{{Short description|Cariban language spoken in Guyana and Venezuela}} {{cleanup lang|date=October 2024}} {{Infobox language | name = Kapóng | nativename = | states = Guyana, Venezuela | ethnicity = Akawaio, Patamona | speakers = 10,000 | date = 1990–2002 | ref = e18 | familycolor = cariban | fam1 = Cariban | fam2 = Venezuelan Carib | fam3 = Pemóng–Panare | fam4 = Pemóng | lc1 = ake | ld1 = Akawaio | lc2 = pbc | ld2 = Patamona | glotto = kapo1251 | glottorefname = Akawaio-Ingariko | map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg | mapcaption2 = {{center|Akawaio in Brazil and Patamona are classified as Vulnerable and Akawaio in Guyana and Venezuela is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger''.}} }}
'''Kapóng''' is a Cariban language spoken mainly in Guyana, most commonly in the region of the Upper Mazaruni. Though many speakers do not live in villages, there are a number of population centers, notably Kamarang, Jawalla, Waramadong, and Kako. There are two dialects, '''Akawaio''' and '''Patamona'''.
The Macushi name of the language is ''Ingarikó''.
== History == The Carib tribes practice an Indigenous system of beliefs, one that dates back to the 16th century. It was not until the 19th century that attempts were made to understand the beliefs and practices of this tribe. Much of the Kapóng language refers back to sun worship and sun spirits, which is reflective of the beliefs system of these Carib-speaking tribes. Literature has also found belief in a higher being in the sky among the Carib tribes in Guyana.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Butt |first=Audrey J. |title="THE BURNING FOUNTAIN WHENCE IT CAME": (A study of the system of beliefs of the Carib-speaking Akawaio of British Guiana.) |publisher=Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies |year=1953 |location=University of the West Indies |pages=114–115}}</ref>
==Geographic distribution== The Kapóng language is found to be spoken in lowland tropical South America, particularly in the countries of Guyana, Brazil, and Venezuela.
In Guyana, Kapóng is spoken in forests by the Mazaruni River Basin. In 2013, a survey by the Inter-American Development Bank identified 20% fluency among Akawaio, which was the highest fluency rate among all sampled Indigenous groups in Guyana. However, no Indigenous language was in use by the Guyanese Patamona people in the survey.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Bollers|first1=Elton|last2=Clarke|first2=Dillon|last3=Johnny|first3=Teniesha|last4=Wenner|first4=Mark|date=February 2019|title=Guyana's Indigenous Peoples 2013 Survey|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/be93/5a07fcacc3ae173287c98d4679be7fe2d18d.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220005802/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/be93/5a07fcacc3ae173287c98d4679be7fe2d18d.pdf|archive-date=2020-02-20|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-03|publisher=Inter-American Development Bank|page=67|doi=10.18235/0001591|s2cid=134838441}}</ref>
The number of speakers in Brazil is about 10,000, and the transmission of language in Brazil is deemed to be of good standing.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Language Diversity Endangered|last=Brenzinger|first=Matthias|publisher=Walter de Gruyte|year=2015|isbn=978-3-11-090569-4|pages=38}}</ref> Speakers in Brazil are found in the Roraima Indigenous Terra Raposa.
In Venezuela, Kapóng is spoken in the states of Bolivar and Monagas.
==Dialects/Varieties== Kapóng has three dialects, which are:<ref>{{Cite book|title=American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America|last=Cambell|first=Lyle|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-3110170504|pages=203}}</ref> * Akawaio (Akawayo) * Ingarikó (Ingaricó) * Patamona
== Phonology ==
=== Consonants === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! colspan="2" | !Bilabial !Alveolar !Palatal !Velar |- ! rowspan="2" |Plosive !{{Small|voiceless}} |{{IPA link|p}} |{{IPA link|t}} | |{{IPA link|k}} |- !{{Small|voiced}} |{{IPA link|b}} |{{IPA link|d}} | |{{IPA link|g}} |- ! rowspan="2" |Fricative !{{Small|voiceless}} | |{{IPA link|s}} | | |- !{{Small|voiced}} | |{{IPA link|z}} | | |- ! colspan="2" |Nasal |{{IPA link|m}} |{{IPA link|n}} | | |- ! colspan="2" |Flap | |{{IPA link|ɾ}} | | |- ! colspan="2" |Semivowel | | |{{IPA link|j}} |{{IPA link|w}} |} The allophones of {{IPA|/k s n/}} are {{IPA|[ʔ tʃ ŋ]}}, as well as the allophones of {{IPA|/z/}} being {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ dʒ]}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Edwards |first=Walter F. |title=Some synchronic and diachronic aspects of Akawaio phonology |year=1978 |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=77–84 |jstor=30027529}}</ref>
=== Vowels === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! !Front !Central !Back |- !Close |{{IPA link|i}} |{{IPA link|ɨ}} |{{IPA link|u}} |- !Close-mid |{{IPA link|e}} |{{IPA link|ʌ}} |{{IPA link|o}} |- !Open | |{{IPA link|a}} | |}
== Orthography == === Vowels and diphthongs === * a - [a] * e - [ɛ/e] * i - [i] * ï - [ɨ] * o - [o/ɔ] * ö - [ʌ] * u - [u] * ai - [aj] * au - [aw] * ei - [ej] * oi - [ɔj]
=== Consonants === * b - [b] * ch - [t͡ʃ] * d - [d] * g - [g] * j - [d͡ʒ] ~ [ʒ] * k - [k] * m - [m] * n - [n] * ñ - [ɲ] * ng - [ŋ] * p - [p] * r - [ɺ] * s - [s] * sh - [ʃ] * t - [t] * w - [w] * y - [j] * z - [z] * ' - [ʔ]<ref>Gildea, Spike and Caesar-Fox, Desrey (2006) “[https://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~spike/Site/Presentations_files/Clause%20linking%20in%20Akawaio.pdf Clause linking in Akawaio (Cariban)]”</ref><ref>Caesar-Fox, Desrey (2003) ''[https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/18513 Zauro'nödok Agawayo Yau: variants of Akawaio spoken at Waramadong]''.</ref>
==Morphology== ''yamok'' (aemvk){{clarification needed|date=October 2024}} is an ending used to make words plural. (i.e.) Adding ''yamok'' to "Kapong" makes "Kapong" plural; ''Kapong yamok''.<ref name=":0" />
-''da'' is a marker used to mark possession. (i.e.) ''kaata'' = book; ''da kaata'' = <u>my</u> book.<ref name=":0" />
The preferred word order of Kapóng is subject-object-verb, for example:<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Edwards |first=Walter F. |date=September 1979 |title=A Comparison of Selected Linguistic Features in Some Cariban and Arawakan Languages in Guyana |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=277–297 |jstor=30027731}}</ref>
{{interlinear|indent=3 |Walawokyamàkuya molok yachi |boys-PL fish catch |"The boys catch fish"}}
However, the word order is flexible and there are cases where the object precedes the subject in sentences. Such as:<ref name=":1" />
{{interlinear|indent=3 |Kanau ikuurabök mang |boat {he paddling} is |"He is paddling the boat"}}
There are no gender distinctions found in Kapóng, as there are no differences in personal pronoun systems and affixes to indicate genders of nouns.
Similes are often used in writing, as many words in this language allow this to occur. Through the use of suffixes, many words can be converted into similes. Examples are as follows:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Butt |first=Audrey J. |date=1961 |title=Symbolism and ritual among the Akawaio of British Guiana |journal=Nieuwe West-Indische Gids / New West Indian Guide |volume=41 |pages=141–161 |doi=10.1163/22134360-90002345 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * ''-kasa'' = 'like' * ''-walai'' = 'similar to'
== Vocabulary == Much of the Kapóng language has emphasis on a higher spirit/god up in the sky, and this is reflected in the vocabulary in this language.<ref name=":0" />
* ''Kapóng'' = Sky People * ''akwalo'' = the spirit * ''akwa'' = God's place * ''Waica'' = warrior * ''Taemogoli'' = grandfather * ''Kapo'' = in the sky * ''Iopotari akuru'' = chief spirit
== References == {{Reflist}}
== External links == * http://www.language-museum.com/encyclopedia/a/akawaio.php * http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/668/guide * http://www.native-languages.org/akawaio.htm
{{Languages of Guyana}} {{Languages of Venezuela}} {{Cariban languages}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kapong language}} Category:Languages of Guyana Category:Languages of Venezuela Category:Cariban languages Category:Patamona Category:Akawaio Category:Languages of Brazil Category:Vulnerable languages Category:Definitely endangered languages Category:Endangered languages of South America Category:Endangered Indigenous languages of the Americas