Kadu language

{{Short description|Sino-Tibetan language of Burma}} {{for-multi|the Kadu languages of east Africa|Kadu languages|the Southern Loloish language of Yunnan|Kaduo language}} {{Infobox language | name = Kadu | states = Myanmar | speakers = 30,000 | date = 2007 | ref = e25 | iso3 = zkd | region = Sagaing Region | familycolor = Sino-Tibetan | fam2 = Tibeto-Burman | fam3 = Sal | fam4 = Jingpho–Luish | fam5 = Luish | ethnicity = Kadu | dia1 = Mawteik | dia2 = Settaw | dia3 = Mawkhwin | glotto = kadu1254 | glottorefname = Kadu | nativename = Asak }} thumb|Kadu consonants and vowels video thumb|Kadu 19 consonants '''Kadu''', '''Kado''', or '''Asak''' (Kadu:100x100px), is a Sino-Tibetan language of the Sal branch spoken in Sagaing Region, Myanmar by the Kadu people. Dialects are Settaw, Mawkhwin, and Mawteik [extinct], with 30,000 speakers total. Kadu is considered an endangered language, and is closely related to the Ganan and Sak languages.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Kadu |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/zkd |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828091714/http://www.ethnologue.com/language/zkd |archive-date=2016-08-28 |access-date=2024-01-07 |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref>

==Names== Alternate names for Kadu listed in ''Ethnologue'' are Gadu, Kado, Kadu-Ganaan, Kantu, Kato, Kudo, Maw, Mawteik, Puteik, and Thet; the autonym is ''Asak''.

==Geographical distribution== Statistics for Kadu-speaking villages are as follows:<ref name=e25/> * Over 30 villages speaking the ''Mawteik'' dialect (nearly extinct) * Over 30 villages speaking the ''Settaw'' dialect * 5 villages speaking the ''Mawkhwin'' dialect

The speakers of the Kadu language live in Banmauk, Indaw, and Pinlebu, which are three townships in the Katha District, Sagaing Region, Myanmar. Among these three, Banmauk has the largest Kadu-speaking population and Pinlebu has the smallest Kadu-speaking population.<ref name="Sangdong 2012">{{Cite thesis |last=Sangdong |first=David |title=A grammar of the Kadu (Asak) language |date=2012 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=La Trobe University |hdl=1959.9/528876 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Many Kadu speakers have shifted to Burmese or are bilingual in Burmese.<ref name=":2" />

There is low mutual intelligibility among the Mawkhwin, Settaw, and Mawteik dialects of Kadu.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=Myanmar |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/MM/languages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010180533/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/MM/languages |archive-date=2016-10-10 |website=Ethnologue: Languages of the World}}</ref> Settaw and Mawteik share 95 to 98% mutual intelligibility, while Mawkhwin Kadu and other Kadu varieties share 91 to 93% lexical similarity.<ref name=":0" /> Kadu shares 84%–89% lexical similarity with Kanan.<ref name=":0" />

== History == The Kadu were the dominant ethnic group in the Chindwin River valley at the beginning of the early 2nd millennium A.D. until the Chin people and subsequently the Shan people migrated into the Chindwin Valley.<ref name="Matisoff2013">Matisoff, James A. 2013. [https://www.academia.edu/16300693/Re-examining_the_genetic_position_of_Jingpho_putting_flesh_on_the_bones_of_the_Jinghpho_Luish_Relationship Re-examining the genetic position of Jingpho: putting flesh on the bones of the Jingpho/Luish relationship]. ''Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area'' 36(2). 1–106.</ref>

== Phonology ==

=== Vowels === Kadu vowels consist of eight monophthongs and a diphthong /ai/.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Huziwara|first=Keisuke|date=2013|title=カドゥー語音韻論|url=http://ci.nii.ac.jp/els/110009592446.pdf?id=ART0010049043&type=pdf&lang=en&host=cinii&order_no=&ppv_type=0&lang_sw=&no=1455307449&cp=|journal=東南アジア研究|access-date=1 May 2016}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! !Front !Central !Back |- !Close |{{IPA link|i}} | |{{IPA link|u}} |- !Close-mid |{{IPA link|e}} |{{IPA link|ɘ}} |{{IPA link|o}} |- !Open-mid |{{IPA link|ɛ}} | |{{IPA link|ɔ}} |- !Open | |{{IPA link|a}} | |}

=== Consonants ===

Kadu has 20 consonants. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" |Bilabial ! colspan="2" |Alveolar ! colspan="2" |Alveolo-palatal ! rowspan="2" |Palatal ! colspan="2" |Velar ! rowspan="2" |Glottal |- !plain !aspirated !plain !aspirated !plain !aspirated !plain !aspirated |- !Stop |{{IPA link|p}} |{{IPA link|pʰ}} |{{IPA link|t}} |{{IPA link|tʰ}} | | | |{{IPA link|k}} |{{IPA link|kʰ}} |{{IPA link|ʔ}} |- !Affricate | | | | |{{IPA link|t͡ɕ}} |{{IPA link|t͡ɕʰ}} | | | | |- !Fricative | | |{{IPA link|s}} |{{IPA link|sʰ}} |{{IPA link|ɕ}} | | | | |{{IPA link|h}} |- !Nasal |{{IPA link|m}} | |{{IPA link|n}} | | | |{{IPA link|ɲ}} |{{IPA link|ŋ}} | | |- !Approximant | | |{{IPA link|l}} | | | |{{IPA link|j}} |{{IPA link|w}} | | |} The final consonants need to be nasals {{IPA|/m, n, ŋ/}} or voiceless stops {{IPA|/p, t, k, ʔ/}}.<ref name="Sangdong 2012" />

=== Tone === Kadu has three tones; high, mid, and low.<ref name=":3" />

=== Syllabic structure === C1C2V1V2C3

C: Consonant

V: Vowel

C1: necessary, this can be any Kadu consonant except unvoiced nasals.

C2: optional, this can be only {{IPA|/l, w, y/}}.

V1: necessary, this can be any Kadu vowel, however, {{IPA|/ɘ/}} appears only in the form of CɘC.

V2: optional.

C3: optional, this can be only {{IPA|/p, t, m, n, ʔ, ŋ/}}.<ref name=":1" />

== Orthography ==

=== Consonants === Kadu has 19 consonants {| class="wikitable letters-table" |- | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=k | ipa=/ka˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=kh | ipa=/kʰa˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=ṅ | ipa=/ŋa˨˦/ | notes= }} |- | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=c | ipa=/sa˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=ch | ipa=/sʰa˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=ñ | ipa=/ɲa˨˦/ | notes= }} |- | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=t | ipa=/ta˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=th | ipa=/tʰa˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=n | ipa=/na˨˦/ | notes= }} |- | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=p | ipa=/pa˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=ph | ipa=/pʰa˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=m | ipa=/ma˨/ | notes= }} |- | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=y | ipa=/ja˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=l | ipa=/la˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=v | ipa=/wa˨˦/ | notes= }} |- | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=ky | ipa=/tɕ˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=khy | ipa=/tɕʰ˨˦/ | notes= }} | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=sh | ipa=/ɕa˨˦/ | notes= }} |- | | {{letter | l=zkd | s= | ch=31x31px | iso=h | ipa=/ha˨˦/ | notes= }} | |- |}

== Grammar == Kadu is an SOV language.<ref name=":1" />

=== Nouns === Abstract nouns such as freedom, love, experience, and anger are not attested in the Kadu noun class. They are usually expressed by verbs or adjectival verbs.

The language has two categories of nouns:

1, So called "simple nouns" are treated as monomorphemic by the native speakers.

2, Nouns known as "complex nouns" are polymorphemic, and most of the complex nouns come from the process of compounding.

=== Verbs === Adjectives that expresses dimensions and qualities such as "tong" (=big) and "lom" (=warm) function as verbs, and are categorized as verbs.

The verbs are structurally categorized as:

1, Simple verbs, which are treated as monomorphemic words by the native speakers.

and

2, Polymorphemic complex verbs.

Kadu verbs may be reduplicated using the same morpheme or may take attendant words to express the repeated or frequent actions.

V-V constructions function as resultative, directional, evaluative, explanatory, or manner.

=== Adverbs === The adverbs are also "simple" or "complex" like nouns and verbs.

One thing to point up is that the complex adverbs are derived from verbs or nominals by the processes of reduplication or semi-reduplication.

=== Numerals === {|class=wikitable |- !0!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!7!!8!!9!!10 |- |20px||8px||20px||20px||20px||20px||20px||20px||20px||20px||20px |} Kadu has retained native numerals for only the numerals one, two, three, and four.<ref name=":3" /> Other numerals have been supplanted by Tai Laing and Burmese numerals.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Kadu |url=https://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/channumerals/Kadu.htm |access-date=2024-01-07 |website=lingweb.eva.mpg.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kanan |url=https://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/channumerals/Kanan.htm |access-date=2024-01-07 |website=lingweb.eva.mpg.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huziwara |first=Keisuke |date=2020 |title=On the genetic position of Chakpa within Luish languages |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6248736t |journal=Himalayan Linguistics |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |doi=10.5070/H91150999|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Numerals are always attached to classifiers, although classifiers do not occur with multiples of ten.

As for ordinal numbers, Burmese ordinal numbers are used because the original ordinal numbers are already lost.

=== Pronouns === {| class="wikitable" ! !singular !plural |- |1st person |nga |maleq |- |2nd person |nang |haning |- |3rd person |hing |antak, matak |}

=== Quantifiers === Quantifiers follow the head noun they quantify.

=== Particles === There are nominal relational markers, verbal particles, clausal particles, utterance final particles, and speaker attitude particles.

=== Interrogatives ===

==== Yes/no interrogatives ==== Yes/no questions are formed by simply adding either of the two interrogative particles "la" and "ka" at the end of the phrase.

==== Alternative questions ==== Yes/no questions can also be expressed by an alternative interrogative expression like "is it A or not A", which can be found in Mandarin Chinese as well.

==== Tag questions ==== Interrogative sentences can be made by adding "chi" (=true) at the end of sentences, like "right?" in English language.

==== Wh- questions ==== Wh- questions are formed by attaching the Wh-word forming morphemes, "20x20px ma" or "20x20px ha", to specific nomials or nominal postpositions.

Wh- question words also may function as indefinite pronouns such as "whatever", "anyone" and so on.

=== Negation === Verbs can be negated by negative proclitics, "a-" and "in-".<ref name="Sangdong 2012" />

== Words == {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | 400x400px |- | əsàʔ təmìsʰā taʔ ká buddha pʰəjásʰwàŋ tē waìŋ tətɕí mà |- | acak tamicha tat ka buddha phayachvan̊ te wain̊ ta kyi ma |- | Kadu people worship Buddha. |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | 400x400px |- | əsàʔ təmìsʰā tāʔ ká əmɛ̄awâ tāʔ ósʰətɕí tàʔ tē mít tɕí mà |- | acak tamicha tat ka amai ava tat o chakyi tat te mit kyi ma |- | Kadu people respect and love their parents, teachers. |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | 200x200px |- | əsàʔ tɕeíŋ sʰɔ̄m tətɕī tʰá mā |- | acak kyein̊ chom takyi tha ma |- | Let's learn Kadu. |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | 200x200px |- | əsàʔ tú təpaúʔ tɕí tʰà mā |- | acak tu tapot kyi tha ma |- | Let's speak Kadu. |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | 250x250px |- | ɕīʔɕā tāʔ tē əsàʔ tɕeíŋ sʰɔ̄m tɔ́ ī |- | rhit rha tat te acak kyein̊ chom to i |- | Teach Kadu to children. |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | 250x250px |- | məlê ŋā naīʔ ŋâ əsàʔ tɕeíŋ sʰɔ̄m tətɕī kû |- | male n̊a nait n̊a acak kyein̊chom ta kyi ku |- | We will all learn Kadu. |} <ref name=":1" />

==References== {{reflist}}

== Further reading== *Benedict, P. K. (1939). Semantic differentiation in Indo-Chinese. ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies,'' ''4''(3/4), 213–229. Retrieved February 12, 2016 {{JSTOR|2717775}} *Brown, R. G. (1920). Kadus of Burma. ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies,'' ''1''(3), 1-28. Retrieved February 12, 2016 {{JSTOR|607587}} *Driem, G. V. (1993). The proto-Tibeto-Burman verbal agreement system. ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies,'' ''56''(2), 292–334. Retrieved February 12, 2016 {{JSTOR|619904}} *Grierson, G. (1921). Kadu and its relatives. ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies,'' ''2''(1), 39–41. Retrieved February 12, 2016 {{JSTOR|607735}} *Shafer, R. (1940). The vocalism of Sino-Tibetan. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society,'' ''60''(3), 302–337. Retrieved February 12, 2016, {{JSTOR|594419}} *Thurgood, G., & LaPolla, R. J. (2003). ''The Sino-Tibetan languages''. *Voegelin, C. F., & Voegelin, F. M. (1965). Languages of the world: Sino-Tibetan fascicle five. ''Anthropological Linguistics,'' ''7''(6), 1-58. Retrieved February 12, 2016 {{JSTOR|30022507}}

==External links== *[https://video.search.yahoo.com/video/play;_ylt=A2KLqIGQeyZX2yUAaQgsnIlQ;_ylu=X3oDMTByZWc0dGJtBHNlYwNzcgRzbGsDdmlkBHZ0aWQDBGdwb3MDMQ--?p=good+news+from+kadu&vid=693bfa61b25e020ea6896ef1a59db5cf&turl=http%3A%2F%2Ftse1.mm.bing.net%2Fth%3Fid%3DOVP.Vb9da95fd850938acc4fd3bf45abf9320%26pid%3D15.1%26h%3D225%26w%3D300%26c%3D7%26rs%3D1&rurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DcJLwgQV4wCY&tit=Good+News+Kadu+People%2FLanguage+Movie+Trailer&c=0&h=225&w=300&l=587&sigr=11b3mdets&sigt=11cifegam&sigi=131mrtjag&age=1367356716&fr2=p%3As%2Cv%3Av&fr=yhs-mozilla-004&hsimp=yhs-004&hspart=mozilla&tt=b Sample of Spoken Kadu]

Category:Sal languages Category:Languages of Myanmar