Australian megafauna

{{Short description|Large animals in Australia, past and present era}} {{Redirect|Kadimakara|the Early Triassic extinct reptile|Kadimakara australiensis}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}} [[Image:Thylacoleo skeleton in Naracoorte Caves.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A [[Thylacoleo carnifex|marsupial lion]] skeleton in the [[Naracoorte Caves National Park|Naracoorte Caves]], South Australia]]

'''Australian megafauna''' were [[megafauna]] which inhabited [[Australia (continent)|Australia]]<ref name = "New Ages">{{Cite journal | last1 = Roberts | first1 = R. G. |author-link2=Tim Flannery |last2=Flannery |first2=T. F. |last3=Ayliffe |first3=L. K. |author4=Yoshida, H. |author5=Olley, J. M. |author6=Prideaux, G. J. |author7=Laslett, G. M. |author8=Baynes, A. |author9=Smith, M. A. |author10=Jones, R. |author11=Smith, B. L. | title = New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: Continent-Wide Extinction About 46,000 Years Ago | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 292 | issue = #5523 | pages = 1888–1892 | date = 2001-06-08 | url = http://www.uow.edu.au/content/groups/public/@web/@sci/@eesc/documents/doc/uow014698.pdf | doi = 10.1126/science.1060264 | access-date = 2011-08-26 | pmid=11397939|bibcode=2001Sci...292.1888R| s2cid = 45643228 }}</ref> during the [[Pleistocene Epoch]]. Most of these species became extinct during the latter half of the Pleistocene, as part of the broader global [[Late Pleistocene extinctions|Late Quaternary extinction event]]. The roles of human and climatic factors in their extinction are debated.

There are similarities between the prehistoric Australian megafauna and some mythical creatures from the [[The Dreaming|Aboriginal Dreamtime]].<ref name=Mackness>{{cite journal | last = Mackness | first = B.S. | year = 2009 | title = Reconstructing Palorchestes (Marsupialia: Palorchestidae) – from Giant Kangaroo to Marsupial 'Tapir' | journal = [[Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales]] | volume = 130 | pages = 21–36 |issn=0370-047X |url=https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.755411641307314 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Causes of extinction== Many modern researchers, including [[Tim Flannery]], think that with the [[History of Australian Aboriginals#Origins|arrival of early Aboriginal Australians]], hunting and the use of [[Fire-stick farming|fire]] to manage their environment may have contributed to the extinction of the [[megafauna]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = G. H. |author1-link=Gifford H. Miller | year = 2005 | title = Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 309 | issue = #5732| pages = 287–290 | doi = 10.1126/science.1111288 | pmid = 16002615 | bibcode = 2005Sci...309..287M | s2cid = 22761857 | url = http://doc.rero.ch/record/14709/files/PAL_E1537.pdf }}</ref> Increased [[aridity]] during peak glaciation (about 18,000 years ago) may have also contributed, but most of the megafauna were already extinct by this time.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} Others, including [[Steve Wroe]], note that records in the Australian Pleistocene are rare, and there is not enough data to definitively determine the time of extinction of many of the species, with many of the species having no confirmed record within the last 100,000 years. They suggest that many of the extinctions had been staggered over the course of the late Middle Pleistocene and early Late Pleistocene, prior to human arrival, due to climatic stress.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Wroe|first1=S. |author1-link=Stephen Wroe |last2=Field|first2=J. H.|last3=Archer|first3=M.|author3-link=Mike Archer (paleontologist)|last4=Grayson|first4=D. K.|last5=Price|first5=G. J.|last6=Louys|first6=J.|last7=Faith|first7=J. T.|last8=Webb|first8=G. E.|last9=Davidson|first9=I.|last10=Mooney|first10=S. D.|date=2013-05-28|title=Climate change frames debate over the extinction of megafauna in Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea)|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=110|issue=#22|pages=8777–8781|doi=10.1073/pnas.1302698110|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3670326|pmid=23650401|bibcode=2013PNAS..110.8777W|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[File:Procoptodon goliah NT.png|thumb|190px|''[[Procoptodon]] goliah'' reconstruction]] [[File:Genyornis (Genyornis newtoni).png|thumb|190px|''[[Genyornis newtoni]]'']] New evidence based on accurate [[optically stimulated luminescence]] and [[uranium–thorium dating]] of megafaunal remains suggests that humans were the ultimate cause of the extinction for some of the megafauna in Australia.<ref name = "Prideaux">{{Cite journal | last = Prideaux | first = G. J. |author2=Long, J. A. |author2-link=John A. Long |author3=Ayliffe, L. K. |author4=Hellstrom, J. C. |author5=Pillans, B. |author6=Boles, W. E. |author7=Hutchinson, M. N. |author8=Roberts, R. G. |author9=Cupper, M. L. |author10=Arnold, L. J. |author11=Devine, P. D. |author12=Warburton, N. M. | title = An arid-adapted middle Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from south-central Australia | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 445 | issue = #7126 | pages = 422–425 | date = 2007-01-25 | doi = 10.1038/nature05471 | pmid=17251978|bibcode=2007Natur.445..422P| s2cid = 4429899 }}</ref><ref name="SaltréRodríguez-Rey2016">{{cite journal|last1=Saltré|first1=Frédérik|last2=Rodríguez-Rey|first2=Marta|last3=Brook|first3=Barry W.|author3-link=Barry Brook (scientist)|last4=Johnson|first4=Christopher N|last5=Turney|first5=Chris S. M.|author5-link=Chris Turney|last6=Alroy|first6=John|author6-link=John Alroy|last7=Cooper|first7=Alan|author7-link=Alan Cooper (biologist) |last8=Beeton|first8=Nicholas|last9=Bird|first9=Michael I.|last10=Fordham|first10=Damien A.|last11=Gillespie|first11=Richard|last12=Herrando-Pérez|first12=Salvador|last13=Jacobs|first13=Zenobia |author13-link=Zenobia Jacobs |last14=Miller|first14=Gifford H.|last15=Nogués-Bravo|first15=David|last16=Prideaux|first16=Gavin J.|last17=Roberts|first17=Richard G.|last18=Bradshaw|first18=Corey J. A. |author18-link=Corey J. A. Bradshaw|title=Climate change not to blame for late Quaternary megafauna extinctions in Australia|journal=[[Nature Communications]]|volume=7|year=2016|article-number=10511|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/ncomms10511|pmid=26821754|pmc=4740174|bibcode=2016NatCo...710511S}}</ref> The dates derived show that all forms of megafauna on the Australian mainland became extinct in the same rapid timeframe—approximately 46,000 years ago<ref name="New Ages"/>—the period when the [[early human migrations|earliest humans first arrived in Australia]] (around 70,000~65,000 years ago long chronology and 50,000 years ago short chronology).<ref name=":0" /> However, these results were subsequently disputed, with another study showing that 50 of 88 megafaunal species have no dates postdating the penultimate glacial maximum around 130,000 years ago, and there was only firm evidence for overlap of 8-14 megafaunal species with people.<ref name=":02" /> Analysis of oxygen and carbon isotopes from teeth of megafauna indicate the regional climates at the time of extinction were similar to arid regional climates of today and that the megafauna were well adapted to arid climates.<ref name = "Prideaux"/> The dates derived have been interpreted as suggesting that the main mechanism for extinction was human burning of a landscape that was then much less fire-adapted; oxygen and carbon isotopes of teeth indicate sudden, drastic, non-climate-related changes in vegetation and in the diet of surviving marsupial species. However, early Aboriginal peoples appear to have rapidly eliminated the megafauna of [[Tasmania]] about 41,000 years ago (following formation of a land bridge to Australia about 43,000 years ago as [[Last Glacial Period|Ice Age]] sea levels declined) without using fire to modify the environment there,<ref name = "Diamond">{{Cite journal | last = Diamond | first = Jared | author-link = Jared Diamond | title = Palaeontology: The last giant kangaroo | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 454 | issue = #7206| pages = 835–836 | date = 2008-08-13 | doi = 10.1038/454835a | pmid=18704074| bibcode =2008Natur.454..835D| s2cid = 36583693 }}</ref><ref name = "Turney">{{Cite journal | last = Turney | first = C. S. M. |author2=Flannery, T. F. |author3=Roberts, R. G. |display-authors=etal | title = Late-surviving megafauna in Tasmania, Australia, implicate human involvement in their extinction | journal = [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] | volume = 105 | issue = #34 | pages = 12150–12153 | date = 2008-08-21 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0801360105 | pmid=18719103 | pmc=2527880| bibcode =2008PNAS..10512150T| author2-link = Tim Flannery | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Lost Giants">{{Cite journal |last=Roberts |first=R. |author2=Jacobs, Z. |title=The Lost Giants of Tasmania |journal=[[Australasian Science]] |volume=29 |issue=#9 |pages=14–17 |date=October 2008 |url=http://www.control.com.au/bi2008/299megafauna.pdf |access-date=2011-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927111457/http://www.control.com.au/bi2008/299megafauna.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}</ref> implying that at least in this case hunting was the most important factor. It has also been suggested that the vegetational changes that occurred on the mainland were a consequence, rather than a cause, of the elimination of the megafauna.<ref name = "Diamond"/> This idea is supported by sediment cores from [[Lynch's Crater]] in Queensland, which suggest that fire increased in the local ecosystem about a century after the disappearance of ''[[Sporormiella]] (''a fungus found in herbivorous animal dung used as a megafaunal proxy), leading to a subsequent transition to fire-tolerant [[sclerophyll]] vegetation.<ref name = "Biello">{{cite web | last = Biello | first = D. | title = Big Kill, Not Big Chill, Finished Off Giant Kangaroos | work = Scientific American | date = 2012-03-22 | url = http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=hunters-killed-off-big-animals-australia | access-date = 2012-03-25}}</ref><ref name = "McGlone">{{cite journal | last = McGlone | first = M. | title = The Hunters Did It | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 335 | issue = #6075 | pages = 1452–1453 | date = 2012-03-23 | doi = 10.1126/science.1220176 | pmid = 22442471 | bibcode=2012Sci...335.1452M| s2cid = 36914192 }}</ref><ref name = "Rule">{{cite journal | last = Rule | first = S. |author2= Brook, B. W.|author3= Haberle, S. G.|author4= Turney, C. S. M.|author5= Kershaw, A. P. | title = The Aftermath of Megafaunal Extinction: Ecosystem Transformation in Pleistocene Australia | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 335 | issue = #6075 | pages = 1483–1486 | date = 2012-03-23 | doi = 10.1126/science.1214261 | bibcode=2012Sci...335.1483R | pmid=22442481| s2cid = 26675232 }}</ref> However, the use of ''Sporormiella'' as a megafaunal proxy has been criticised, noting that ''Sporormiella'' is found sporadically in the dung of various herbivorous species, including extant emus and kangaroos, not just megafauna, that its presence depends on a variety of factors, often unrelated to megafaunal abundance, and that in [[Cuddie Springs]], a well known megafaunal site, the densities of ''Sporormiella'' were consistently low.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dodson|first1=J.|last2=Field|first2=J.H.|date=May 2018|title=What does the occurrence of ''Sporormiella'' (''Preussia'') spores mean in Australian fossil sequences?|journal=[[Journal of Quaternary Science]]|volume=33|issue=#4|pages=380–392|doi=10.1002/jqs.3020|bibcode=2018JQS....33..380D|s2cid=133737405 }}</ref> A study of extinct megafauna at the Walker Creek site in Queensland, found that their disappearance from the site after 40 kya came after an extended period of environmental deterioration.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hocknull|first1=Scott A.|author1-link=Scott Hocknull|last2=Lewis|first2=Richard|last3=Arnold|first3=Lee J.|last4=Pietsch|first4=Tim|last5=Joannes-Boyau|first5=Renaud|last6=Price|first6=Gilbert J.|last7=Moss|first7=Patrick|last8=Wood|first8=Rachel |author8-link=Rachel Wood (archaeologist)|last9=Dosseto|first9=Anthony|last10=Louys|first10=Julien|last11=Olley|first11=Jon|date=2020-05-18|title=Extinction of eastern Sahul megafauna coincides with sustained environmental deterioration|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=11|issue=#1|page=2250|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-15785-w|pmid=32418985|pmc=7231803|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.2250H|issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Chemical analysis of fragments of [[eggshell]]s of ''[[Genyornis newtoni]]'', a [[flightless bird]] that became extinct in Australia, from over 200 sites, revealed scorch marks consistent with cooking in human-made fires, presumably the first direct evidence of human contribution to the extinction of a species of the Australian megafauna.<ref name="Genyornis">{{cite journal |author1=Miller, Gifford |author2=Magee, John |author3=Smith, Mike |author4=Spooner, Nigel |author5=Baynes, Alexander |author6=Lehman, Scott |author7=Fogel, Marilyn |author8=Johnston, Harvey |author9=Williams, Doug |author10=Clark, Peter |author11=Florian, Christopher |author12=Holst, Richard |author13=DeVogel, Stephen |date=29 January 2016 |title= Human predation contributed to the extinction of the Australian megafaunal bird ''Genyornis newtoni'' ~ 47 ka |journal=Nature Communications |volume= 7 |issue=#10496 |article-number=10496 |doi=10.1038/ncomms10496 |pmid=26823193 |pmc=4740177|bibcode=2016NatCo...710496M}}</ref> This was later contested by another study that noted the too small dimensions (126 x 97 mm, roughly like the emu eggs, while the moa eggs were about 240 mm) for the ''Genyornis'' supposed eggs, and rather, attributed them to another extinct, but much smaller bird, the [[megapode]] ''[[Giant malleefowl|Progura]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grellet-Tinner|first1=Gerald|last2=Spooner|first2=Nigel A.|last3=Worthy|first3=Trevor H.|date=February 2016|title=Is the "Genyornis" egg of a mihirung or another extinct bird from the Australian dreamtime?|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|language=en|volume=133|pages=147–164|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.12.011|bibcode=2016QSRv..133..147G|hdl=2328/35952|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The real time that saw ''Genyornis'' vanish is still an open question, but this was believed as one of the best documented megafauna extinctions in Australia.

"Imperceptive overkill", a scenario where anthropogenic pressures take place, slowly and gradually wiping the megafauna out, has been suggested.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2017-01-humans-climate-australian-megafauna.html|title=Humans, not climate change, wiped out Australian megafauna|website=phys.org|access-date=30 May 2017}}</ref>

On the other hand, there is also evidence to suggest that (contrary to other conclusions) the megafauna lived alongside humans for several thousand years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/technology/sci-tech/aboriginal-archaeological-discovery-in-kakadu-rewrites-the-history-of-australia-20170719-gxe3qy.html |title=Aboriginal archaeological discovery in Kakadu rewrites the history of Australia |publisher=Smh.com.au |date=2017-07-20 |access-date=2018-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/aboriginal-australians-co-existed-with-the-megafauna-for-at-least-17-000-years-70589|title=Aboriginal Australians co-existed with the megafauna for at least 17,000 years|first=Jon|last=Olley|website=theconversation.com|date=11 January 2017 |access-date=30 May 2017}}</ref> The question of if (and how) the megafauna died before the arrival of humans is still debated; with some authors maintaining that only a minority of such fauna remained by the time the first humans settled on the mainland.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Climate change frames debate over the extinction of megafauna in Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea)|first1=Stephen|last1=Wroe|first2=Judith H.|last2=Field|first3=Michael|last3=Archer|first4=Donald K.|last4=Grayson|first5=Gilbert J.|last5=Price|first6=Julien|last6=Louys|first7=J. Tyler|last7=Faith|first8=Gregory E.|last8=Webb|first9=Iain|last9=Davidson|first10=Scott D.|last10=Mooney|date=28 May 2013|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=110|issue=#22|pages=8777–8781|doi=10.1073/pnas.1302698110|pmid=23650401|pmc=3670326|bibcode=2013PNAS..110.8777W|doi-access=free}}</ref> One of the most important advocates of human role, Tim Flannery, author of the book ''Future Eaters'', was also heavily criticised for his conclusions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/future/critics/critics.htm|title=The Future Eaters – It's critics|website=www.abc.net.au|access-date=30 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/06/04/1086203632052.html|title=The Flannery eaters|website=www.smh.com.au|date=5 June 2004|access-date=30 May 2017}}</ref> A surprisingly late date of 33-37 kya is known for a ''[[Zygomaturus]]'' specimen from the [[Willandra Lakes Region]] in New South Wales, the latest known date for any Australian Megafauna. This is well after aboriginal arrival in Australia around 50 kya.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Westaway|first1=Michael C.|last2=Olley|first2=Jon|last3=Grün|first3=Rainer|date=February 2017|title=At least 17,000 years of coexistence: Modern humans and megafauna at the Willandra Lakes, South-Eastern Australia|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|language=en|volume=157|pages=206–211|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.11.031|bibcode=2017QSRv..157..206W}}</ref>

A 2021 study found that the rate of extinction of Australia's megafauna is rather unusual, with some more generalistic species having gone extinct earlier while highly specialised ones having become extinct later or even still surviving today. A mosaic cause of extinction with different anthropogenic and environmental pressures was proposed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.7554/eLife.63870|title = Relative demographic susceptibility does not explain the extinction chronology of Sahul's megafauna|year = 2021|last1 = Bradshaw|first1 = Corey JA|last2 = Johnson|first2 = Christopher N.|last3 = Llewelyn|first3 = John|last4 = Weisbecker|first4 = Vera|last5 = Strona|first5 = Giovanni|last6 = Saltré|first6 = Frédérik|journal = eLife|volume = 10|pmid = 33783356|pmc = 8043753 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Living Australian megafauna == The term "megafauna" is usually applied to large animals (over {{convert|100|kg|lbs|abbr=on}}). In Australia, however, megafauna were never as large as those found on other continents, and so a more lenient criterion of over {{convert|40|kg|lbs|abbr=on}} is often applied.<ref>Danielle Clode (2009) ''Prehistoric giants: the megafauna of Australia'', Museum Victoria {{ISBN|978-0-9803813-2-0}}</ref>

=== Marsupials === [[Image:Red kangaroo - melbourne zoo.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A [[red kangaroo]]]]

* The '''[[red kangaroo]]''' (''Osphranter rufus'') grows up to {{convert|1.8|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} tall and weighs up to 85 kg (187 lb). Females grow up to {{convert|1.1|m|ftin|abbr=on}} tall and weigh up to 35 kg (77 lb). Tails on both males and females can be up to {{convert|1|m|ftin|abbr=on}} long.{{citation needed|date=February 2012}} * The '''[[eastern grey kangaroo]]s''' (''Macropus giganteus''). Although a male typically stands almost {{convert|2|m|ftin|abbr=on}} tall and weighs around 66 kg (145 lb), the scientific name ''Macropus giganteus'' (gigantic large-foot) is misleading, as the red kangaroo living in the semi-arid inland is larger. * The '''[[antilopine kangaroo]]''' (''Osphranter antilopinus''), sometimes called the '''antilopine wallaroo''' or the '''antilopine wallaby''', is a species of [[Macropodidae|macropod]] found in northern Australia at [[Cape York Peninsula]] in [[Queensland]], the [[Top End]] of the [[Northern Territory]], and the [[Kimberley region of Western Australia]]. They can weigh as much as {{convert|47|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and grow over {{convert|1|m|ftin|abbr=on}} long. *'''[[Common wombat]]s''' (''Vombatus ursinus'') can reach {{convert|40|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. They thrive in [[Eastern Australia]] and [[Tasmania]], preferring [[temperate forest]]s and highland regions.

=== Birds === [[Image:Helmkasuar sitzend (fcm).jpg|right|thumb|190px|A [[southern cassowary]]]]

* The '''[[emu]]''' (''Dromaius novaehollandiae'') * The '''[[southern cassowary]]''' (''Casuarius casuarius'')

=== Reptiles === [[Image:Perentie Lizard Perth Zoo SMC Spet 2005.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A [[perentie]]]]

* '''[[Goanna]]s''', being [[predator]]y lizards, are often quite large or bulky, with sharp teeth and claws. The largest extant goanna is the [[perentie]] (''Varanus giganteus''), which can grow over {{convert|2|m|ftin|abbr=on}} in length. However, not all goannas are gargantuan: pygmy goannas may be smaller than a man's arm. * A healthy adult male '''[[saltwater crocodile]]''' (''Crocodylus porosus'') is typically {{convert|4.8|–|7|m|ftin|abbr=on}} long and weighs around {{convert|1,000|kg|lb|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}), with many being much larger than that.<ref name="Josephine Flood 2004">Vanderwal and Fullager 1989 as cited in Josephine Flood (2004) ''Archaeology of the Dreamtime'', J.B Publishing, Marleston p, 182 {{ISBN|1-876622-50-4}}</ref> The female is much smaller, with typical body lengths of {{convert|2.5|–|3|m|ftin|abbr=on}}. An {{convert|8.5|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} saltwater crocodile was reportedly shot on the Norman River of Queensland in 1957; a cast was made of it and is on display as a popular tourist attraction. However, due to the lack of solid evidence (other than the plaster replica), and the length of time since the crocodile was caught, it is not considered "official".{{Clarify|date=February 2012}} * The '''[[freshwater crocodile]]''' (''Crocodylus johnstoni'') is a relatively small crocodilian. Males can grow to {{convert|2.3|–|3|m|ftin|abbr=on}} in length, while females reach a maximum length of {{convert|2.1|m|ftin|abbr=on}}. Males commonly weigh around {{convert|60|kg|abbr=on}}, with large specimens up to {{convert|85|kg|abbr=on}} or more, as against the average female weight of {{convert|20|kg|abbr=on}}. In places such as [[Lake Argyle]] and [[Nitmiluk National Park]] (Katherine Gorge), there exist a handful of confirmed {{convert|4|m|adj=on}} individuals.

== Extinct Australian megafauna ==

The following is an incomplete list of extinct Australian megafauna (monotremes, marsupials, birds and reptiles) in the format:

* ''Latin name'', (common name, period alive), and a brief description.

=== Monotremes === [[File:Giant Echidna (Zaglossus hacketti).png|thumb|190px|[[Murrayglossus|Hackett's giant echidna]]]] Monotremes are arranged by size with the largest at the top.

* ''[[Murrayglossus|Murrayglossus hacketti]]'' was a sheep-sized [[echidna]] uncovered in [[Mammoth Cave (Western Australia)|Mammoth Cave]] in [[Western Australia]], and is the largest [[monotreme]] so far uncovered. * ''[[Obdurodon]] dicksoni'' was a platypus up to {{convert|60|cm|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} in total length, fossils of which were found at [[Australian Fossil Mammal Sites (Riversleigh)|Riversleigh]]. * ''[[Megalibgwilia]] ramsayi'' was a large, long-beaked echidna with powerful forelimbs for digging.

==== {{convert|1,000|–|3,000|kg|lbs|sigfig=3}}==== * ''[[Diprotodon]] optatum'' is not only the largest known species of [[Diprotodontidae|diprotodontid]], but also the largest known [[marsupial]] to ever exist. Approximately {{convert|3|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} high at the shoulder and weighing up to {{convert|2,780|kg|lb|abbr=on|sigfig=3}},<ref>Flannery. The Pleistocene extinctions as cited in Josephine Flood (2004) ''Archaeology of the Dreamtime'', J.B. Publishing, Marleston p. 178 {{ISBN|1-876622-50-4}}</ref> it resembled a giant [[wombat]]. It is the only marsupial known, living or extinct, to have conducted seasonal migrations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Price|first1=Gilbert J.|last2=Ferguson|first2=Kyle J.|last3=Webb|first3=Gregory E.|last4=Feng|first4=Yue-xing|last5=Higgins|first5=Pennilyn|last6=Nguyen|first6=Ai Duc|last7=Zhao|first7=Jian-xin|last8=Joannes-Boyau|first8=Renaud|last9=Louys|first9=Julien|date=2017-09-27|title=Seasonal migration of marsupial megafauna in Pleistocene Sahul (Australia–New Guinea)|journal=Proc. R. Soc. B|language=en|volume=284|issue=#1863|article-number=20170785|doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.0785|issn=0962-8452|pmid=28954903|pmc=5627191}}</ref> * ''[[Palorchestes]] azael'' was a diprotodontoid similar in size to ''Zygomaturus''. It had long claws to grasp branches with. It lived during the [[Pleistocene]].<ref name=Mackness />

==== {{convert|100|–|1,000|kg|lbs|sigfig=3}} ==== * ''[[Zygomaturus]] trilobus'' was a smaller (bullock-sized, about {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} long by {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} high) diprotodontid that may have had a short trunk. It appears to have lived in wetlands, using two fork-like [[incisors]] to shovel up reeds and sedges for food. * ''[[Macropus pearsoni]]'' and ''M. ferragus'' * ''[[Phascolonus]] gigas'' a gigantic true wombat, and the largest known true wombat * ''[[Procoptodon|Procoptodon goliah]]'' (the '''giant short-faced kangaroo''') is the largest-known [[kangaroo]] to have ever lived. It grew 2–3 metres (7–10 feet) tall, and weighed up to {{convert|230|kg|lb|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}. * ''[[Procoptodon]] rapha'', ''P. pusio'' and ''P. texasensis'' * ''[[Protemnodon]]'', a genus of wallaby with four known giant species out of 11 known species<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Helgen | first1 = K.M. | last2 = Wells | first2 = R.T. | last3 = Kear | first3 = B.P. | last4 = Gerdtz | first4 = W.R. | last5 = Flannery | first5 = T.F. | year = 2006 | title = Ecological and evolutionary significance of sizes of giant extinct kangaroos | journal = Australian Journal of Zoology | volume = 54 | issue = #4| pages = 293–303 | doi = 10.1071/ZO05077 }}</ref> * ''[[Ramsayia]] magna'' a giant wombat weighing around {{Convert|100|kg|lb}} * ''[[Sthenurus]] tindalei'' and ''S. atlas'' * ''[[Thylacoleo carnifex]]'' (the '''marsupial lion''') is the largest known carnivorous mammal to have ever lived in prehistoric Australia, and was of comparable size to female placental mammal [[lion]]s and [[tiger]]s, It had a catlike skull with large slicing pre-molars, a retractable thumb-claw and massive forelimbs. It was almost certainly carnivorous and a tree-dweller.

==== {{convert|10|–|100|kg|lbs|sigfig=2}} ====

* ''[[Simosthenurus]] pales'' * ''[[Giant koala|Phascolarctos stirtoni]]'' (the '''giant koala''') was similar in structure to the modern [[koala]] (''P. cinereus''), but one-third larger. * ''[[Phascolomys]] medius'' * ''[[Lasiorhinus]] angustidens'' * ''[[Sedophascolomys]]'' a giant wombat * ''[[Thylacine|Thylacinus cynocephalus]]'' (the '''thylacine''', '''Tasmanian wolf''' or '''Tasmanian tiger'''), which notably survived into recent history (the last known individual died in 1936).

[[File:Thylacine at Beaumaris Zoo, 1936 (NS4371-1-1063).jpg|thumb|190x190px|A 1936 picture of a [[thylacine]] at [[Hobart Zoo|Beaumaris Zoo]], Tasmania.]]

* ''[[Congruus|Congruus congruus]]'', a wallaby from Naracoorte * ''[[Troposodon]] minor'' * ''Sthenurus oreas'' * ''[[Simosthenurus]] occidentalis'' (another sthenurine) was about as tall as a modern [[eastern grey kangaroo]], but much more robust. It is one of the nine known species of [[leaf-eating]] kangaroos identified in fossils found in [[Naracoorte Caves National Park]]. * ''Simothenurus brownei'' * ''[[Propleopus]] oscillans'' (the '''giant rat-kangaroo''') was a large (about {{convert|70|kg|lb|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} rat-kangaroo with large shearing and stout grinding teeth that indicate it may have been an opportunistic omnivore able to eat invertebrates, vertebrates (possibly carrion), fruits, and soft leaves. Grew to about {{convert|1.5|-|3|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} in height. * ''Simothenurus maddocki'' * ''Sthenurus andersoni'' * ''[[Vombatus]] hacketti'' * ''Macropus thor'' * ''Macropus piltonensis'' * ''Macropus rama'' * ''Simothenurus gilli'' * ''[[Warrendja|Warrendja wakefieldi]]'', a wombat from Naracoorte * ''[[Sarcophilus]] harrisii laniarius'', a large subspecies of the [[Tasmanian devil]].

=== Birds ===

* ''[[Genyornis]] newtoni'', a large, man-sized bird, and the last surviving member of [[Dromornithidae]]. * ''Progura gallinacea'' (the '''[[giant malleefowl]]''') was a larger relative of the extant [[malleefowl]] (''Leipoa ocellata''). * ''[[Cryptogyps|Cryptogyps lacertosus]]'' extinct large vulture. * ''[[Dynatoaetus|Dynatoaetus gaffae]]'', largest bird of prey of Australia, second only to the [[Haast's eagle]] of New Zealand

* ''[[Paludirex gracilis]]'' a large aquatic freshwater crocodilian belonging to the extinct group [[Mekosuchinae]], likely reaching a length of at least {{convert|4|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}. * [[Megalania]] (''Varanus priscus'') was a giant carnivorous [[monitor lizard]], reaching a size comparable or exceeding that of the [[Komodo dragon]], that might have grown to as long as {{convert|5.5|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, and weighed up to {{convert|575|kg|lb|sigfig=3|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fry |first1=Bryan G. |last2=Wroe |first2=Stephen |last3=Teeuwisse |first3=Wouter |last4=van Osch |first4=Matthias J. P. |last5=Moreno |first5=Karen |last6=Ingle |first6=Janette |last7=McHenry |first7=Colin |last8=Ferrara |first8=Toni |last9=Clausen |first9=Phillip |last10=Scheib |first10=Holger |last11=Winter |first11=Kelly L. |last12=Greisman |first12=Laura |last13=Roelants |first13=Kim |last14=van der Weerd |first14=Louise |last15=Clemente |first15=Christofer J. |date=2009-06-02 |title=A central role for venom in predation by Varanus komodoensis (Komodo Dragon) and the extinct giant Varanus (Megalania) priscus |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=106 |issue=22 |pages=8969–8974 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0810883106 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2690028 |pmid=19451641|bibcode=2009PNAS..106.8969F }}</ref> * ''[[Wonambi naracoortensis]]'' was a non-venomous [[snake]] belonging to the extinct family [[Madtsoiidae]], which reached {{convert|5|–|6|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} in length. It was an ambush predator living at waterholes located in natural sun traps and killed its prey by constriction. * ''[[Quinkana]]'' was a semi-terrestrial crocodilian that normally grew around {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} in length. Its blade-like teeth for cutting suggests its terrestrial ecology. It belonged to the extinct group [[Mekosuchinae]]. It was discovered at the [[Bluff Downs fossil site|Bluff Downs]] in [[Queensland]].<ref name="F90">{{Cite journal |last1=Flannery |first1=T. F. |year=1990 |title=Pleistocene faunal loss: implications of the aftershock for Australia's past and future. |journal=Archaeology in Oceania |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=45–55 |doi=10.1002/j.1834-4453.1990.tb00232.x}}</ref><ref name="SPK13">{{Cite journal |last1=Sobbe |first1=Ian H. |last2=Price |first2=Gilbert J. |last3=Knezour |first3=Robert A. |date=2013 |title=A ziphodont crocodile from the late Pleistocene King Creek catchment, Darling Downs, Queensland |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256440898 |journal=[[Memoirs of the Queensland Museum]] |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=601–606}}</ref><ref name="WM96">{{Cite journal |last1=Willis |first1=Paul M.A. |last2=Mackness |first2=Brian S. |date=1996 |title=Quinkana babarra, a new species of ziphodont mekosuchine crocodile from the Early Pliocene Bluff Downs Local Fauna, Northern Australia with a revision of the genus |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34936465 |journal=Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales |volume=116 |pages=143–151}}</ref><ref name="R23b">{{Cite journal |last1=Ristevski |first1=J. |last2=Willis |first2=P.M.A. |last3=Yates |first3=A.M. |last4=White |first4=M.A. |last5=Hart |first5=L.J. |last6=Stein |first6=M.D. |last7=Price |first7=G.J. |last8=Salisbury |first8=S.W. |year=2023 |title=Migrations, diversifications and extinctions: the evolutionary history of crocodyliforms in Australasia |journal=Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=370–415 |bibcode=2023Alch...47..370R |doi=10.1080/03115518.2023.2201319 |s2cid=258878554 |doi-access=free|hdl=1959.4/104056 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> *''[[Meiolania]]'' was a genus of huge terrestrial stem-turtle ([[Meiolaniidae]]) measuring {{convert|2.5|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} in length, with horned heads and spiked tails.

== Extinct megafauna contemporaneous with Aboriginal Australians == [[File:Diprotodon sculpture.jpg|thumb|190px|Reconstruction of a hippopotamus-sized ''[[Diprotodon]]'']] Monsters and large animals in [[The Dreaming|Dreamtime]] stories have been associated with extinct megafauna.

[[File:Thylacine rock art at Ubirr.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Thylacine]] as seen in rock art at [[Ubirr]]]] The association was made at least as early as 1845, with colonists writing that Aboriginal people identified ''[[Diprotodon]]'' bones as belonging to [[bunyip]]s, and [[Thomas Worsnop]] concluding that the fear of bunyip attacks at watering holes remembered a time when ''Diprotodon'' lived in marshes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnKPCZT0x6kC&pg=PA158|title=Bunyips: Australia's Folklore of Fear|last1=Holden|first1=Robert|last2=Holden|first2=Nicholas|date=2001|publisher=National Library Australia|isbn=978-0-642-10732-9|pages=87–91|language=en}}</ref>

In the early 1900s, [[John Walter Gregory]] outlined the '''Kadimakara''' (or '''Kuddimurka''' or '''Kadimerkera''') story of the [[Diyari]] (similar stories being told by nearby peoples), which describes the deserts of Central Australia as having once been "fertile, well-watered plains" with giant gum trees, and almost solid cloud cover overhead. The trees created a roof of vegetation in which lived the strange monsters called Kadimakara—which sometimes came to the ground to eat. One time, the gum trees were destroyed, forcing the Kadimakara to remain on the ground, particularly [[Lake Eyre]] and [[Kalamurina Sanctuary|Kalamurina]], until they died.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/deadheartofaustr00greg|title=The dead heart of Australia|last=Gregory|first=J. W. (John Walter)|date=1906|publisher=London : J. Murray|others=University of California Libraries|pages=[https://archive.org/details/deadheartofaustr00greg/page/3 3]–7, 74, 224, 230–235}}</ref>

In times of drought and flood, the Diyari performed [[corroboree]]s (including dances and blood sacrifices) at the bones of the Kadimakara to appease them and request that they intercede with the spirits of rain and clouds. Sites of Kadimakara bones identified by Aboriginal people corresponded with megafauna fossil sites, and an Aboriginal guide identified a ''Diprotodon'' jaw as belonging to the Kadimakara.<ref name=":1" />

Gregory speculated that the story could be a remnant from when the Diyari lived elsewhere, or when the geographical conditions of Central Australia were different. The latter possibility would indicate Aboriginal coexistence with megafauna, with Gregory saying:<ref name=":1" /> {{Blockquote|text=If, therefore, the geologist can determine whether the bones of the extinct monsters of Lake Eyre correspond to those described in the aboriginal traditions, he can throw light on several interesting problems.

If the legends attribute to the extinct animals characters which they possessed, but which the natives could not have inferred from the bones, then the legends are of local origin. They would prove that man inhabited Central Australia, at the same time as the mighty diprotodon and the extinct, giant kangaroos. If, on the other hand, there is no such correspondence between the legends and the fossils, then we must regard the traditions as due to the habit of migratory peoples, of localising in new homes the incidents recorded in their folklore.|sign=[[John Walter Gregory]]|source=''Dead Heart of Australia''}}

After examining fossils, Gregory concluded that the story was a combination of the two factors, but that the environment of Lake Eyre had probably not changed much since Aboriginal habitation. He concluded that while some references to Kadimakara were probably memories of the crocodiles once found in Lake Eyre, others that describe a "big, heavy land animal, with a single horn on its forehead" were probably references to ''Diprotodon''.<ref name=":1" /> [[File:Thylacoleo Australia 2.jpg|thumb|190px|Some of the [[Thylacoleo|marsupial lions]] were the largest mammalian predators in Australia of their time]] Geologist [[Michael Welland]] describes from across Australian Dreamtime "tales of giant creatures that roamed the lush landscape until aridity came and they finally perished in the desiccated marshes of Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre", giving as examples the Kadimakara of Lake Eye, as well as continent-wide stories of the [[Rainbow Serpent]], which he says corresponds with ''[[Wonambi naracoortensis]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Welland |first=Michael |date=September 2017 |title=So the land is actually like a big book, you know? |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5694c48bd82d5e9597570999/t/5931714b46c3c44fe795b06f/1496412493948/Geomythology__M_Welland.pdf |journal=Global Land Outlook |pages=9–10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512182023/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5694c48bd82d5e9597570999/t/5931714b46c3c44fe795b06f/1496412493948/Geomythology__M_Welland.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2018 }}</ref>

Journalist Peter Hancock speculates in ''The Crocodile That Wasn't'' that a Dreamtime story from the Perth area could be a memory of ''[[Varanus priscus]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.perthnow.com.au/news/wa/wa-history-author-goes-digital-ng-efc7962689212a93003a675df1436c04|title=WA history author goes digital|date=2012-09-11|work=PerthNow|access-date=2018-05-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> However, the story in question details [[dingoes]] attacking or frightening off the alleged ''V. priscus'', when the giant lizard died out nearly 46,000 years before the accepted arrival date of dingoes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Bradley |title=The Dingo Debate: origins, Behaviour, and Conservation |date=3 August 2015 |publisher=Csiro Publishing |isbn=978-1-4863-0030-3}}</ref>

Rock art in the [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] region appears to depict a [[Thylacoleo carnifex|marsupial lion]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/akerman319/|title=An ancient rock painting of a marsupial lion, Thylacoleo carnifex, from the Kimberley, Western Australia|last=Akerman|first=Kim}}</ref> and a [[Palorchestes|marsupial tapir]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uq.edu.au/nuq/jack/Antiquity2.pdf|title=More Megafaunal Depictions in Bradshaw Rock Art}}</ref> as does Arnhem land art.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Peter|last2=Chaloupka|first2=George|date=October 1984|title=The Dreamtime animals: extinct megafauna in Arnhem Land rock art|journal=Archaeology in Oceania|language=en|volume=19|issue=#3|pages=105–116|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4453.1984.tb00089.x|issn=0728-4896}}</ref> Arnhem art also appears to depict ''[[Genyornis]]'', a bird that is believed to have gone extinct 40,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-05-31/megafauna-cave-painting-could-be-40000-years-old/847564|title=Megafauna cave painting could be 40,000 years old|date=2010-05-31|work=ABC News|access-date=2018-05-12|language=en-AU}}</ref>

An [[Early Triassic]] [[Archosauromorpha|archosauromorph]] found in Queensland, ''[[Kadimakara australiensis]]'', is named after the Kadimakara.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ezcurra|first=Martín D.|date=2016-04-28|title=The phylogenetic relationships of basal archosauromorphs, with an emphasis on the systematics of proterosuchian archosauriforms|journal=PeerJ|language=en|volume=4|article-number=e1778|doi=10.7717/peerj.1778|pmid=27162705|pmc=4860341|issn=2167-8359 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== See also ==

*[[List of Australian animals extinct in the Holocene]] *{{annotated link|Cuddie Springs}} *''[[Hulitherium]]'' and ''[[Maokopia]]'' (Diprotodontoids inhabited [[New Guinea]] during the Pleistocene) *{{annotated link|Komodo dragon}} (Believed to have evolved in Australia)<ref name="aust">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hocknull SA, Piper PJ, van den Bergh GD, Due RA, Morwood MJ, Kurniawan I |title=Dragon's Paradise Lost: Palaeobiogeography, Evolution and Extinction of the Largest-Ever Terrestrial Lizards (Varanidae) |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=4 |issue=9 |article-number=e7241 |year=2009 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0007241 |pmid=19789642 |pmc=2748693 |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.7241H |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/09/30/2700662.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003121927/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/09/30/2700662.htm |archive-date=3 October 2009 |title=Australia was 'hothouse' for killer lizards |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=30 September 2009 |access-date=30 September 2009}}</ref> *{{annotated link|Quaternary extinction event}} *[[Pleistocene rewilding]] (there exist discussions about validity of [[invasive species in Australia]] to compensate for [[ecological niche]]s of extinct Australian megafauna)<ref>{{cite web|last1=Marris |first1=Emma |title=These Giant Invasive Beasts May Actually Be Good for the Planet |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/invasive-species-camels-horses-hippos-extinction-environment |date=2017-10-07 |website=[[National Geographic]] |access-date=2024-04-28 }}</ref>

==References== {{reflist}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Field | first1 = J. H. | last2 = Dodson | first2 = J. | year = 1999 | title = Late Pleistocene megafauna and archaeology from Cuddie Springs, south-eastern Australia | journal = Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society | volume = 65 | pages = 1–27 | doi = 10.1017/S0079497X00002024 | s2cid = 131617908 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Field | first1 = J. H. | last2 = Boles | first2 = W. E. | year = 1998 | title = ''Genyornis newtoni'' and ''Dromaius novaehollandiae'' at 30,000 b.p. in central northern New South Wales | journal = Alcheringa | volume = 22 | issue = #2| pages = 177–188 | doi = 10.1080/03115519808619199 | bibcode = 1998Alch...22..177F }} * Long, J.A., Archer, M. Flannery, T.F. & Hand, S. (2003). ''Prehistoric Mammals of Australia and New Guinea −100 Million Years of Evolution''. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 242 pp. * Molnar, R. (2004). ''Dragons in the Dust: The Paleobiology of the Giant Lizard Megalania''. Indiana University Press. p. 127. * {{cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = P. F. | last2 = Megirian | first2 = D. | year = 1998 | title = The skull of dromornithid birds: anatomical evidence for their relationship to Anseriformes (Dromornithidae, Anseriformes) | journal = Records of the South Australian Museum | volume = 31 | pages = 51–97 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Wroe | first1 = S. | last2 = Field | first2 = J. | last3 = Fullagar | first3 = R. | year = 2002 | title = Lost giants | journal = Nature Australia | volume = 27 | issue = #5| pages = 54–61 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Prideaux | first1 = Gavin J | last2 = Roberts | first2 = Richard G. | last3 = Megirian | first3 = Dirk | last4 = Westaway | first4 = Kira E. | last5 = Hellstrom | first5 = John C. | last6 = Olley | first6 = John M. | year = 2007 | title = Mammalian responses to Pleistocene climate change in southeastern Australia | url = http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/reprint/35/1/33.pdf | journal = Geology | volume = 35 | issue = #1| pages = 33–36 | doi = 10.1130/G23070A.1 | bibcode = 2007Geo....35...33P }}

== External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071114003012/http://acl.arts.usyd.edu.au/research/cuddie/cuddie.html Cuddie Springs] * [http://www.abc.net.au/rn/inconversation/stories/2007/1876587.htm#transcript Interview with Dr John Long, curator at the Museum of Victoria] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070901122642/http://www.parks.sa.gov.au/naracoorte/about/index.htm Naracoorte caves in South Australia] * [https://phys.org/news/2017-01-humans-climate-australian-megafauna.html Humans, not climate change, wiped out Australian megafauna]. [[Phys.org]], January 20, 2017.

[[Category:Lists of animals of Australia|Mega]] [[Category:Prehistoric animals of Australia]] [[Category:Megafauna]] [[Category:Pleistocene animals of Australia| ]]