{{Short description|American epidemiologist}} {{Infobox scientist | name = Joseph Goldberger | image = Joseph Goldberger 01.jpg | image_size = | birth_date = {{birth date|1874|7|16|mf=y}} | birth_place = Girált, [[Kingdom of Hungary]], (now [[Giraltovce]], [[Slovakia]]) | death_date = {{death date and age|1929|1|17|1874|7|16|mf=y}} | death_place = [[Washington, D.C.]], U.S. | resideuujt = | citizenship = | ethnicity = | field = [[Epidemiology]] | work_institution = [[United States Public Health Service]] | alma_mater = | doctoral_advisor = | doctoral_students = | known_for = | spouse = Mary Goldberger | prizes = | religion = | footnotes = }}
'''Joseph Goldberger''' ({{langx|sk|Jozef Goldberger}}, {{langx|hu|Goldberger József}}) (July 16, 1874 – January 17, 1929) was an American [[physician]] and [[epidemiologist]] in the [[United States Public Health Service]] (PHS). As a public health official, he was an advocate for scientific and social recognition of the links between [[poverty]] and [[disease]].<ref name="Evans_1994">{{cite journal | author = Evans BK | author2 = Feinstein AR | title = Joseph Goldberger: an unsung hero of American clinical epidemiology | journal = Ann Intern Med | date=1 September 1994| volume = 121 | issue = 5 | pages = 372–75 | pmid = 8042827 | doi=10.7326/0003-4819-121-5-199409010-00010| citeseerx = 10.1.1.694.5950 | s2cid = 13226008 }}</ref> His early work with arriving immigrants at [[Ellis Island]] made him a standout investigator for detecting infectious diseases and he became a well-known epidemiologist.<ref name="Evans_1994" />
Goldberger was nominated four times for the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] for his important work on the link between [[pellagra]] and poor diet.
==Early life== Goldberger was born in Girált, [[Sáros County]], [[Kingdom of Hungary]] (now [[Giraltovce]], [[Slovakia]]), into a [[Jewish]] family. The youngest of six children, he immigrated to the [[United States|U.S.]] with his parents in 1883, eventually settling in [[Manhattan]]'s [[Lower East Side]].
== Education == After completing his [[secondary education]], Goldberger entered the [[City College of New York]] intending to pursue an engineering career. A chance encounter in 1892 led Goldberger to become interested in medicine and he transferred to the Bellevue Hospital Medical College (now the [[New York University School of Medicine]]), receiving his M.D. degree in 1895.<ref name=FAQ>{{cite web | title=Goldberger, Joseph | website=faqs.org | url=http://www.faqs.org/nutrition/Biographies/Goldberger-Joseph.html | access-date=2022-03-17}}</ref>
== Professional career == Setting up a private medical practice in [[Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania]], Goldberger soon became intellectually restless.<ref name=Parsons_1943>{{cite book | author = Parsons RP | title = Trail to Light: A biography of Joseph Goldberger | publisher = Bobbs-Merrill | year = 1943 | asin= B0007DYTFM }}</ref> He joined the U.S. [[Marine Hospital Service]] (later known as the U.S. Public Health Service or PHS) in 1899, serving first post at the [[Port of New York and New Jersey|Port of New York]], where he conducted health inspections of newly arrived immigrants.
From 1902–1906, Goldberger held a number of PHS epidemiology posts—in [[Mexico]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Mississippi]] and [[Louisiana]]. He was involved in PHS efforts to combat [[yellow fever]], [[typhus]], [[dengue fever]], and [[typhoid fever]]. He gave a particularly noted lecture in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]] on the effects of parasites in disease transmission.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} In 1909, Goldberger published his research on an [[acarine]] [[mite]]-based parasitic infection common among poor, [[Inner city|inner-city]] populations. He also worked with [[John F. Anderson (scientist)|John F. Anderson]] investigating the transmission of [[measles]] and typhus.<ref name=Parsons_1943 />
=== Pellagra studies === In 1914, Goldberger was asked by [[Surgeon General of the United States|US Surgeon General]] [[Rupert Blue]] to investigate [[pellagra]], then an [[endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] disease in the [[Southern United States|Southern US]].<ref name=PHS_bio>{{cite web | title=Dr. Joseph Goldberger and the War on Pellagra | website=NIH Archives | url=http://history.nih.gov/vexhibits/goldberger/index.html | access-date=2007-01-23 | archive-date=2017-04-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422140149/https://history.nih.gov/vexhibits/goldberger/index.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Previously it had been rather rare in the United States, but an epidemic broke out in 1906, primarily in the South, and continued until the 1940s.<ref name="Evans_1994" /> By 1912, South Carolina alone had 30,000 cases, and with a death rate of 40%, pellagra had devastating effects on the region.<ref name="Bollet_1992">{{cite journal|year=1992|title=Politics and pellagra: the epidemic of pellagra in the U.S. in the early twentieth century|journal=Yale J Biol Med|volume=65|issue=3|pages=211–21|pmc=2589605|pmid=1285449|author=Bollet A}}</ref>
Pellagra was a painful skin disease commonly found in tropical regions. Some physicians at the time believed that the disease arose in consequence of bad genes, airborne germs, or [[Miasma theory|miasma]] resulting from poor sanitary conditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.nih.gov/exhibits/goldberger/docs/pellegra_5.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041022004508/http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/goldberger/docs/pellegra_5.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 22, 2004|title=Goldberger and the "Pellagra Germ"|website=NIH History|publisher=National Institutes of Health Medical Arts and Printing department|last1=Kraut|first1=Alan|access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref> Goldberger's theory that pellagra was associated with diet contradicted the most widely accepted medical opinion that pellagra was an infectious disease. The [[germ theory of disease]] had recently become popular in not only the medical field but also the public's consciousness. As a result, the germ theory was often generalized to far more ailments than it actually caused. Goldberger, in contrast, suspected that diet was the true cause, which he came to believe through his observation that hospital staff who worked closely with pellagra patients did not fall sick themselves.<ref name="Evans_1994" /> Furthermore, pellagra cases were overwhelmingly poor Southerners, especially African Americans and [[Sharecropping|sharecroppers]]. This was a group that often ate filling and starchy but nutrient-poor foods, especially those derived from corn.<ref name="Evans_1994" />
His investigation into pellagra led him to conduct two parallel experiments starting in 1914.<ref name="Evans_1994" /> In one study, he investigated two orphanages that were experiencing rampant pellagra. A group of 172 orphans had the disease already, while 168 subjects did not. With federal funding, he switched them to a more varied diet that included fresh meat, vegetables, milk, and eggs.<ref name="Evans_1994" /><ref name="Bollet_1992" /> After several weeks, there were no new cases and almost all of the afflicted orphans had recovered. In the two years of the study, there was only one new case.<ref name="Evans_1994" />
His next experiment took place at the [[Central State Hospital (Milledgeville, Georgia)|Georgia State Sanitarium]], the largest mental asylum in the South. Like the orphanages, the asylum had high rates of pellagra. However, this experiment included both an experimental and a control group. Also, he studied two categories of human subjects: black women and white women. By assessing their dietary intake, Goldberger aimed to test his hypothesis. The control group continued receiving the same food as before, but the experimental group was given a more balanced diet. Over the two-year span, half of the control group was sick while everyone on the varied diet recovered. In fact, the latter group improved so much that there was a high dropout rate, since many subjects became well enough to leave the institution. Unfortunately, after the study, the funding for more nutritious food dried up and the pellagra rates in the orphanages and asylum returned to pre-study levels.<ref name="Evans_1994" />
Goldberger's next objective was to confirm the relationship between poor diet and pellagra. To do this, he met with [[Earl L. Brewer]], the [[governor of Mississippi]], in 1915. He requested access to prisoners of the Rankin State Prison Farm to try and induce pellagra in them. He chose this prison in particular because it previously had no cases of pellagra. After negotiation, Earl accepted Goldberger's request in return for [[pardon]]s for the prisoners (some of whom had connections with the governor).<ref name="Evans_1994" />
Goldberger experimented on 11 healthy volunteers from the Rankin State Prison Farm for this 9-month study. The subjects were put on a strict and heavily monitored corn-based diet lacking meat, milk, and vegetables. Goldberger observed that the subjects became weaker and weaker as the days went on. After six months, five of the eleven patients contracted pellagra and the rest had symptoms corresponding to pellagra. The prisoners reported enduring agony once they were afflicted, and some even tried to drop out of the study but were prevented from doing so.<ref name="Evans_1994"/> Despite his careful experiments, Goldberger's discovery proved socially and politically unacceptable, and he made little progress in gaining support for the treatment of pellagra. Besides the popularity of the germ theory, opposition also came from Southern leaders who resented a Northerner claiming that the pellagra outbreak was a product of the region's widespread poverty.<ref name="Evans_1994" /> Consequently, Goldberger became extremely frustrated. He conducted one final experiment, referred to as "filth parties", to silence the critics. In 1916, he injected 16 volunteers—including himself, his wife, and his assistant—with pellagric blood over 7 trials. Afterwards they experienced diarrhea and nausea but did not contract the disease. However, this effort too was rejected by critics for using almost entirely male subjects when pellagra was supposedly more common in females.<ref name="Evans_1994" />
Though Goldberger established a clear link between pellagra and diet, he never discovered the specific nutrient deficiency that caused it.<ref name="Evans_1994" /> It was not until 1937 that [[Conrad Elvehjem]] discovered that pellagra is caused by a dietary lack of the B vitamin [[Niacin (substance)|niacin]], along with reduced levels of the essential amino acid [[tryptophan]]. [[Tom Spies]] also contributed to this finding.
== Death and legacy ==
Goldberger died of [[renal cell carcinoma]] in Washington, D.C., on January 19, 1929, at the age of 54.<ref name=PHS_bio /><ref>{{cite web|title=Goldberger, Joseph, American physician |website=faqs.org |last=Bryla |first=Karen |url=http://www.faqs.org/nutrition/Biographies/Goldberger-Joseph.html#ixzz5YlUPAItA}}</ref> Upon his death, Goldberger's wife received a $125-a-month pension thanks to a special congressional bill that recognized the value of his work.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jta.org/1929/02/10/archive/urges-senate-to-vote-pension-for-widow-of-dr-joseph-goldberger |title=Urges Senate to Vote Pension for Widow of Dr. Joseph Goldberger |publisher=JTA |date=1929-02-10}}</ref>
Goldberger's pellagra experiments were featured in [[Paul de Kruif]]'s book "Hunger Fighters". (1928)<ref>{{cite book |last=de Kruif |first=Paul |date=1928 |title=Hunger Fighters |url=https://archive.org/details/hungerfightersby0000unse/page/334/mode/2up |location=Internet Archive|publisher=Harcourt, Brace and Company |page=334 |access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref> Ironically, Nazi scientists, including [[Georg August Weltz]] who were among the first to propose that criminals be used for very high-altitude experiments cited de Kruif's book and his description of Goldberger's experiments with convict volunteers as the inspiration for their own infamous experiments with witting and unwitting convict subjects.<ref>{{cite web |title=Transcript for NMT 1: Medical Case: 6 May 1947, page 7203 |url=https://nuremberg.law.harvard.edu/transcripts/1?seq=7203 |website=Harvard Law School - Nurembeg Trials Project |publisher=Harvard Law School Library |access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref>
Goldberger was nominated four times for the Nobel Prize (1916, 1925, and twice in 1929).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/country-people.php?country=222&university=1112&person=nominee|title=Nomination Database|date=April 2020 |publisher=Nobel Prize Committee |accessdate=17 March 2022}}</ref>
In 1940, [[John Nesbitt (announcer)|John Nesbitt]] produced a short film about Goldberger titled ''[[John Nesbitt's Passing Parade|A Way in the Wilderness]]'', directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]] and starring [[Shepperd Strudwick]].<ref>{{cite video |date=1940 | url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0033243/ | title=A Way in the Wilderness | medium=Motion picture}}</ref>
The story of Goldberger's research on [[pellagra]] was featured in the 2008 [[Michael Mosley]] [[BBC Four]] documentary mini-series ''Medical Mavericks: The History of Self-Experimentation''<ref>{{Cite episode |title=Diet and Disease |series=Medical Mavericks |first=Michael (host) |last=Mosley |network=[[BBC Four]] |date=July 1, 2008 |number=3 }}</ref> and on a 2012 episode of the [[Science (TV channel)|Science Channel]] TV show, ''[[Dark Matters: Twisted But True]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://science.discovery.com/videos/dark-matters-amnesiac-party-poopers-risky-radiation/ |title=Dark Matters: Amnesiac, Party Poopers, Risky Radiation : Videos : Science Channel |website=science.discovery.com |date=2012-09-20 |access-date=2013-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120826131139/http://science.discovery.com/videos/dark-matters-amnesiac-party-poopers-risky-radiation/ |archive-date=2012-08-26 |url-status=unfit }}</ref>
The radio program ''[[Cavalcade of America]]'' in 1940 had an episode called "The Red Death" about Goldberger's research on [[pellagra]] starring [[Ray Collins (actor)|Ray Collins]] and [[Agnes Moorehead]].{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}
Goldberger's papers are held at the [[National Library of Medicine]] in [[Bethesda, Maryland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://oculus.nlm.nih.gov/goldberger196 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131020041731/http://oculus.nlm.nih.gov/goldberger196 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 20, 2013 |title=Joseph Goldberger Papers 1909–1940 |publisher=National Library of Medicine |accessdate=17 March 2022}}</ref>
== See also == *[[Takaki Kanehiro]]
== References == {{Reflist|30em}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Goldberger, Joseph}} [[Category:1874 births]] [[Category:1929 deaths]] [[Category:People from Giraltovce]] [[Category:Emigrants from Austria-Hungary to the United States]] [[Category:American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent]] [[Category:19th-century American medical doctors]] [[Category:19th-century Hungarian people]] [[Category:Jewish American scientists]] [[Category:American public health doctors]] [[Category:American parasitologists]] [[Category:United States Public Health Service personnel]] [[Category:Human subject research in the United States]] [[Category:American epidemiologists]] [[Category:New York University Grossman School of Medicine alumni]]