigenas-oficiais-saiba-quais-sao.ghtml |access-date=2026-04-18 |website=G1 |language=pt-BR}}</ref>) | dia1 = Carútana-Baniwa | dia2 = Hohôdene (Katapolitana) | dia3 = Siusy-Tapuya (Seuci) | dia4 = Ipeka-Tapuia | dia5 = Curripaco (''Wakuénai'') | dia6 = Unhun (Katapolitana, Enhen) | dia7 = Waliperi | dia8 = Mapanai | dia9 = Moriwene | glotto = bani1255 | glottoname = | map = Baniwa.png | map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg | mapcaption2 = {{center|Baníwa do Içana is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger''.}} | iso3 = bwi | glottorefname = Baniwa do Icana }}
'''Baniwa''' (Baniva), or in older sources ''Itayaine (Iyaine)'', is an Arawakan language spoken in Guainía, Colombia, Venezuela, and Amazonas, Brazil. It forms a subgroup with the Tariana, Piapoco, Resígaro and Guarequena languages.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|chapter = Negation in Tariana: A North Arawak Perspective in the Light of Areal Diffusion|chapter-url = http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004257023_006|date = 2014-01-01|doi = 10.1163/9789004257023_006|first = Alexandra Y.|last = Aikhenvald| title=Negation in Arawak Languages | pages=86–120 | isbn=978-90-04-25701-6 |access-date = 2015-07-17|archive-date = 2015-07-21|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150721013155/http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004257023_006|url-status = live}}</ref> There are 10,000 speakers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|chapter = On Negation in Kurripako Ehe-Khenim|chapter-url = http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004257023_005|date = 2014-01-01|doi = 10.1163/9789004257023_005|first = Tania|last = Granadillo| title=Negation in Arawak Languages | pages=74–85 | isbn=978-90-04-25701-6 |access-date = 2015-07-17|archive-date = 2015-07-21|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150721014707/http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004257023_005|url-status = live}}</ref>
==Varieties== Aikhenvald (1999) considers the three main varieties to be dialects;<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://ribeiro.wdfiles.com/local--files/temp%3A1/The_Amazonian_Languages__Cambridge_Language_Surveys.pdf|title=The Amazonian languages|date=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57021-3|editor-last=Dixon|editor-first=Robert M. W.|series=Cambridge language surveys|location=Cambridge, UK ; New York|editor-last2=Aĭkhenvalʹd|editor-first2=A. I︠U︡}}</ref> Kaufman (1994) considers them to be distinct languages, in a group he calls "Karu".<ref>{{Citation |last=Moseley|first=Christopher|title=Atlas of the world's languages|date=1994|access-date=<!--2026-05-01-->|place=London ; New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-01925-5|last2=Asher|first2=R. E.|last3=Tait|first3=Mary}}</ref> They are: *Baniwa of Içana (''Baniua do Içana'') *Curripaco (Kurripako, Ipeka-Tapuia-Curripako) *Katapolítani-Moriwene-Mapanai (Catapolitani, Kadaupuritana)
Various {{not a typo|(sub)dialects}} of all three are called ''tapuya'', a Brazilian Portuguese and Nheengatu word for non-Tupi/non-Guarani Indigenous peoples of Brazil (from a Tupi word meaning "enemy, barbarian"). All are spoken by the Baniwa people. Ruhlen lists all as "Izaneni"; Greenberg's ''Adzánani'' (= Izaneni) presumably belongs here.
Ramirez (2020) gives the following classification for three separate dialect chains:<ref name="Ramirez-2020-1">{{cite book |last=Ramirez |first=Henri |author-link=Henri Ramirez |date=2020 |title=Enciclopédia das línguas Arawak: acrescida de seis novas línguas e dois bancos de dados |volume=1 |edition=1 |url=https://editoracrv.com.br/produtos/detalhes/35552-enciclopedia-das-linguas-arawakbr-acrescida-de-seis-novas-linguas-e-dois-bancos-de-dados-br-volume-i |location=Curitiba |publisher=Editora CRV |isbn=978-65-5578-895-2 |doi=10.24824/978655578895.2 |access-date=2021-04-08 |archive-date=2021-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202033/https://editoracrv.com.br/produtos/detalhes/35552-enciclopedia-das-linguas-arawakbr-acrescida-de-seis-novas-linguas-e-dois-bancos-de-dados-br-volume-i |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|44}}
*'''Southern''' ('''Karotana'''): lower Içana River, also a group living in Victorino on the Guainia River (Colombia-Venezuela border) **Mapatsi-Dákeenai (Yurupari-Tapuya) **Wadzoli-Dákeenai (Urubu-Tapuya) **Dzawi-Mínanai (Yauareté-Tapuya) **Adaro-Mínanai (Arara-Tapuya) *'''Central''' ('''Baniwa'''): middle Içana River (from Assunção Mission to Siuci-Cachoeira) and its tributaries (Aiari River and lower Cuiari River); also around Tunuí **Hohódeeni **Walipere-Dákeenai (Siucí-Tapuya) **Máolieni (Cáuatapuya) **Mápanai (Ira-Tapuya) **Awádzoronai **Molíweni (Sucuriyú-Tapuya) **Kadáopoliri **etc. *'''Northern''' (called "'''Koripako'''" in Brazil): upper Içana River (from Matapi upwards), Guainia River, headwaters of the Cuiari River. Has individual ISO 639 code. **Ayáneeni (Tatú-Tapuya) **Payoálieni (Pacútapuya) **Komada-Mínanai (Ipéca-Tapuya) **Kapitti-Mínanai (Coatí-Tapuya) **etc.
==Phonology== {| class="wikitable" |+Vowels{{sfnp|de Souza|2012|p=42}} ! !Front !Central !Back |- align="center" !High |{{IPAlink|ɪ}} {{IPAlink|iː}} | |rowspan=2|{{IPAlink|ʊ}} {{IPAlink|oː}} |- align="center" !Mid |{{IPAlink|ɛ}} {{IPAlink|eː}} | |- align="center" !Low | |{{IPAlink|ə}} {{IPAlink|aː}} | |}
When short, the vowels {{IPA|/i e a o/}} are realized as {{IPA|[ɪ ɛ ə ʊ]}}. Vowels are nasalized when adjacent to nasal consonants; nasal {{IPA|/aː/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ɐ̃ː]}}, while the other vowels show little change in their place of articulation when nasalized.
More precisely, stressed vowels are nasalized before simple nasal consonants, and vowels on either side of voiceless nasals are nasalized regardless of whether they are stressed.
Sequences of vowels may reduce to diphthongs and triphthongs, for example {{IPA|['''nwaj'''ˈnidzonɪ]}} for {{IPA|/'''nu-ai'''ˈnidzu-ni/}}.{{sfnp|de Souza|2012|p=168 ''ff''}} The resulting {{IPA|[j]}} behaves differently than the consonant {{IPA|/j/}}.
{| class="wikitable" |+Consonants{{sfnp|de Souza|2012|p=150}} ! colspan="2" | !Bilabial !Dental !Alveolar !Retroflex !Palatal !Velar !Glottal |- align="center" ! colspan="2" |Nasal |{{IPAlink|m}} | |{{IPAlink|n}} | |{{IPAlink|ɲ}} | | |- align="center" ! rowspan="2" |Plosive !<small>voiceless</small> |{{IPAlink|p}} |{{IPAlink|t̪}} |{{IPAlink|t}} | | |{{IPAlink|k}} | |- align="center" !<small>voiced</small> |{{IPAlink|b}} | |{{IPAlink|d}} | | | | |- align="center" ! rowspan="2" |Affricate !<small>voiceless</small> | | |{{IPAlink|ts}}{{Efn|In Baniwa|name=B}} | |{{IPA link|tʃ}}{{Efn|name=K}} | | |- align="center" !<small>voiced</small> | | |{{IPAlink|dz}}{{Efn|name=B}} | | | | |- align="center" ! colspan="2" |Sonorant | {{IPA link|β}}{{Efn|In Kuripako|name=K}} | |{{IPAlink|ɺ}} |{{IPAlink|ʐ}} |{{IPAlink|j}} |{{IPAlink|w}} |{{IPAlink|h}} |} {{Notelist}} * Most sounds are found in both Baniwa and Kuripako. Kuripako apparently has both {{IPA|/β/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}, though possibly the difference is allophonic, where Baniwa has only {{IPA|/w/}} in those words; Baniwa has both {{IPA|/dz/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} where Kuripako has only {{IPA|/j/}}. * {{IPA|[ŋ]}} occurs preceding a velar consonant. * Lateral {{IPA|[ɺ]}} varies with median {{IPA|[ɾ]}}, though the lateral allophones is preferred.{{sfnp|de Souza|2012|p=83}}
;Palatalization :* Palatalization is more productive in Baniwa than in Karipako. In Baniwa, {{IPA|/ts/}} and {{IPA|/dz/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[tʃ]}} and {{IPA|[dʒ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}. In Kuripako, they are pronounced {{IPA|[tʃ]}} and as the approximant {{IPA|[j]}} before all vowels. :* In both dialects, {{IPA|/h/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ç]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}. In Baniwa, when {{IPA|/h/}} occurs after consonantal {{IPA|/j/}} (but not the {{IPA|[j]}} allophone of the vowel {{IPA|/i/}}), the sequence is pronounced {{IPA|[ʃ]}}; this is {{IPA|[ç]}} in Kuripako.{{sfnp|de Souza|2012|p=154 ''ff''}} ;Voiceless nasals :* A sequence {{IPA|/Nh/}} (where '{{IPA|N}}' is a nasal) may be realized as a voiceless nasal, {{IPA|[m̥ n̥ ɲ̥]}}, or as a (glottal) fricative {{IPA|[ɸ h ç]}} with nasalization on adjacent vowels. :* The {{IPA|/h/}} may be in the following syllable, as in {{IPA|[n̥õʷə]}} from {{IPA|/nuha/}} 'I'.{{sfnp|de Souza|2012|p=163, 167}} Other authors have analyzed these sounds differently, and there are similar processes in other Arawakan languages. ;Aspirated consonants :* Similarly, a sequence {{IPA|/Ȼh/}} (where '{{IPA|Ȼ}}' is a plosive or affricate) is aspirated: {{IPA|[pʰ, t̪ʰ, tʰ, kʰ, tsʰ, tʃʰ]}}. The {{IPA|/h/}} may be in the following syllable. ;Other effects of {{IPA|/h/}} :* The other sonorants are similarly devoiced under the influence of {{IPA|/h/}}, for {{IPA|[ɺ̥ ʂ ʃ w̥]}} in Baniwa. :* Kuripako {{IPA|/β/}} becomes {{IPA|[ɸ]}} and {{IPA|/j/}} {{IPA|[ç]}}.
== Grammar == === Alignment system === Baniwa has active–stative alignment.<ref>Aikhenvald, "Arawak", in Dixon & Aikhenvald, eds., ''The Amazonian Languages'', 1999.</ref> This means that the subject of an intransitive clause is sometimes marked in the same way as the agent of a transitive clause, and sometimes marked in the same way as the patient of a transitive clause. In Baniwa alignment is realized through verbal agreement, namely prefixes and enclitics.
Prefixes are used to mark: * Active intransitive subjects (S<sub>a</sub>) * Agents of transitive clauses (A) * Possessors * Arguments of adpositions Enclitics are used to mark: * Stative intransitive subjects (S<sub>o</sub>) * Patients of transitive clauses (O) {| class="wikitable" |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | Prefixes ! colspan="2" | Enclitics |- ! singular || plural ! singular || plural |- ! colspan="2" | 1st person |''nu-'' |''wa-'' |''-hnua'' |''-hwa'' |- ! colspan="2" | 2nd person |''pi-'' |''i-'' |''-phia'' |''-ihia'' |- ! rowspan="2" | 3rd<br>person ! Nonfeminine |''ri-'' | rowspan="2" |''na-'' | rowspan="2" |''-ni/ -hria'' | rowspan="2" |''-hna'' |- ! Feminine |''ʒu-'' |- ! colspan="2" | Impersonal | colspan="2" |''pa-'' | colspan="2" |''-pha'' |}
The differences between active and stative intransitive clauses can be illustrated below: * Transitive: '''''ri-'''kapa'''-ni''''' 'He sees him/it' * Active Intransitive: '''''ri-'''emhani'' 'He walks' * Stative Intransitive: ''hape-ka-'''ni''''' 'He is cold'
=== Noun classification system === Baniwa has an interesting system of noun classification that combines a gender system with a noun classifier system.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Classifiers in Multiple Environments: Baniwa of Içana/Kurripako—A North Arawak Perspective on JSTOR |journal = International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=73 |issue=4 |page=475 |last = Aikhenvald|first = Alexandra|year = 2007 |doi=10.1086/523774 }}</ref> Baniwa has two genders: feminine and nonfeminine. Feminine gender agreement is used to refer to female referents, whilst nonfeminine gender agreement is used for all other referents. The two genders are only distinguished in third person singular. Aihkenvald (2007) considers the bipartite gender system to be inherited from Proto-Arawak.<ref name=":1" />
In addition to gender, Baniwa also has 46 classifiers. Classifiers are used in three main contexts:<ref name=":1" /> * As a derivational suffix on nouns, e.g. {{interlinear|indent=3|tʃipaɾa'''-api'''|metal.object-CL.hollow|'pan'}} * With numerals, e.g. {{interlinear | indent = 3|apa-'''api''' mawapi|one-CL.hollow blowgun+CL.long.thin|'one blow gun' }} * With adjectives, e.g. {{interlinear | indent = 3|tʃipaɾa'''-api''' maka-'''api'''|metal.object-CL.hollow big-CL.hollow|'big pan' }}
Aihkenvald (2007) divides Baniwa classifiers into four different classes. One set of classifiers is used for humans, animate beings and body parts. Another set of classifiers specify the shape, consistency, quantification or specificity of the noun. Two more classes can be distinguished. One is only used with numerals and the other is only used with adjectives.<ref name=":1" />
Classifiers for Humans and animate beings:<ref name=":1" /> {| class="wikitable" !Classifier !Usage !Example |- |''-ita'' |for animate males and body parts |''apa'''-ita''' pedaɾia'' 'one old man' |- |''-hipa'' |for human males only |''ap'''hepa''' nawiki'' 'one man' |- |''-ma'' |for female referents |''apa'''-ma''' inaʒu'' 'one woman' |} Classifiers according to shape, consistency, quantification and specificity:<ref name=":1" /> {| class="wikitable" !Classifier !Usage !Example |- |''-da'' |round objects, natural phenomena and generic classifier |''hipada'' 'stone' |- |''-apa'' |flying animate, semioval objects |''kepiʒeni'' 'bird' |- |''-kwa'' |flat, round, extended objects |''kaida'' 'beach' |- |''-kha'' |curvilinear objects |''a:pi'' 'snake' |- |''-na'' |vertical, standing objects |''haiku'' 'tree' |- |''-Ø'' |hollow, small objects |''a:ta'' 'cup' |- |''-maka'' |stretchable, extended objects |''tsaia'' 'skirt' |- |''-ahna'' |liquids |''u:ni'' 'water' |- |''-ima'' |sides |''ap'''ema''' nu-kapi makemaɾi'' 'one big side of my hand' |- |''-pa'' |boxes, parcels |''apa-'''pa''' itsa maka-paɾi '''one big box of fishing hooks' |- |''-wana'' |thin slice |''apa-'''wana''' kuphe maka-wane'' 'a big thin slice of fish' |- |''-wata'' |bundle for carrying |''apa-'''wata''' paɾana maka-wate'' 'a big bundle of bananas' |- |''-Ø'' |canoes |''i:ta'' 'canoe' |- |''-pawa'' |rivers |''u:ni'' 'river' |- |''-ʃa'' |excrement |''iʃa'' 'excrement' |- |''-ya'' |skins |''dzawiya'' 'jaguar skin' |}
=== Negation === There are two main strategies for negation in the Kurripako-Baniwa varieties:<ref name=":2" /> * Independent negative markers * The privative derivational prefix ''ma-'' Different varieties have different negative markers. This is so prominent that speakers identify Kurripako dialects according to the words for 'yes' and 'no'.<ref name=":2" /> {| class="wikitable" !Dialect !Spoken in !Yes !No |- |Aha-Khuri |Colombia, Venezuela & Brazil |''Aha'' |''Khuri'' |- |Ehe-Khenim |Venezuela |''Ehe'' |''Khenim'' |- |Oho-Karo |Colombia & Brazil |''Oho'' |''Karo'' |- |Oho-Ñame |Colombia & Brazil |''Oho'' |''Ñame'' |} The independent negative markers come before the verb. They are used as clausal negators in declarative and interrogative sentences. They are also used to link clauses.<ref name=":2" />
The privative suffix is attached to nouns to derive a verb which means 'lacking' the noun from which it was derived. The opposite of the privative prefix is the attributive prefix ''ka-''. This derives a verb which means 'having' the noun from which it was derived.<ref name=":2" /> The difference can be illustrated below: * Noun: ''iipe'' 'meat' * Privative: '''''ma-'''iipe > meepe'' 'be thin' (lit. lack meat) * Attributive: '''''ka-'''iipe > keepe'' 'be fat' (lit. have meat) The prefix is used in combination with the restrictive suffix ''-tsa'' to form negative imperatives, e.g. '''''ma-'''ihnia'''-tsa''''' 'don't eat!'. A privative prefix is also reconstructed in Proto-Arawak privative as ''*ma-.''<ref>{{Cite book|title = Negation in Arawak Languages » Brill Online|url = http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/9789004257023|date = 2014-01-01|doi = 10.1163/9789004257023|first1 = Lev|last1 = Michael|first2 = Tania|last2 = Granadillo|first3 = Lev Michael{{!}}Tania|last3 = Granadillo| isbn=978-90-04-25701-6 | editor-first1=Lev | editor-first2=Tania | editor-last1=Michael | editor-last2=Granadillo |access-date = 2015-07-17|archive-date = 2015-07-21|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150721013159/http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/9789004257023|url-status = live}}</ref>
=== Word order === Granadillo (2014) considers Kurripako a VOS language.<ref name=":2" />
==Further reading== *Gonçalves, Artur Garcia. 2018. ''Para uma dialetologia baniwa-koripako do rio Içana''. M.A. dissertation, Universidade de Brasília.
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Bibliography== {{refbegin}} {{Cite thesis |last=de Souza |first=Erick Marcelo Lima |title=Estudo Fonológico da Língua Baniwa-Kuripako |date=2012 |degree=Master's |publisher=University of Campinas |url=http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Asouza-2012-baniwa/souza_2012_baniwa.pdf |language=Brazilian Portuguese |trans-title=Phonological Analysis of the Baniwa-Kuripako language |access-date=2017-06-24 |archive-date=2016-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311103023/http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Asouza-2012-baniwa/souza_2012_baniwa.pdf |url-status=live }} {{refend}}
== External links == {{Incubator|code=bwi}} *[https://www.native-languages.org/baniva.htm Baniva del Guainia Language] *[https://ailla.utexas.org/islandora/object/ailla:263497 Baniwa of the Aiary and Içana Collection of Robin M. Wright] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724014859/https://ailla.utexas.org/islandora/object/ailla%3A263497 |date=2021-07-24 }} at the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America. *[https://ailla.utexas.org/islandora/object/ailla:124457 Curripaco Collection of Jonathan Hill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725093543/https://ailla.utexas.org/islandora/object/ailla%3A124457 |date=2021-07-25 }} at the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America. *[https://japiim.linguasyanomami.com/ Portal Japiim] (online dictionary)
{{Arawakan languages}}{{Languages of Colombia}}{{Languages of Venezuela}}{{Languages of Brazil}} Category:Arawakan languages Category:Languages of Venezuela Category:Languages of Colombia Category:Languages of Brazil Category:Verb–object–subject languages Category:Indigenous languages of Northern Amazonia Category:Vulnerable languages Category:Endangered Arawakan languages