{{Short description|Lead mine in Zambia}} {{Redirect|Broken Hill Mine|the mine in Australia|Broken Hill mine|}} {{Good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}} {{Infobox mine | name = Kabwe mine | image = | caption = | place = Kabwe | state/province = Central Province, Zambia | country=Zambia | pushpin_map = Zambia | coordinates = {{Coord|14|27|36|S|28|26|06|E|region:ZM-02_type:landmark|display=inline,title}} | pushpin_map_caption = Kabwe mine | subdivision_type=Province | products = Lead, zinc, and other minerals | amount = over 2.6 million tonnes | greatest depth = | active years = 1906 to 1994; artisanal mining continues to present | owner = Anglo American plc; Zambian government | module = {{Infobox local impacts|pollution=Lead poisoning|impact=hundreds of thousands of people}} }}
The '''Kabwe mine''' or '''Broken Hill mine''' is a former lead smelting and mining site near Kabwe, Zambia, that operated from 1906 to 1994. At its peak, between 1925 and 1974, it was owned by Anglo American plc and was Africa's largest lead producer.<ref name=":3"/> The mine produced extremely toxic lead pollution for ninety years. Several studies have confirmed that over 100,000 people near the mine, including tens of thousands of children, suffer from lead poisoning.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=8 February 2023 |title=Mining giant and Kabwe locals square off in class-action lawsuit over lead mine |url=https://www.lifegate.com/kabwe-lead-mine-class-action-lawsuit |access-date=26 March 2023 |website=LifeGate |language=en-US |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326191608/https://www.lifegate.com/kabwe-lead-mine-class-action-lawsuit |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=27 July 2021 |title=Zambia: Tackle Lead Poisoning at Former Mine |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/07/27/zambia-tackle-lead-poisoning-former-mine |access-date=26 March 2023 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |language=en |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326191611/https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/07/27/zambia-tackle-lead-poisoning-former-mine |url-status=live }}</ref> Kabwe is one of the world's most polluted towns.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=28 May 2017 |title=The world's most toxic town: the terrible legacy of Zambia's lead mines |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/may/28/the-worlds-most-toxic-town-the-terrible-legacy-of-zambias-lead-mines |access-date=26 March 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326191606/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/may/28/the-worlds-most-toxic-town-the-terrible-legacy-of-zambias-lead-mines |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 1921, a "bone cave" that included a fossilised human skull called ''Kabwe 1'' was discovered in the mine. This fossil was the first remains of an extinct human relative to be found in Africa. The skull was studied by Arthur Smith Woodward of the British Museum of Natural History, who published a paper naming the new human precursor ''Homo rhodesiensis''. Study of the Kabwe skull has had important implications for understanding of human evolution and prehistory.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Davis |first=Josh |date=1 April 2020 |title=Dating the Broken Hill skull: ''Homo heidelbergensis'' was younger than we thought |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2020/april/dating-the-broken-hill-skull--homo-heidelbergensis.html |access-date=26 March 2023 |publisher=Natural History Museum |language=en |archive-date=4 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404165214/https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2020/april/dating-the-broken-hill-skull--homo-heidelbergensis.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
The mine was privatised and closed by the Zambian government in 1995. In 2021, there were still about five million tons of mine tailings on the site, and the Zambian government had licensed reprocessing of this waste and further mining by the South African company Jubilee Metals. The area is also mined by artisanal miners. All of these activities pose ongoing health risks for local communities by releasing additional lead.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Yabe |first1=John |last2=Nakayama |first2=Shouta M. M. |last3=Ikenaka |first3=Yoshinori |last4=Yohannes |first4=Yared B. |last5=Bortey-Sam |first5=Nesta |last6=Oroszlany |first6=Balazs |last7=Muzandu |first7=Kaampwe |last8=Choongo |first8=Kennedy |last9=Kabalo |first9=Abel Nketani |last10=Ntapisha |first10=John |last11=Mweene |first11=Aaron |last12=Umemura |first12=Takashi |last13=Ishizuka |first13=Mayumi |display-authors=3 |date=January 2015 |title=Lead poisoning in children from townships in the vicinity of a lead-zinc mine in Kabwe, Zambia |url= |journal=Chemosphere |volume=119 |pages=941–947 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.09.028 |issn=1879-1298 |pmid=25303652 |bibcode=2015Chmsp.119..941Y |hdl-access=free |hdl=2115/58817|s2cid=4574262 }}</ref>
In July 2021, UN special rapporteurs urged the Zambian government to remediate the toxic site. Human rights and environmental organisations also urged the government to address the pollution and resulting health problems in local communities.<ref name=":2" /> A lawsuit against Anglo American concerning the pollution was ongoing in South Africa in 2023.
== Background == Kabwe is located near the African Copperbelt, {{convert|100|km}} north of Zambia's capital, Lusaka. The town had a population of about 220,000 in 2017.<ref name=":3" /> The mine and the area around it were originally called "Broken Hill" after a mine in Australia that possessed similar ores.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=24 May 2022 |title=Kabwe: A famous fossil unearthed amid the human costs of mining |url=https://johnhawks.net/weblog/kabwe-famous-fossil-polluted-site/ |access-date=26 March 2023 |website=John Hawks |language=en |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326191620/https://johnhawks.net/weblog/kabwe-famous-fossil-polluted-site/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The area was renamed "Kabwe" after Zambian independence in 1964.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Southwood |first1=Malcolm |last2=Cairncross |first2=Bruce |last3=Rumsey |first3=Mike S. |date=4 March 2019 |title=Minerals of the Kabwe ("Broken Hill") Mine, Central Province, Zambia |url= |journal=Rocks & Minerals |language=en |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=114–149 |doi=10.1080/00357529.2019.1530038 |s2cid=135446729 |issn=0035-7529}}</ref> Mining in Zambia continues to provide over 40% of government revenue, although it has provided few benefits to local communities who frequently live in poverty.<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last=Gbadamosi |first=Nosmot |date=8 February 2023 |title=Zambia Takes Anglo American to Court |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/08/zambia-south-africa-anglo-american-mining-court-lawsuit/ |access-date=7 August 2023 |work=Foreign Policy |language=en-US |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329141011/https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/08/zambia-south-africa-anglo-american-mining-court-lawsuit/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Lead poisoning most seriously affects children who are exposed to lead in dust and frequently put their hands in their mouths.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Bose-O'Reilly |first1=Stephan |last2=Yabe |first2=John |last3=Makumba |first3=Joseph |last4=Schutzmeier |first4=Paul |last5=Ericson |first5=Bret |last6=Caravanos |first6=Jack |date=1 August 2018 |title=Lead intoxicated children in Kabwe, Zambia |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320697696 |journal=Environmental Research |language=en |volume=165 |pages=420–424 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2017.10.024 |issn=0013-9351 |pmid=29089102 |bibcode=2018ER....165..420B |s2cid=33469863 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> This poisoning can affect brain development and cause permanent damage at a young age. Severe exposure can cause death. Lead in the blood above 5 μg/dL is considered elevated, and death is likely when levels are above 150 μg/dL.<ref name=":7" /> The United States Center for Disease Control (CDC) has set 3.5 μg/dL as the allowable level of lead in the blood.<ref name=":8" />
== History == thumb|left|upright|alt=Railway under construction near Kabwe in 1906|Part of the railway near Kabwe under construction ({{circa|1906}})
During its life, the mine produced over 1.8 million tons (mt) of zinc, 0.8 mt of lead metal; 7,816 tonnes of vanadium oxide; 80,000 kilograms of silver; and 235,000 kilograms of cadmium.<ref name=":10" />
Mining began in 1904 and reached commercial production in 1906 when the first railway in the country, operated by Rhodesian Railways, reached the Broken Hill mine.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Due |first=John F. |date=1986 |title=Trends in Rail Transport in Zambia and Tanzania |url=https://pdfproc.lib.msu.edu/?file=/DMC/African+Journals/pdfs/Utafiti/vol8no2/aejp008002005.pdf |journal=Utafiti: Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University of Dar Es Salaam |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=43–58 |access-date=12 August 2023 |archive-date=12 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812180204/https://pdfproc.lib.msu.edu/?file=/DMC/African+Journals/pdfs/Utafiti/vol8no2/aejp008002005.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":10" /> During its peak production from 1925 to 1974, the mine was majority owned by Anglo American plc, which was headquartered in South Africa at the time.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Makoni |first=Munyaradzi |date=7 August 2021 |title=UN concern over health at site of former Zambian lead mine |url= |journal=The Lancet |language=English |volume=398 |issue=10299 |page=478 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01794-3 |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=34364509|s2cid=236931443 }}</ref> Anglo American is one of the largest mining companies in the world.<ref name=":8" /> The Zambian government then took over the mine until it closed in 1994.<ref name=":9" /> Anglo American has said it never owned or operated the mine.<ref name=":8" />
In 2021, there were still about 5 million tons of mine tailings on the site, and the Zambian government had licensed reprocessing of this waste and further mining by the South African company Jubilee Metals.<ref name=":2" /> The area is also mined by artisanal miners.<ref name=":10" />
=== Geology === thumb|alt=Hopeite mineral specimen from Kabwe mine|Hopeite-Hemimorphite specimen from Kabwe mine
Europeans discovered the Kabwe deposit in 1902. In 1929, observers reported large caves, "lined with beautiful crystals of pyromorphite and cerussite", as well as descloizite and vanadinite.<ref name=":10" />
The Kabwe deposit is a carbonate hosted lead-zinc deposit consisting of four primary orebodies. The ore is primarily sphalerite, galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, briartite and renierite. There are many other secondary minerals.<ref name="Friedrich 2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Kamona |first1=A. F. |last2=Friedrich |first2=G. H. |date=March 2007 |title=Geology, mineralogy and stable isotope geochemistry of the Kabwe carbonate-hosted Pb–Zn deposit, Central Zambia |url= |journal=Ore Geology Reviews |language=en |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=217–243 |doi=10.1016/j.oregeorev.2006.02.003 |bibcode=2007OGRv...30..217K |issn=0169-1368}}</ref> Many aesthetic mineral specimens were produced at Kabwe, some of which were acquired by the British royal family. Many of these specimens were also donated to the British Museum of Natural History.<ref name=":10" />
== Pollution == The mine operated without environmental regulation and poisoned hundreds of thousands of people,<ref name=":11" /> especially between 1925 and 1974.<ref name=":1" /> Numerous studies since 1971 have confirmed a pattern of lead poisoning in the area,<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakata |first1=Hokuto |last2=Nakayama |first2=Shouta M.M. |last3=Yabe |first3=John |last4=Muzandu |first4=Kaampwe |last5=Toyomaki |first5=Haruya |last6=Yohannes |first6=Yared Beyene |last7=Kataba |first7=Andrew |last8=Zyambo |first8=Golden |last9=Ikenaka |first9=Yoshinori |last10=Choongo |first10=Kennedy |last11=Izhizuka |first11=Mayumi |display-authors=3 |date=January 2021 |title=Clinical biochemical parameters associated with the exposure to multiple environmental metals in residents from Kabwe, Zambia |journal=Chemosphere |volume=262 |article-number=127788 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127788 |pmid=33182082 |bibcode=2021Chmsp.262l7788N |s2cid=224912917|doi-access=free |hdl=2115/87839 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and Kabwe remains one of the world's most polluted towns.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Oduah |first=Chika |date=18 August 2022 |title='It's On a Different Dimension': Inside Africa's Most Toxic City |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/kabwe-zambia-lead-poisoning/ |access-date=9 August 2023 |website=Vice |language=en |archive-date=11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811153323/https://www.vice.com/en/article/5d39v8/kabwe-zambia-lead-poisoning |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Walsh |first=Bryan |date=12 September 2007 |title=The World's Most Polluted Places |language=en-US |magazine=Time |url=https://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1661031_1661028_1661025,00.html |access-date=9 August 2023 |issn=0040-781X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hokkaido University |date=4 November 2020 |title=The lasting effects of pollution from the Kabwe mine |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-11-effects-pollution-kabwe.html |access-date=9 August 2023 |website=Phys.org |language=en |archive-date=15 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230615214208/https://phys.org/news/2020-11-effects-pollution-kabwe.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
A 2011 research project funded by the World Bank determined that lead contamination of soils in nearby communities was 10 times the level allowed by the CDC (which is 400 ppm), and contamination was as high as 10,000 ppm in some places—including the grounds of a local health clinic.<ref name=":3" /> A 2015 study found that 100% of children tested had blood lead levels (BLL) exceeding CDC guidelines.<ref name=":6" /> Many children have BLLs above 45 μg/dL.<ref name=":8" /> A 2018 analysis of results from previous lead toxicity studies confirmed that local communities had high blood lead levels, especially among children and pregnant mothers. Many of these people required immediate medical intervention.<ref name=":7" /> A 2020 study assessing population-wide lead exposure found an average BLL of 11.9 μg/dL; over 200,000 people had a BLL above 5 μg/dL.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Yamada |first1=Daichi |last2=Hiwatari |first2=Masato |last3=Hangoma |first3=Peter |last4=Narita |first4=Daiju |last5=Mphuka |first5=Chrispin |last6=Chitah |first6=Bona |last7=Yabe |first7=John |last8=Nakayama |first8=Shouta M. M. |last9=Nakata |first9=Hokuto |last10=Choongo |first10=Kennedy |last11=Ishizuka |first11=Mayumi |display-authors=3 |date=15 September 2020 |title=Assessing the population-wide exposure to lead pollution in Kabwe, Zambia: an econometric estimation based on survey data |url= |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=15092 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-71998-5 |pmid=32934309 |pmc=7492281 |issn=2045-2322 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Conflict === In October 2020, a lawsuit was filed in South Africa against Anglo American on behalf of lead poisoning victims.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sguazzin |first=Antony |date=21 October 2020 |title=Zambians sue Anglo American mining company over lead poisoning |language=en |publisher=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-21/anglo-american-sued-for-lead-poisoning-in-zambia-mining-town |url-access=registration |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=10 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710053158/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-21/anglo-american-sued-for-lead-poisoning-in-zambia-mining-town |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Reid |first1=Helen |last2=Heiberg |first2=Tanisha |date=21 October 2020 |title=Anglo American's S.Africa unit faces class action over Zambia lead poisoning |language=en |work= |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/angloamerican-lawsuit-zambia-idUSL8N2HB3FS |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326193113/https://www.reuters.com/article/angloamerican-lawsuit-zambia-idUSL8N2HB3FS |url-status=live }}</ref> This lawsuit was ongoing in January 2023 when the High Court of South Africa heard plaintiffs' request to turn the case into a class action lawsuit for as many as 140,000 women and children affected by the lead poisoning.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sguazzin |first=Antony |date=20 January 2023 |title=Court Told Anglo Turned Blind Eye to Zambian Lead Poisoning |language=en |work= |publisher=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-20/court-told-anglo-turned-blind-eye-to-zambian-lead-poisoning |url-access=registration |access-date=15 April 2023 |archive-date=27 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827205059/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-20/court-told-anglo-turned-blind-eye-to-zambian-lead-poisoning |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=20 January 2023 |title=Lawsuit: Mining giant 'turned blind eye' to Zambia lead poisoning |language=en |publisher=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/20/mining-giant-turned-blind-eye-to-lead-poisoning-in-zambia |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326191611/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/20/mining-giant-turned-blind-eye-to-lead-poisoning-in-zambia |url-status=live }}</ref> The lawsuit could set an important precedent for holding corporations accountable for local impacts in African courts.<ref name=":8" />
Anglo American says that it provided technical services at the mine and that the state-owned Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines has accepted liability for the poisoning.<ref name=":8" />
=== Cleanup === In 2015, some cleanup was funded by environmental groups, and contaminated soil was removed and replaced for about 120 of the most polluted homes.<ref name=":3" /> By 2021, the Zambian government had taken some actions to provide healthcare for people but had not taken steps to clean up the toxic waste.<ref name=":2" />
== Fossil skull == {{Main|Kabwe 1}} [[File:Broken Hill Skull (Replica01).jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|alt=Replica of Kabwe 1 skull|Replica of Kabwe 1]]
In 1921, two miners discovered a fossilised skull and some other human remains in the mine.''<ref name=":5" />'' The bones were sent to the London Museum of Natural History, and Arthur Smith Woodward published a paper naming the new human precursor ''Homo rhodesiensis.<ref name=":5" />'' This fossil was the first remains of an extinct human relative to be found in Africa.<ref name=":4" /> The species was later determined to be ''Homo heidelbergensis.''<ref name=":5" />
The skull remains at the London Museum, and the Zambian government has requested that it be returned. It has been difficult to determine the age of the skull, partly because the area where it was found has been destroyed by mining activity. Original estimates dated the skull at 500,000 years old, but studies in 2020 used radioactive uranium isotopes to date the skull at closer to 300,000 years old.<ref name=":5" /> {{Clear}}
== References == {{Reflist}}
Category:Environmental disasters in Africa Category:Kabwe Category:Lead mines