{{Short description|Endangered South American Indigenous language}} {{About|the language of South America|the language of the "Island Caribs" in the Caribbean|Kalinago language}} {{Infobox language | name = Kalina | altname = Galibi | nativename = {{lang|car|Kari{{hamza}}na auran}}<br/>Venezuela: {{lang|car-VE|Kari{{hamza}}ña auran}}<br/>French Guiana: {{lang|car-GF|Kali{{hamza}}na aulan}}<br/>Suriname: {{lang|car-SR|Kari{{hamza}}nja auran}}<br/>Guyana: {{lang|car-GY|Kalina aulan}}<br/>Brazil: {{lang|car-BR|Kari{{hamza}}na auran}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|[kaɽiʔnʲauɽaŋ]}} | states = Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, and Trinidad | coordinates = {{Coord|5|42|32.499|N|54|0|55.313|W}} | ethnicity = Kali{{hamza}}na | speakers = {{sigfig|8,558|2}} | date = 2001–2012 | ref = e25 | familycolor = cariban | fam1 = Cariban | fam2 = Guianan Carib | dia1 = Tyrewuju (Suriname) | dia2 = Aretyry (Suriname) | script = Latin script | iso2 = car | iso3 = car | glotto = gali1262 | glottorefname = Galibi Carib | map = Image:Kalina.png | mapcaption = Ethnic Kali{{hamza}}na populations | map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg | mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Kari{{hamza}}ña is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger''}}}} }}
'''Kalina''', also known as '''Kari{{hamza}}na''', '''Carib''', and '''Galibi''', is a Cariban language spoken by the Kalina people (Caribs) of South America. It is spoken by around 7,400 mostly in Brazil, The Guianas, and Venezuela. The language is currently classified as highly endangered,<ref name=":0" /> as it is only spoken by elders.<ref>{{Citation |last=Crevels |first=Mily |title=Language endangerment in South America: The clock is ticking |date=2012-01-13 |work=The Indigenous Languages of South America |pages=167–234 |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Lyle |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110258035.167/html |access-date=2025-03-14 |publisher=De Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783110258035.167 |isbn=978-3-11-025513-3 |editor2-last=Grondona |editor2-first=Verónica|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
==Names== {{see also|Kalina people#Name}} The language is known by several names to both its speakers and outsiders. Traditionally it has been known as "Carib" or "Carib proper" in English, after its speakers, being given the exonym "Caribs". The term '''Galibi''', which originated as a pronunciation of ''Caribe'', is also frequently used; for example Glottolog uses the name "Galibi Carib" for the Carib language, plus "Galibi-Marworno Creole French" for the variety of Karipúna Creole French as used by the Galibi Marworno, and "Galibi-based pidgin" for the family consisting of Joeka–Oajana pidgin and the extinct Pidgin Carib. The people are known as {{lang|pt|Galibí}}, {{lang|pt|Kalihna}} or {{lang|pt|Caribe}} in Portuguese, {{lang|es|Caribe}} in Spanish, {{lang|fr|Galina}} in French, and {{lang|nl|Karaïeb}} in Dutch. However, the speakers call themselves {{lang|car|Kalina}} or {{wktl|car|karìna|Karìna}} (variously spelled), and call their language {{wktl|car|karìna auran|Karìna auran}} {{ipa|[kaɽiɁnʲauɽaŋ]}}.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last= Courtz |first= Henk |date= 2008 |title=A Carib Grammar and Dictionary |url= https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/12578/Thesis.pdf?sequence=1 |publisher= Magoria Books |page= 1|isbn= 978-0978170769 |access-date= May 22, 2014}}</ref> Spelling variants include {{lang|car|Kaliʼna}}, {{lang|car|Kariʼnja}}, {{lang|car|Cariña}}, {{lang|car|Kariña}}, {{lang|car|Kalihna}}, {{lang|car|Kalinya}}; other native names include {{lang|car|Maraworno}} and {{lang|car|Marworno}}.
== Classification == Kariʼnja is classified as a Cariban language, in the Guianan Carib branch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2114|title=Did you know Kariʼnja is threatened?|website=Endangered Languages|access-date=2016-05-02|archive-date=2020-11-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126233817/http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2114|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kariʼnja is considered "Carib proper" because it exemplifies the core genetic features of the family, such as its complex pronominal prefix system and ergative-absolutive alignment.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Speech community-based documentation, description, and revitalization: Kari'nja in Konomerume|url=https://hdl.handle.net/1794/11304|publisher=University of Oregon|date=September 2010|language=en-US|first=Racquel-Maria|last=Yamada}}</ref>
== Geographic distribution == {{Infobox language | name = Pidgin Carib | altname = {{lang|mis|Lengua generale}} | pronunciation = | region = Oyapock | ref = | era = 17th – early 20th centuries | speakers = none | familycolor = pidgin | family = Carib-based pidgin | iso3 = none | glotto2 = pidg1256 | glottorefname2 = Pidgin Carib }}
Due to contact with Kariʼnja invaders, some languages have Kariʼnja words incorporated into them, despite being Arawakan languages linguistically.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/4452/1/05gildeaetal.pdf |title=Fieldwork and Linguistic Analysis in Indigenous Languages of the Americas |last=Gildea |first=Spike |date=2010 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |editor-last=Berez |editor-first=Andrea L. |location=Honolulu |pages=91–123 |chapter=The Story of *ô in the Cariban Family |editor-last2=Mulder |editor-first2=Jean |editor-last3=Rosenblum |editor-first3=Daisy}}</ref> A Carib-based ''lengua generale'' was once used in the old missions of the Oyapock and surrounding regions, apparently surviving at least along the Uaçá tributary into the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Die Palikur-Indianer und ihre Nachbarn |last=Nimuendajú |first=Curt |publisher=Elanders Boktryckeri Aktiebolag |year=1926 |location=Göteborg |url=http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/biblio%3Animuendaju-1926-palikur/nimuendaju_1926_palikur.pdf}}</ref>
In Suriname, there is a village called Konomerume which is located near the Wajambo River. With about 349 people living there, a majority identify as ethnically Kariʼnja and the adults are reported to at least have a decent knowledge of it. Those above the age of 65 use the language as a primary language among the members of the community. Speakers between the ages of 45 and 65 tend to use the language only when speaking with older residents or elder members of their family, while for the most part using the official languages: Dutch and Sranan Tongo. Younger adults between the ages of 20 and 40 for the most part understand the language but do not speak it, and children learn bits about Kariʼnja in school.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yamada |first=Racquel-María |date=2014 |title=Training in the Community-Collaborative Context: A Case Study |url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/24611/1/yamada.pdf |journal=Language Documentation & Conservation |volume=8 |pages=326–344}}</ref>
==Dialects== Carib dialects (with number of speakers indicated in parentheses):<ref name=":2" /> *Venezuelan Carib (1000) *Guyanese Carib (2000) *Western Surinamese Carib (500) *Eastern Surinamese and French Guianese Carib (3000) **Suriname has two dialects of Kariʼnja: ''Aretyry'' which is spoken in the west and central parts of the country, and ''Tyrewuju'' which is what the majority of Kariʼnja speakers in Suriname use.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E3WjBQAAQBAJ |title=In and Out of Suriname: Language, Mobility and Identity |last1=Carlin |first1=Eithne B. |last2=Léglise |first2=Isabelle |last3=Migge |first3=Bettina |last4=Tjon Sie Fat |first4=Paul B. |date=2014 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004280120 |language=en}}</ref>
==Phonology== In the Kariʼnja language, there are four syllable patterns: V, CV, VC, CVC; C standing for consonants while V means a vowel. Regarding phonemes, consonants are divided into two groups: obstruents (voiceless stops—p, t, k) and resonants (voiced stops—b, d, g, s).<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |url=http://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/85/19/13/85191306364792724967627267385868167068/11889.pdf |title=Languages of the Guianas |date=1972 |publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma |editor-last=Grimes |editor-first=Joseph E.}}</ref>
Kariʼnja has a typical six-vowel system after *ô merged with *o, being ''a e i o u ï.'' Compared to past Kariʼnja, modern-day Kariʼnja has replaced the ''e'' in many words with ''o''.<ref name=":1" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Consonants ! colspan="2" | !Bilabial !Dental !Alveolar !Palatal !Velar !Glottal |- ! colspan="2" |Nasal |{{IPA link|m}} |{{IPA link|n}} | | | | |- ! rowspan="2" |Plosive !<small>voiceless</small> |{{IPA link|p}} |{{IPA link|t}} | | |{{IPA link|k}} | rowspan="3" |{{IPA link|ʔ}} ~ {{IPA link|h}} |- !<small>voiced</small> |{{IPA link|b}} |{{IPA link|d}} | | |{{IPA link|ɡ}} |- ! colspan="2" |Fricative | | |{{IPA link|s}} | | |- ! colspan="2" |Tap/Flap | | |{{IPA link|ɾ}} | | | |- ! colspan="2" |Semivowel |{{IPA link|w}} | | |{{IPA link|j}} | | |}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Vowels ! !Front !Central !Back |- !Close |{{IPA link|i}} |{{IPA link|ɨ}} |{{IPA link|u}} |- !Mid |{{IPA link|e}} | |{{IPA link|o}} |- !Open | |{{IPA link|a}} | |} Allophones for {{ipa|/r w t/}} include sounds as {{ipa|[ɽ β,v tʃ]}}. {{ipa|/s/}} before {{ipa|/i/}} may be pronounced as {{ipa|[ʃ]}}. {{ipa|/n/}} before a consonant may be pronounced as {{ipa|[ŋ]}} and also {{ipa|[ɲ]}} elsewhere. Another sound, ranging {{ipa|[h~x]}}, often occurs before a voiced or voiceless consonant, and succeeding a vowel, it can also be an allophone of {{ipa|/ʔ/}}.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
== Alphabet == The Carib alphabet consists of 18 letters:
a, b, d, e, g, i, j, k, {{hamza}}, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, w, y.
''B, d, g'' are found after nasals for phonemic /p t k/.<ref name=":2" />
== Grammar == There are 17 particles within Kariʼnja which include the ''ky-'' prefix and the ''-ng'' suffix.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yamada |first=Racquel-María |date=2011 |title=A New Approach to ky- and -ng in Kariʼnja: Evidentiality or Something Else? |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=59–89 |doi=10.1086/657328|s2cid=147144967 }}</ref> {{stub section|date=September 2019}}
== Vocabulary == All four dialects of Kari{{hamza}}nja have loan words from the primary language of the area (Brazil, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana). For example, the Kari{{hamza}}nja spoken in Suriname borrows words from Dutch and Sranantongo.<ref name=":0" />
=== Examples === {| class="wikitable" !English !Modern Kari{{hamza}}nja |- |{{gloss|two}} |{{ipa|[oko]|lang=car}} |- |{{gloss|stone}} |{{ipa|[topu]|lang=car}} |- |{{gloss|flea}} |{{ipa|[siko]|lang=car}} |- |{{gloss|mountain}} |{{ipa|[wipi]|lang=car}} |- |{{gloss|axe}} |{{ipa|[wïwï]|lang=car}} |- |{{gloss|person}} |{{ipa|[itoto]|lang=car}} |- |{{gloss|one that has been dug}} |{{ipa|[Ø-atoka-apo]|lang=car}} |- |{{gloss|one that has burnt}} |{{ipa|[i-tjoroty-ypo]|lang=car}} |- |{{gloss|peccary/javelina}} |{{ipa|[pakira]|lang=car}} |}
Some of the words show instances in which the ''e'' has been replaced with ''o'' in present-day Kariʼnja.<ref name=":1" /> The two statements beneath the singular words show examples of two suffixes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://voice-systems-workshop.wdfiles.com/local--files/start/Voice%20Systems%20in%20Diachrony-abstracts-29-06-2014.pdf|title=Patient Nominalization > Passive in Panare and Ye'kwana (Cariban)|website=voice-systems-workshop.wdfiles.com|access-date=2016-05-04}}</ref>
==References== {{Reflist}}
==External links== {{Portal|Caribbean|Indigenous peoples of the Americas}} {{incubator|car}} *[http://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/38 Ka'lina (Carib) Vocabulary List] (from the World Loanword Database) *[https://suriname-languages.sil.org/Carib/English/CaribEngDictIndex.html Surinamese Carib - English Online Dictionary] *[https://archive.mpi.nl/tla/islandora/search/hoff?type=dismax&islandora_solr_search_navigation=0&f%5B0%5D=cmd.Language%3A%22Carib%2C%5C%20Karinya%22 Audio resources from the MPI-PL archive for linguistic resources, which origin from data collected by dr. Berend Hoff in the period 1955-1965] * [http://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-kalina/en/car/ How to count in Kali’na] * A video of someone speaking Kariʼnja is also available [http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2114/samples/4441 here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126233817/http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2114 |date=2020-11-26 }}. * [http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2114 Endangered Languages Kariʼnja profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126233817/http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2114 |date=2020-11-26 }} * [http://pages.uoregon.edu/spike/Site/Publications_files/Gildea%20in%20press%20ms%20(nzn%20to%20main%20clause).pdf Kariʼnja main clauses vs nominalized phrases] * [http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/4486 Formal Teaching of Kariʼnja] * [http://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/85/19/13/85191306364792724967627267385868167068/11889.pdf Carib Phonology] * {{JSTOR|1264257}} The Carib Language * ELAR archive of [http://elar.soas.ac.uk/deposit/0261 Kariʼnja Dictionary and Video Documentation] * [https://ids.clld.org/contributions/174 De'kwana] (Intercontinental Dictionary Series) * [https://japiim.linguasyanomami.com/ Portal Japiim] (online dictionary)
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Category:Articles in class projects/Rutgers + Category:Indigenous languages of the South American Northeast Category:Languages of French Guiana Category:Languages of Guyana Category:Languages of Suriname Category:Languages of Venezuela Category:Languages of Brazil Category:Languages of Trinidad and Tobago Category:Languages of Grenada Category:Indigenous languages of the Caribbean Category:Kalina