Kalamu

{{Infobox settlement | name = Kalamu | official_name = ''Commune de Kalamu'' | type = Commune | image_skyline = {{multiple image | border = infobox | total_width = 280 | perrow = 2/2 | caption_align = center | image1 = | caption1 = Monument of congolese singer Papa Wemba | image2 = Universite kimbanguiste Kalamu.jpg | caption2 = Université Simon Kimbangu }} | imagesize = | image_caption = | image_map = | map_caption = | image_map1 = | map_caption1 = | mapsize1 = 270 | mapframe = yes | mapframe-custom = {{maplink | frame = yes | plain = yes | frame-align = center | frame-width = 270 | frame-height = 250 | frame-coordinates = SWITCH:{{Coord|-4.37419|15.30523}}###{{Coord|-4.3494|15.3163}}###{{Coord|-4.4806|15.8313}} | zoom = SWITCH:11,13,8 | type = shape-inverse | fill = #AAAAAA | stroke-width = 1 | stroke-color = #777777 | id = Q3838 | title = Shaded areas are outside Kinshasa city-province. | type2 = line | stroke-width2 = SWITCH:4,5,2 | id2 = Q3085745 | title2 = Kalamu Border | switch = city center, street map, city-province }} | mapframe-caption = Kalamu on map of Kinshasa city-province | pushpin_map = Democratic Republic of the Congo | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in DR Congo | coordinates = {{coord|04|20|51|S|15|19|12|E|type:city_region:CD|display=inline,title}} | coordinates_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web | url = https://maps.google.com/maps/place?ftid=0x1a6a372ad270f377:0x74a10295e96aa17e | title = Kalamu, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo | publisher = Google Maps | accessdate = 20 August 2011 }}</ref> | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|DR Congo}} | subdivision_type1 = City-Province | subdivision_name1 = Kinshasa | leader_title = Burgomaster | leader_name = Charly Luboya Makopo | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = 6.64 | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_m = | population_footnotes = | population_as_of = 2020 est. | population_total = 208155 | population_density_km2 = auto }}

'''Kalamu''' is a commune in the Funa District of Kinshasa, located in the western region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.kinshasa.cd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=300 | title = ''Géographie de Kinshasa'' (Geography of Kinshasa) | publisher = Ville de Kinshasa (City of Kinshasa) | language = French | accessdate = 20 August 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120723091147/http://www.kinshasa.cd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=300 | archive-date = 23 July 2012 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Covering an area of 6.64 square kilometers, Kalamu lies in the central part of the city-province of Kinshasa. It is bordered by the Kinshasa commune to the north, Makala to the south, and Limete to the east, with Avenue de l'Université marking the boundary.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Ebengo |first=Christian |date=2020 |title=Croissance urbaine et dégradation de l'environnement dans la commune de Kalamu à Kinshasa |trans-title=Urban growth and environmental degradation in the commune of Kalamu in Kinshasa |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/06/24/14556/m_Croissance-urbaine-et-degradation-de-lenvironnement-dans-la-commune-de-Kalamu--Kinshasa3.html |access-date=29 October 2024 |publisher=University of Kinshasa |language=fr |publication-place=Lemba, Kinshasa}}</ref> As of 2015, Kalamu had an estimated population of 974,669,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Kinyamba |first1=S. Shomba |last2=Nsenda |first2=F. Mukoka |last3=Nonga |first3=D. Olela |last4=Kaminar |first4=T.M. |last5=Mbalanda |first5=W. |date=2015 |title=Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa |url=https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf |access-date=2023-12-13 |publisher=IDRC.CRDI |page=40 |language=French |publication-place=Ottawa, Canada}}</ref> while a 2020 estimate noted a decrease to 208,155.<ref name=":0" />

The commune is known for its significant cultural and social landmarks, including the popular Matonge neighborhood and the Victoire roundabout, which serve as the commune's bustling business center.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 December 2023 |title=Kinshasa: le rond-point Victoire, un endroit prisé par les cireurs |trans-title=Kinshasa: Victoire roundabout, a popular place for shoe shiners |url=https://acp.cd/societe/kinshasa-le-rond-point-victoire-un-endroit-prise-par-les-cireurs/ |access-date=29 October 2024 |website=ACP |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Kalamu is also home to Stade Tata Raphaël, the country's largest stadium and Africa's fourth-largest stadium, as well as a statue commemorating Congolese musician Franco Luambo.

== History == The origins of Kalamu commune trace back to a 1950 urban plan by architect and urbanist Noël Van Malleghem, who was commissioned by Belgian authorities in 1947 to assist in the urban development of the Belgian Congo.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Kyana |first=Joël |date=2010 |title=Les constructions anarchiques dans les quartiers Kimbangu I et Yolo-Nord III le long de la rivière Kalamu:étude d'impact environnemental et social |trans-title=Anarchic constructions in the Kimbangu I and Yolo-Nord III districts along the Kalamu River: environmental and social impact study |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/03/12/5551/m_Les-constructions-anarchiques-dans-les-quartiers-Kimbangu-I-et-Yolo-Nord-III-le-long-de-la-riviere10.html |access-date=29 October 2024 |publisher=Institut du Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJvyEAAAQBAJ&dq=No%C3%ABl%C2%A0Van+Malleghem&pg=PA101 |title=The Global Life of Mines: Mining and Post-Mining in Comparative Perspective |date=1 July 2024 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-80539-593-5 |editor-last=Pusceddu |editor-first=Antonio Maria |location=New York, New York, United States |pages=101 |language=en |editor-last2=Zerilli |editor-first2=Filippo M.}}</ref> Following Van Malleghem's plan, Kalamu was established as an administrative division of Kinshasa by Order No. 21–42 on 12 October 1957.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Mangenda |first1=Holy Holenu |last2=Tshibuabua |first2=Faustin Mutayiya |last3=Bokako |first3=Christian Ebengo |last4=Dihoka |first4=Fabien |last5=K. |first5=Dan |date=5 July 2023 |title=Urban growth and environmental degradation in the municipality of Kalamu, Kinshasa |url=https://hal.science/hal-04151946/document |access-date=29 October 2024 |website=HAL |page=3 |language=fr |publication-place=Lyon, France}}</ref> The initiative aimed to alleviate congestion in the city center by expanding urban space to the southeast and creating satellite and indigenous cities.<ref name=":0" /> In alignment with this vision, Kalamu was developed alongside other communes, including Kasa-Vubu, Bandalungwa, Lemba, Matete, Limete, and Ngiri-Ngiri, as part of a broader effort to decentralize and manage the city's growing population.<ref name=":0" />

== Geography ==

=== Geological composition === Kalamu's geological composition is divided into two main layers: the surface formations and the basement substratum.<ref name=":0" /> The surface terrains, which formed after the Paleozoic era, consist primarily of:<ref name=":0" />

* Soft sandstones from the Mesozoic era * Polymorphic sandstones, dating back to the Mesozoic period * Quaternary silts and clays

The subterranean layer beneath Kalamu consists of feldspathic sandstone and the Inkisi series, formations dating back to the Precambrian era.<ref name=":0" /> Certain areas of the basement layer are overlaid by polymorphic sandstone. The predominant soil structure in Kalamu consists of fine and medium sand.<ref name=":0" />

=== Topography === Topographically, Kalamu sits partly within a valley, with a relatively flat relief and an altitude of approximately 280 meters.<ref name=":0" /> This flat terrain has significant implications for water retention and drainage. Due to its low gradient, rainwater infiltration often lags behind the pace of rainfall, resulting in water accumulation.<ref name=":0" />

=== Vegetation and hydrology === Historically, Kalamu was a savannah, but urban development has replaced much of its native vegetation with planted trees, commonly found within residential properties.<ref name=":0" />

The Funa River, often referred to locally as Kalamu (a term meaning "watercourse" in the Teke-Humbu dialect of the region's indigenous population), is the primary waterway in the commune.<ref name=":0" /> However, the river's capacity and surrounding drainage infrastructure are challenged by the region's frequent flooding issues, which impact both the Funa River and its surrounding areas.<ref name=":0" />

=== Climate === The climate in Kalamu, like the rest of Kinshasa, is classified as AW4 under the Köppen climate classification.<ref name=":0" /> The rainy season spans from approximately 22 September to 27 May, with a brief dry period in February. The longer dry season extends from 28 May to 21 September, lasting 117 days, or nearly four months.<ref name=":0" />

Kalamu experiences weak, southwesterly surface winds, with rainfall recorded over 100 days annually across Kinshasa.<ref name=":0" /> The average annual rainfall is 203.3&nbsp;mm, with April and November standing out as the wettest months. During these periods, intense downpours often lead to natural disasters in the area.<ref name=":0" /> In contrast, a marked decrease in precipitation is observed from June to August, with monthly averages of 4&nbsp;mm in June, 3&nbsp;mm in July, and 15&nbsp;mm in August.<ref name=":0" /> The dry season also brings the coolest temperatures, with July typically reaching lows around 17.7&nbsp;°C.<ref name=":0" /> In contrast, March is the hottest month, with temperatures peaking at 32.6&nbsp;°C.<ref name=":0" /> Throughout the year, temperatures vary from an average of 22.5&nbsp;°C in July to 26.1&nbsp;°C in March, resulting in an annual range of 3.6&nbsp;°C. Relative humidity levels fluctuate between 71% and 82%.<ref name=":0" />

=== Administrative division === Kalamu's governance framework is defined by Ordinance-Laws No. 82-006 and 82-008, issued on 25 February 1982, which delineate the political and administrative organization of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, organizing Kinshasa into communes, neighborhoods, and avenues.<ref name=":1" /> Kalamu is subdivided into 18 neighborhoods, further partitioned into avenues. These neighborhoods operate as administrative units without autonomous legal standing.<ref name=":0" /> {| class="wikitable" !No. !Neighborhoods !Land area !Population (2020) |- |'''1.''' |Matonge I |441,331 |10,570 |- |'''2.''' |Matonge II |381,327 |14,345 |- |'''3.''' |Matonge III |401,909 |7.284 |- |'''4.''' |Immo Congo |576,103 |4.702 |- |'''5.''' |Kauka I |452,232 |16,802 |- |'''6.''' |Kauka II |147,893 |5,862 |- |'''7.''' |Kauka III |263,348 |5,574 |- |'''8.''' |Yolo Nord I |262,348 |12.214 |- |'''9.''' |Yolo Nord II |170,962 |7.408 |- |'''10.''' |Yolo Nord III |334,490 |12,547 |- |'''11.''' |Yolo Sud I |448,570 |14,782 |- |'''12.''' |Yolo Sud II |219,680 |8,850 |- |'''13.''' |Yolo Sud III |277,897 |13.023 |- |'''14.''' |Yolo Sud IV |210,318 |13,455 |- |'''15.''' |Pinzi |231,298 |10,933 |- |'''16.''' |Kimbangu I |466,478 |14,718 |- |'''17.''' |Kimbangu II |595,561 |21,718 |- |'''18.''' |Kimbangu III |251,127 |13,368 |- | |'''Kalamu''' |'''6,664,872''' |'''208,155''' |} Source: Population Service of Kalamu (2020)<ref name=":0" />{{Demography | 1967 = {{formatnum:78310}} | 1970 = {{formatnum:100441}} | 1984 = {{formatnum:160719}} | 2003 = {{formatnum:304961}} | 2004 = {{formatnum:315342}} }} {| class="wikitable" |+Burgomaster succession list ! colspan="2" |Period !Name |- |1957 |1960 |Arthur Pinzi |- |1960 |1965 |Justin Disasi |- |1965 |1968 |Diasuka Dia Meso |- |1969 |1977 |Mamá Elonga Ebongo |- |1977 |1982 |Mandulu Mopalu |- |1982 |1988 |Bungana Mbowa |- |1988 |1997 |Aungane Bose |- |1997 |1999 |Ntoya Nuni Mfwanga |- |1999 |2002 |André Landu Kamavuako |- |2002 |2005 |Marcel Mwanga Miany |- |8 July 2005 |2023 |Jean-Claude Kalonji Kadima |- |6 January 2023 | Incumbent |Charly Luboya Makopo |}

=== Residence === Housing in Kalamu reflects a mix of formal and informal structures. While some planned areas exhibit systematic cadastral organization and stratified layouts, rapid urban sprawl and insufficient housing availability have precipitated the rise of informal settlements, particularly in flood-prone and marshy terrains.<ref name=":0" /> Initially envisioned as green spaces, many of these areas have been occupied, creating densely packed living conditions.<ref name=":0" /> In the 1960s, the ''Office des Cités Africaines'' (OCA) erected residential units in Kalamu to accommodate small families. Over time, these accommodations have become overcrowded, often housing an average of seven people within confined spaces of 25 square meters.<ref name=":0" /> In response to increasing housing demands, extensive self-built developments have proliferated, predominantly along riverbanks. This self-directed construction has significantly intensified housing density, particularly among economically disadvantaged residents.<ref name=":0" />

Unregulated building practices have given rise to a complex residential landscape, especially in "''non aedificandi''" zones, which were traditionally designated as unfit or restricted for construction.<ref name=":0" /> Heightened rental speculation has led to the fragmentation of plots into smaller "half-plot" configurations, creating densely packed residential groupings within what were initially single-family plots.<ref name=":0" /> Certain buildings are constructed to house multiple families within one structure, a trend magnified by rural migration as people from neighboring villages relocate to Gombe seeking employment, healthcare, and other urban amenities.<ref name=":0" />

== Economy and infrastructure == thumb|185x185px|Kin Marché Victoire in Kalamu, Kinshasa Kalamu's economy is predominantly driven by the tertiary sector, with a considerable portion of the local workforce engaged in informal employment. Many residents depend on crafts, small-scale trading, and transport services for their livelihoods.<ref name=":0" />

The commune is equipped with socio-community infrastructure, including Stade Tata Raphaël, the Funa general prosecutor's office, police sub-stations, markets, hotels, schools, and institutes of higher education.<ref name=":0" /> However, these facilities are increasingly strained by the heightened population density and adverse environmental conditions. The urban framework includes a network of primary and secondary roads, supplemented by tertiary roads that connect various plots and neighborhoods.<ref name=":0" /> A significant portion of the secondary and tertiary road infrastructure is in a state of disrepair. Roads are frequently damaged or flooded due to heavy rainfall and the marshy topography, which complicates mobility. Deficient road maintenance exacerbates congestion, particularly in areas where roads become obstructed or partially submerged during rainfall.<ref name=":0" />

Kalamu's sanitation infrastructure remains severely underdeveloped. The wastewater treatment is largely absent, leading to sanitation issues that are exacerbated by the high-density settlement pattern.<ref name=":0" /> These issues are further aggravated in neighborhoods where construction has encroached upon natural floodplains and former green spaces, obstructing natural water flow.<ref name=":0" />

== Environmental problems ==

=== Flooding === Kalamu faces significant flooding, exacerbated by rapid demographic expansion and inadequate waste disposal systems. Seasonal flooding is a recurrent hazard, primarily affecting neighborhoods along the riverbanks.<ref name=":0" /> During the rainy season, the Funa River often overflows its banks, with water pooling in low-lying valleys and submerging residential areas.<ref name=":0" />

Several factors contribute to these floods. The deforestation of nearby slopes reduces natural water absorption, while accelerated urbanization encroaches on the river's major and minor beds.<ref name=":0" /> This urban expansion, often unregulated, results in dense construction without regard for soil stability or flood risks.<ref name=":0" /> The accumulation of household waste in water channels obstructs flow, leading to further flooding.<ref name=":0" /> Frequent and intense rains saturate the soil, generating excessive runoff and standing water, both of which contribute to the overflow of the Funa River. Erosive activity upstream erodes soil, which then deposits in riverbeds, reducing channel capacity and elevating water levels by several meters.<ref name=":0" />

The commune's wastewater systems are outdated and incapable of handling the growing waste load. Rainwater infiltration into the soil is limited due to erosion and poor land management, which increases surface runoff into the river.<ref name=":0" /> Fecal pollution from inadequate sanitation facilities further contaminates the Funa River, compounded by sewage and effluent discharges. Quantifying this pollution remains challenging due to limited statistical data, but it worsens as new spillways are constructed without comprehensive waste management planning.<ref name=":0" />

=== Pollution === Kalamu faces critical pollution challenges primarily stemming from the management of plastic waste.<ref name=":0" /> The widespread use of plastic sachets for water and other items has led to pervasive littering, with an absence of municipal strategies to address the issue effectively.<ref name=":0" /> Rivers and waterways are often treated as disposal sites, resulting in blocked flows and forcing rivers to carve new paths, often at the expense of nearby homes and infrastructure.<ref name=":0" /> The lack of proper drainage exacerbates sanitation issues, with stagnant rainwater accumulating in the streets and around residential areas, leading to unhygienic conditions compounded by outdated or inadequate piping systems.<ref name=":0" /> Piles of garbage accumulate on street corners, and decomposing waste emits foul odors. Neighborhoods across Kalamu, including Kimbangu I, II, III, as well as older areas such as Matonge, Yolo, Kauka, Immo Congo, and Pinzi, suffer from a lack of organized urban planning and essential sanitation facilities.<ref name=":0" /> Over time, unregulated construction and population growth have displaced green spaces, drainage systems, and public amenities.<ref name=":0" />

== International relations ==

=== Twin towns and sister cities === Kalamu is twinned with:

* {{Flagicon|BEL}} Ixelles, Belgium

==References== <references />

{{Commons category|Kalamu (Kinshasa)|Kalamu}}

{{Communes of Kinshasa}}

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