Moroccan Jews

{{Infobox ethnic group | group = Moroccan Jews<br />{{Nobold|{{native name|he|יהדות מרוקו}}<br />{{native name|ar|اليهود المغاربة}}}} | image = Jews of Fez.jpg | caption = Jews of Fes {{circa|1900}} | population = 1.2 million | region1 = {{flagcountry|Israel}} | pop1 = ~1 million{{efn|900,000 according to BBC Arabic in 2004. The World Federation of Moroccan Jewry estimated close to 1 million as of 2019.}}<ref>{{cite news |title=اليهود المغاربة وازدواجية الولاء |date=21 December 2005 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/arabic/middle_east_news/newsid_4550000/4550224.stm |publisher=BBC Arabic |access-date=6 December 2022}}</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Moroccan-Jewry-in-Israel-set-to-commemorate-60-years-of-aliya-599658 Moroccan Jewry in Israel set to commemorate 60 years of aliya], The Jerusalem Post (August 25, 2019).</ref><br/>472,800 (born in Morocco or with a Moroccan-born father){{efn|As of 2010.}} | ref1 = <ref name=ispop>{{cite web |title=Jews by country of origin and age, 2010 |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_24x&CYear=2011 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113173112/http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_24x&CYear=2011 |access-date=6 December 2022| archive-date=2011-11-13 }}</ref> | region2 = {{flagcountry|France}} | pop2 = ~55,000 | ref2 = <ref>{{cite web |title=נתון אחד ביום: רוב יהודי מרוקו חיים בישראל |date=April 2021 |url=https://www.davar1.co.il/294177/ |publisher=Davar |access-date=6 December 2022}}</ref> | region3 = {{flagcountry|Canada}} | pop3 = ~27,000 | ref3 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Toronto |work=Les Juifs marocains Dans Le Monde |url=http://www.mimouna.net/index.php?page=contenu&number_page=8&cat_name=Juifs%20Marocains%20Dans%20Le%20Monde|publisher=Mimouna|access-date=12 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Montréal |work=Les Juifs marocains Dans Le Monde |url=http://www.mimouna.net/index.php?page=contenu&number_page=12&cat_name=Juifs%20Marocains%20Dans%20Le%20Monde|publisher=Mimouna|access-date=12 December 2011}}</ref> | region4 = {{flagcountry|USA}} | pop4 = ~25,000 | ref4 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Moroccan Jews in the United States |date= 24 January 2021|url= https://moroccanjews.org/home/moroccan-jewish-diaspora/moroccan-jews-in-the-united-states/|publisher=Visiting Jewish Morocco|access-date=10 October 2021}}</ref> | region5 = {{flagcountry|Spain}} | pop5 = ~11,600 | ref5 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Les Juifs marocains en Espagne |work=Les Juifs marocains Dans Le Monde |url=http://www.mimouna.net/index.php?page=contenu&number_page=20&cat_name=Juifs%20Marocains%20Dans%20Le%20Monde|publisher=Mimouna|access-date=12 December 2011}}</ref> | region6 = {{flagcountry|Venezuela}} | pop6 = ~6,000 | ref6 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Les Juifs marocains au Vénézuela |work=Les Juifs marocains Dans Le Monde |url=http://www.mimouna.net/index.php?page=contenu&number_page=37&cat_name=Juifs%20Marocains%20Dans%20Le%20Monde}}</ref> | region7 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}} | pop7 = ~6,000 | ref7 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Les Juifs marocains au Brésil |work=Les Juifs marocains Dans Le Monde |url=http://www.mimouna.net/index.php?page=contenu&number_page=5&cat_name=Juifs%20Marocains%20Dans%20Le%20Monde |publisher=Mimouna |access-date=12 December 2011}}</ref> | region8 = {{flagcountry|Morocco}} | pop8 = ~2,500 | ref8 = <ref name="auto">Sergio DellaPergola, [http://www.bjpa.org/Publications/downloadPublication.cfm?PublicationID=16432 World Jewish population], 2012, p. 62.</ref> | region9 = {{flagcountry|Gibraltar}} | pop9 = 700 | ref9 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Les Juifs marocains à Gibraltar|url=http://www.mimouna.net/index.php?page=contenu&number_page=2&cat_name=Juifs%20Marocains%20Dans%20Le%20Monde|publisher=Mimouna|access-date=12 December 2011}}</ref> | region10 = {{flagcountry|UK}} | pop10 = ~550 | ref10 = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/about-ons/business-transparency/freedom-of-information/what-can-i-request/published-ad-hoc-data/census/ethnicity/ct0265-2011-census.xls|title=UK Government Web Archive|website=webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref> | region11 = {{flagcountry|Argentina}} | pop11 = 500 | ref11 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Les Juifs marocains en Argentine |work=Les Juifs marocains Dans Le Monde |url=http://www.mimouna.net/index.php?page=contenu&number_page=3&cat_name=Juifs%20Marocains%20Dans%20Le%20Monde|publisher=Mimouna|access-date=12 December 2011}}</ref> | languages = Hebrew, Judeo-Moroccan Arabic, Moroccan Arabic, Haketia, Judeo-Berber, French, Spanish. | religions = Judaism | related_groups = Moroccans, Spaniards, Maghrebi Jews, Sephardic Jews | related-c = }}

'''Moroccan Jews''' ({{langx|ar|اليهود المغاربة|al-Yahūd al-Maghāriba}}; {{langx|he|יהודים מרוקאים|Yehudim Maroka'im}}; {{langx|lad|Djudios de Maroko}}) are Jews who live in or are from Morocco. Moroccan Jews constitute an ancient community dating to Roman times. Jews began immigrating to the region as early as 70 CE. They were much later met by a second wave of migrants from the Iberian Peninsula in the period which immediately preceded and followed the issuing of the 1492 Alhambra Decree, when Jews were expelled from Spain, and soon afterwards, from Portugal. This second wave of immigrants changed Moroccan Jewry, which largely embraced the Andalusian Sephardic liturgy, to switch to a mostly Sephardic identity.

Moroccan Jews built the first Jewish neighborhood outside the walls of Jerusalem (Mahane Israel) in 1867,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kark |first=Ruth |date=1987 |title=Moroccan Jews as founders of Mahane Israel |url=https://www.ybz.org.il/_Uploads/dbsAttachedFiles/Article_21.2(1).pdf |journal=Yad Bar Tszi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109040621/https://www.ybz.org.il/_Uploads/dbsAttachedFiles/Article_21.2(1).pdf |archive-date=2022-01-09 |access-date=2021-12-12}}</ref> as well as the first modern neighborhoods in Tel Aviv, Haifa and Tiberias.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gaon |first=Moshe David |date=1927 |title=History of the Sephardi Jews in Israel |url=https://www.hebrewbooks.org/36725 |access-date=2021-12-12 |website=Hebrew Books}}</ref> Following the spread of Zionism in Morocco beginning in the early 20th century and the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, there was a significant migration of Moroccan Jews to Palestine, especially through the Israeli initiatives Cadima (1949–1956) and Operation Yachin (1961–1964).

During the 1950s, Morocco's Jewish population was about 250,000–350,000. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2013/02/27/268524.html |title=Morocco film searches out Jews who left for Israel |date=27 February 2013 |agency=Associated Press |work=Al Arabiya}}</ref> Due to Jewish-Moroccan emigration during the 1960s-1970s, the country’s Jewish population reduced to approximately 2,500.<ref name="auto">Sergio DellaPergola, [http://www.bjpa.org/Publications/downloadPublication.cfm?PublicationID=16432 World Jewish population], 2012, p. 62.</ref> The vast majority of Moroccan Jews now live in Israel, where they constitute the second-largest Jewish community.<ref name=ispop/> Other communities are found in France, Canada, Spain, the United States, and South America, mainly in Venezuela, Brazil, and Argentina.

The affection and respect between Moroccan Jews and the Kingdom of Morocco is still palpable. Every year, rabbis and community leaders around the world are invited to attend the Throne Celebration held in Rabat. During the 2014 celebration, Rabbi Haim A. Moryoussef from Canada, dedicated his book "Le Bon Oeil - Ben Porath Yossef" to King Mohammed VI along with a handwritten blessing written on parchment wishing him a healthy, long, and successful life.<ref>{{cite web |last1=M |first1=Nat |title=Le Bon Oeil |date=20 May 2015 |url=http://yossefhaim.ca/le-bon-oeil/lettre-de-s-m-mohammed-vi/ |publisher=Congregation Yossef Haim}}</ref>

==History== {{Main|History of the Jews in Morocco}} [[File:CAM00821.jpg|thumb|Ifrane Atlas-Saghir in the Anti-Atlas, known to Jews as Oufrane, is believed to be the oldest Jewish community in Morocco, speculatively dated to the year 361 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gottreich |first=Emily |url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/monograph?docid=b-9781838603601 |title=Jewish Morocco: A History from Pre-Islamic to Postcolonial Times |date=2020 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-78076-849-6 |doi=10.5040/9781838603601}}</ref>]] [[File:A Jewish house in Mogador by Darondeau 1807 1841.jpg|thumb|Etching of Jewish home in Mogador, Darondeau (1807–1841)]] Moroccan Jews constitute an ancient community with possible origins dating back to before 70 CE. Concrete evidence of Jewish presence in Morocco becomes apparent in late antiquity, with Hebrew epitaphs and menorah-decorated lamps discovered in the Roman city of Volubilis, and the remains of a synagogue dating to the third century CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gottreich |first=Emily |url=http://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/jewish-morocco-a-history-from-pre-islamic-to-postcolonial-times |title=Jewish Morocco: A History from Pre-Islamic to Postcolonial Times |date=2020 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-78076-849-6 |pages=22–23 |doi=10.5040/9781838603601.ch-001 |s2cid=241423198}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1-last=Andreeva|author1-first=Sofia|author2-last=Fedorchuk|author2-first=Artem|author3-last=Nosonovsky|author3-first=Michael|title=Revisiting Epigraphic Evidence of the Oldest Synagogue in Morocco in Volubilis |journal=Arts|year=2019 |volume=8 |number=4 |page=127 |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0752/8/4/127/htm}}</ref> In accordance with the norms of the Islamic legal system, Moroccan Jews had separate legal courts pertaining to "personal law" under which communities (Muslim ''sharia'', Christian Canon law and Jewish ''halakha'' law-abiding) were allowed to rule themselves under their own system.

During the Late Middle Ages, and particularly after the expulsion of Jews mandated by the Alhambra Decree, many Sephardi Jews migrated from al-Andalus to the Maghreb as refugees fleeing the inquisition in Spain and Portugal.<ref name="Taieb-Carlen">{{Cite book|last=Taieb-Carlen|first=Sarah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9txi3xuuENcC&q=alhambra+decree+morocco&pg=PA56|title=The Jews of North Africa: From Dido to De Gaulle|date=2010-02-23|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-7618-5044-1|language=en}}</ref> They are referred to as the ''Megorashim'',<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gerber|first=Jane S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sgS1qqkVL0kC&q=megorashim&pg=PA46|title=Jewish Society in Fez 1450-1700: Studies in Communal and Economic Life|date=1980|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-05820-0|language=en}}</ref> while the Jews already in Morocco are referred to as the ''Toshavim''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gerber|first=Jane S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sgS1qqkVL0kC&q=toshavim&pg=PA43|title=Jewish Society in Fez 1450-1700: Studies in Communal and Economic Life|date=1980|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-05820-0|language=en}}</ref> Many Sephardic Jews settled in Fez and Marrakesh.<ref name="Taieb-Carlen"/> In the following centuries, ''Conversos'' who had been banished to Iberian colonial possessions in the Americas and the Atlantic reclaimed their Judaism and also resettled in Morocco.<ref name="Taieb-Carlen"/>

In the mid 19th century, Moroccan Jews started migrating from the interior of the country to coastal cities such as Essaouira, Mazagan, Asfi, and later Casablanca for economic opportunity, participating in trade with Europeans and the development of those cities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gottreich, Emily R.|title=Jewish space in the Morroccan city: a history of the mellah of Marrakech, 1550-1930|page=54|oclc=77066581}}</ref> The Alliance Israélite Universelle opened its first school in Tetuan in 1862.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rodrigue|first=Aron|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3NatkG7sGCkC&q=1862&pg=PA125|title=Jews and Muslims: Images of Sephardi and Eastern Jewries in Modern Times|date=2003|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-98314-1|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Bab_mellah.jpg|alt=|thumb|Balconies in the Mellah of Fes, an old Jewish neighborhood, distinguish the homes from homes of Muslims at the time.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Bressolette |first1=Henri |last2=Delaroziere |first2=Jean |date=1983 |title=Fès-Jdid de sa fondation en 1276 au milieu du XXe siècle |journal=Hespéris-Tamuda |pages=245–318}}</ref>]] After the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, and due to domestic strife in the 1950s, the next several decades saw waves of Jewish emigration to Israel, France and Canada. Shay Hazkani found that of the 20,000 who performed aliyah in 1948-1949, 1,000 served in the IDF, of which 70 percent wished to return home to Morocco. Only 6 percent managed to do so, given such various bureaucratic obstacles as the Israelis’ confiscation of their passports.<ref>Shay Hazkani,[https://books.google.com/books?id=sAMcEAAAQBAJ&dq=Hazkani%2BDear+Palestine%2BAbdullah+Dawud&pg=PT11 ''Dear Palestine:A Social History of the 1948,''] Stanford University Press 2021 {{isbn|978-1-503-61465-9}}.</ref><ref>Josh Ruebner, [https://mondoweiss.net/2021/06/unsettling-1948-a-review-of-shay-hazkanis-dear-palestine/ 'Unsettling 1948: A Review of Shay Hazkani's 'Dear Palestine','] Mondoweiss 24 June 2021</ref> Moroccan Jews emigrated for a variety of reasons. Some have emigrated for religious reasons, some faced mistreatment, and others left for better economic prospects than they faced in post-protectorate Morocco. With every Arab-Israeli war, tensions between Arabs and Jews would rise, sparking more Jewish emigration. By the time of the Yom Kippur War in 1973, the majority of Morocco's Jewish population had emigrated.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4350488,00.html|title=Morocco film searches out Jews who left|newspaper=Ynetnews|date=3 March 2013|access-date=22 August 2017}}</ref>

As a protectorate of France (from 1912-1956), parts of Morocco were influenced by the French, while the same was true for northern Morocco while under Spain’s protectorate (also from 1912-1956). During the French and Spanish protectorates, Moroccan Jews and Moroccan Muslims were classified based upon which Moroccan regions they called home. Certain remnants of these classifications can be felt today. These differences are reflected in language, foods, last names and even liturgy.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Early photographs of Moroccan Jewish families, taken in the early 20th century by German explorer and photographer Hermann Burchardt, are now held at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin.<ref>[http://www.smb-digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&module=collection&objectId=625690&bt=europeanaapi Jewish couple in Morocco on the roof of their house]; [http://www.smb-digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&module=collection&objectId=625691&bt=europeanaapi Jewish family during the Feast of Tabernacles on the roof of their house]; [http://www.moroccan-judaism.org/fiche?id=22014&bt=europeanaapi Moroccan Jews in 1905], by Hermann Burchardt; [http://www.moroccan-judaism.org/fiche?id=28768&bt=europeanaapi Jewish family, 1905]; [http://www.moroccan-judaism.org/fiche?id=22012&bt=europeanaapi The Saba Synagogue, 1905]; [http://www.smb-digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&module=collection&objectId=625430&bt=europeanaapi Jewish family in their home]; [http://www.smb-digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&module=collection&objectId=625431&bt=europeanaapi The Ibn (Aben) Danan Synagogue], in the Mellah of Fès (click to enlarge); [http://www.smb-digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&module=collection&objectId=625432&bt=europeanaapi Jewish family in Morocco], early 20th century (click on photo to enlarge); [http://www.moroccan-judaism.org/fiche?id=22187&bt=europeanaapi Family portrait], Morocco.</ref>

During the late 1930s, many Jews in Morocco lived in desolate areas. This was in part due to increased taxation by French authorities. In 1936, Léon Blum, a Jewish man, was appointed as prime minister of France. This gave some Moroccan Jews hope that they may be able to become French citizens at some point, as Algerian Jews gained French citizenship with the Crémieux Decree. Algerian Jews were granted right of passage to France, and this only furthered the desire of Moroccan Jews to embrace French culture to the extent of the Algerian Jews.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kenbib|first=Mohammed|date=2014-08-08|title=Moroccan Jews and the Vichy regime, 1940–42|journal=The Journal of North African Studies|language=en|volume=19|issue=4|pages=540–553|doi=10.1080/13629387.2014.950523|s2cid=144757688|issn=1362-9387}}</ref>

During the Moroccan struggle for independence in the 1950s, several promises were made to ensure equal rights to the Jewish community in a future independent Morocco, in part due to lobbying efforts of Moroccan nationalists in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stenner |first=David |title=Globalizing Morocco: transnational activism and the post-colonial state |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-5036-0900-6 |location=Stanford, California |page=146 |oclc=1082294927}}</ref>

Today, a small Jewish community of 2,500 live in Morocco (most of whom in Casablanca). However, many young men emigrate to France and Israel. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4354823,00.html|title=Moroccan Jews study high-tech in Israel|newspaper=Ynetnews|date=17 March 2013|access-date=22 August 2017|last1=Abebe |first1=Danny Adeno }}</ref> As of 2017, according to ''The Economist'', "No Arab country has gone to the lengths of Morocco to revive its Jewish heritage."<ref name="veconomist" >{{cite news|title=Morocco's little idyll of Jewish-Muslim coexistence|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21730897-essaouira-sets-example-rest-middle-east-moroccos-little-idyll|newspaper=The Economist|date=2 November 2017}}</ref> The country has restored 110 synagogues and has the Arab world's only Jewish museum.<ref name="veconomist" /> More than 50,000 Moroccan Jews in Israel visit Morocco each year.<ref name="veconomist" />

==Communities today== In the preamble to the 2011 Moroccan constitutional referendum following the Arab Spring,<ref>{{Citation |title=دستور المملكة المغربية |date=2011 |trans-title=Constitution of the Kingdom of Morocco |url=https://www.chambredesrepresentants.ma/sites/default/files/documents/constitution_marocaine_2011-ar.pdf |quote={{lang|ar|المملكة المغربية دولة إسلامية ذات سيادة كاملة، متشبثة بوحدتھا الوطنية والترابية، وبصيانة تلاحم وتنوع مقومات ھويتھا الوطنية، الموحدة بانصھار كل مكوناتھا، العربية - الإسلامية، والأمازيغية، والصحراوية الحسانية، والغنية بروافدھا الإفريقية والأندلسية والعبرية والمتوسطية.}} [A sovereign Muslim state, committed to its national unity and its territorial integrity, the Kingdom of Morocco intends to preserve, in its fullness and diversity, its one and indivisible national identity. Its unity, forged by the convergence of its Arabo-Islamic, Amazigh, and Hassani-Saharan components, is nourished and enriched by its African, Andalusian, Jewish [hébraïque] and Mediterranean influences.]|pages=14}}</ref> King Mohammed VI affirmed the status of the Jewish community of Morocco as a constitutive component of the Moroccan nation.<ref>{{Citation |last=Schroeter |first=Daniel J. |title=How Jews Became “Moroccan” |date=2018-04-08 |work=From Catalonia to the Caribbean: The Sephardic Orbit from Medieval to Modern Times |pages=218–240 |editor-last=Francesconi |editor-first=Federica |url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004376717/BP000017.xml |access-date=2026-04-13 |publisher=BRILL |doi=10.1163/9789004376717_014 |isbn=978-90-04-37671-7 |editor2-last=Mirvis |editor2-first=Stanley |editor3-last=Smollett |editor3-first=Brian}}</ref>[[File:معبد بيت إيل.jpg|thumb|Beth-El Synagogue in Casablanca in 2017]] [[File:Netivot Israel Congregation, Moroccan synagogue in Brooklyn.jpg|thumb|Netivot Yisrael congregation in Brooklyn.]] [[File:Jewish cemetery in Essaouira.jpg|thumb|Jewish cemetery, Essaouira]] * Morocco: In 2012, it was estimated that 2,000–2,500 Jews still lived in Morocco, mainly in Casablanca.<ref name="auto"/> Other towns are said to have smaller, aging populations. In 2025 the Jewish Population in Morocco numbered 1,000<ref>[https://www.jewishrefugees.org.uk/2025/02/why-do-thousands-of-jews-still-stay-in-iran.html/comment-page-1?unapproved=15620&moderation-hash=7f9cf6564dcf965914f661a7bcf227cf#comment-15620 Jewish Refugee.org February 22,2025]</ref> * Israel: The 1960s and 1970s saw large waves of Jewish emigration from Morocco to Israel. Many Moroccan Jews were transferred to peripheral development towns while others settled in larger, established cities. Today, Moroccan Jews can be found throughout Israel. * France: Large communities in France include Paris, Marseille, Strasbourg, Lyon and Nice. * Argentina: Mainly in Buenos Aires and Rosario. * Brazil: Amazonian Jews mainly in Belém (about 450 families), Manaus (about 250 families) and Rio de Janeiro (about 100 families),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aj200.blogspot.com.br/2010/02/linha-do-tempo-da-presenca-judaica-na.html|title=Blog do Amazônia Judaica: Linha do Tempo da Presença Judaica na Amazônia|first=Amazonia|last=Judaica|website=aj200.Blogspot.com.br|access-date=22 August 2017}}</ref> with small communities scattered throughout the Amazon region. 2009 marked two hundred years of the first wave of immigration to the Amazon region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amazoniajudaica.org/167563/Quem-somos|title=Portal Amazonia Judaica - Quem Somos|website=www.AmazoniaJudaica.org|access-date=22 August 2017}}</ref> Prominent descendant of Moroccan Jews in Brazil include Brazilian Senator for the Amazonian province of Amapá, Davi Alcolumbre, who became President of the Senate in 2019, as well as Isaac Benayon Sabba and Samuel Benchimol. * Canada: Canada began extending visas to Jews from Morocco in the 1950s. Large communities developed in Montreal and Toronto. Moroccans were attracted to Canada because of its high quality of life and to French-speaking Montreal, in particular, due to the language element. Toronto is known for its significant Moroccan population originating from cities such as Tangier and Tetouan. In the recent past, however, an emergence of French-Moroccan musical liturgy and customs has been noticed even in this dominant Moroccan city. For example, the traditional Moroccan Bakashot, classical music sung by Sephardic Jews in the winter months across countries in the Middle East on Friday night, has come to life in recent productions by Magen David Congregation and Abir Ya'akob Congregation. {{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} * Venezuela: Concentrated mainly in Caracas. * Gibraltar: The Jewish community in Gibraltar originates from Tangier and Tetouan. * United States: The Moroccan Jewish Organization (MJO)<ref>Moroccan Jewish Organization (MJO) {{cite web|url=http://mjony.org/id1.html|title=The History of the MJO|access-date=13 Sep 2017}}</ref> was founded in 1972. Founding Members created Moroccan Services & a Synagogue in Forest Hills, NY named Shaar Hashamayim Sephardic Synagogue. Members and Participants of MJO went on to create other Moroccan Synagogues and Batei Midrashot / Houses of [Torah] Study in Manhattan (Manhattan Sephardic Cong.), Brooklyn (Netivot Yisrael), Fort Lee, NJ, Cedarhurst (HaChaim veHaShalom) and Philadelphia, PA.

== Jewish quarters in Morocco == {{Main|Mellah}}

{{See also|Mellah of Fes|Mellah of Marrakesh|Mellah of Casablanca}} The Jewish quarters in Morocco were called ''mellahs''. Jews in Morocco were considered dhimmis under Muslim law, meaning that they were a protected religious minority distinct from the Muslim majority, and were prevented from participating in certain activities.<ref name=":0">Deshen, Shlomo. "Urban Jews in Sherifian Morocco." Middle Eastern Studies 20, no. 4 (1984): 212-23. doi:10.1080/00263208408700607</ref> Following the Pact of Umar in the 7th century, the dhimmis (including Jewish communities) were tolerated, accepted, and integrated into Moroccan society. Morocco's longstanding coexistence between differing religious communities opposed the European Christians' policy of intolerance practiced toward Europe's Jewish peoples. Moroccan Jews lived in the ''mellahs,'' in what some modern historians interpret as attempts to ostracize Moroccan Jews and keep them from being exposed to insurgents;<ref>Deshen, Shlomo. "Urban Jews in Sherifian Morocco." ''Middle Eastern Studies''20, no. 4 (1984): 214 . doi:10.1080/00263208408700607.</ref> The Sultans also desired that Jews to be protected for political reasons, as an attack on minorities was seen as an attack on the Sultans' power. The Sultans thus restricted Jews to the ''mellahs'' for their safety, as well as to protect the Sultans' rulings from being tested by insurgents.<ref name=":0" /> The word ''mellah'' is similar to the Hebrew word for salt, {{lang|he-Latn|melach}} (מלח); it refers to the salty, marshy area to which the Jews of northern Morocco were originally transferred and where they gathered.<ref name="Lapidus, Ira M 2008">Lapidus, Ira M. "Emily Gottreich. The Mellah of Marrakesh: Jewish and Muslim Space in Morocco's Red City.(Indiana Series in Middle East Studies.)." ''The American Historical Review''113, no. 3 (2008): 946-47. doi:10.1086/ahr.113.3.946.</ref> ''Mellahs'' were not ghettos and were not structured in manners to the Jewish ghettos in Europe.<ref name="Lapidus, Ira M 2008"/> By the 1900s, most Moroccan cities had a ''mellah''.<ref name="Lapidus, Ira M 2008"/>

==Culture==

===Music=== [[File:Fête juive à Tétouan, Alfred Dehodencq, 1865.jpg|thumb|Jewish Festival in Tetuan, Alfred Dehodencq, 1865, Paris Museum of Jewish Art and History]] Even before the arrival of Sephardic Jews to Morocco, Moroccan Jews performed and developed the traditions of the Andalusian classical music and introduced it into their liturgical music. In his book "Jews of Andalusia and the Maghreb" on the musical traditions in Jewish societies of North Africa, Haim Zafrani writes: "''In Spain and Morocco, Jews were ardent maintainers of Andalusian music and the zealous guardians of its old traditions ...'' "<ref>{{cite book|title=Juifs d'Andalousie et du Maghreb|series=Références Maisonneuve et Larose|author=Haïm Zafrani |publisher=Maisonneuve & Larose|year=2002|page=228|isbn=978-2-7068-1629-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdsEySgTqxAC&pg=PA228}}</ref>

=== Cuisine === {{Main article|Moroccan Jewish cuisine}}

Moroccan Jewish cuisine blends local Moroccan flavors, the culinary traditions of Jewish communities, and kosher dietary laws. The cuisine is closely tied to social and religious events, particularly Shabbat and holiday meals, and includes dishes such as ''couscous'' and ''tajine''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |title=מרוקו |publisher=Ben Zvi Institute for the Research of the Jewish Communities in the Middle East; Minister of Education: Division for Social and Youth Education |year=2003 |editor-last=Saadoun |editor-first=Haim |pages=103–106 |trans-title=Morocco |issn=1565-0774}}</ref> The cuisine reflects influences from Arab, Berber, French, and Spanish traditions, with emphases on spices, herbs, and vegetables.<ref name=":1" />

One of the most famous dishes of Moroccan Jewish cuisine is the traditional sabbath meal: ''skhina'' ({{Lang|ary|سخينة}}, a literal translation of {{Langx|he|חמין}} "hot"), also called ''dfina'' ({{Lang|ary|دفينة}} "buried").<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-10-18 |title=حكاية طبق {{!}} الدفينة - المغرب {{!}} الجزيرة الوثائقية |url=http://doc.aljazeera.net/video/%D8%AD%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018093954/http://doc.aljazeera.net/video/%D8%AD%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8 |archive-date=2017-10-18 |access-date=2020-04-22 |language=ar}}</ref> There's also a kosher version of ''pastilla''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Solomonov |first1=Michael |title=Zahav: A World of Israeli Cuisine |date=2016 |publisher=HMH}}</ref> Special foods are prepared for holidays, like the post-Passover Mimouna celebration, which features sweet delicacies and symbolic treats such as the ''mofletta'', a sweet pancake served with butter and honey.<ref name=":03">Morocco / editor - Haim Saadon. Jerusalem: Ministry of Education - Society and Youth Administration. 2003. Pages 301-306</ref> Mahia, an aperitivo distilled from dates or figs, is traditionally associated with Morocco's Jewish communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.international.ucla.edu/cnes/event/13273|title=Mahia on the Market: On the History of a Moroccan Jewish Commodity|website=www.international.ucla.edu|language=en|access-date=2019-10-29}}</ref>

===Henna party=== thumb|Sweets served in a pre-wedding henna party in Israel Traditional henna parties usually take place within the week before a special occasion, such as a wedding, Bnei Mitzvah, or baby showers. During pre-wedding Henna parties, the Matriarch of the family (often the grandmother) smudges henna in the palm of the bride and groom to symbolically bestow the new couple with good health, fertility, wisdom, and security. In Moroccan tradition, the henna is believed to protect the couple from demons. The grandmother covers the henna, a dough-like paste produced by mixing crushed henna plant leaves with water, in order to lock in body heat and generate a richer color. Normally, the henna will dye skin orange for up to two weeks. In Moroccan folklore, the bride is exempt of her household duties until the henna completely fades. After the bride and groom are blessed with the henna, the guests also spread henna on their palms to bring good luck.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

===Clothing===

[[File:Moroccan wedding dress, 19-20th century (3551817349).jpg|thumb| The berberisca dress (or ''keswa-el-kbira'' in Arabic) is a traditional dress for a Moroccan Jewish woman for her wedding]]

Although most Moroccan Jews tend to dress in styles of their adopted countries, traditional Moroccan clothing is sometimes worn during celebrations (Mimouna, weddings, Bar Mitzvas, etc.) or even during more intimate gatherings, such as Shabbat dinner. Men usually wear a white jellaba (jellabiya) cloak while women wear more ornate kaftans.

===Mimouna=== Mimouna is celebrated by many Moroccan Jews on the night following the last day of Passover. It has spread to become an unofficial 'national' holiday in Israel, particularly prevalent in cities with large populations of Moroccan Jews (i.e., Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Natanya).

==Representations in art==

=== Film ===

==== Narrative ==== Laïla Marrakchi's 2005 film ''Marock'' about upper-class teenagers in Casablanca features a Moroccan Jewish protagonist named Youri (Matthieu Boujenah) who falls in love with Rita (Morjana Alaoui), a Muslim woman.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hirchi|first=Mohammed|date=2011|title=The Ethics and Politics of Laila Marrakchi's "Marock"|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41261478|journal=South Central Review|volume=28|issue=1|pages=90–108|issn=0743-6831}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Stillman|first=Dinah Assouline|title=The Routledge handbook of Muslim-Jewish relations|last2=Boum|first2=Aomar|date=2016|publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-0-415-64516-4|editor-last=Meri|editor-first=Joseph W.|series=Routledge handbooks|location=New York|chapter=Cinema: Muslim-Jewish relations on screen}}</ref> Hassan Benjelloun's 2007 film ''Where Are You Going Moshé?'' depicts the departures of the final remaining Jews from the town of Bejaâd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Orlando |first=Valérie |date=2010-09-30 |title=Ou vas-tu Moshé? (Where Are You Going, Moshé?) |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10509208.2010.495027 |journal=Quarterly Review of Film and Video |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=451–453 |doi=10.1080/10509208.2010.495027 |issn=1050-9208}}</ref> Mohamed Ismaïl's 2008 film ''Adieu, Mères'' is about Jewish and Muslim families in Casablanca amid the mass emigration of Moroccan Jews in the early 1960s, at the time of the ''Pisces'' Affair.<ref name=":7" /> Driss Mrini's 2015 film ''Aida'' explores Jewish-Muslim relations through music.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chemlal |first=Said |last2=Mechrafi |first2=Fatima Zahrae |date=2025-09-03 |title=Rhythms of coexistence: on Jewish-Muslim musical interactions in Driss Mrini’s Aïda (2015) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13629387.2025.2497935 |journal=The Journal of North African Studies |language=en |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=910–926 |doi=10.1080/13629387.2025.2497935 |issn=1362-9387}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Jérôme Cohen-Olivar's 2016 film ''The Midnight Orchestra'' starring Gad Elmaleh tells the story of the son of a famous musician returning to Morocco upon his father's death.<ref>Bellarabi, Ikram. "Routes and Roots: The Representation of the Jewish Returnees on the Moroccan Big Screen." ''Paper submitted for the license in English studies, Department of English Studies, Mohammed V University, Rabat'' (2018).</ref> Nabil Ayouch's 2017 film ''Razzia'' features a Jewish restaurateur named Joe (Arieh Worthalter).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Elgrably|first=Jordan|date=1 December 2017|title=Razzia: Nabil Ayouch's critical multi-threaded homage to Morocco's cultural tapestry|url=https://www.newarab.com/features/razzia-nabil-ayouchs-critical-homage-moroccos-cultural-tapestry}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mintzer|first=Jordan|date=2017-09-09|title=‘Razzia’: Film Review {{!}} TIFF 2017|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/razzia-review-1035695/|access-date=2026-04-03|website=The Hollywood Reporter|language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Documentary ==== ''Edge of the West'' is an ethnographic film about Moroccan Jews made in the early 1960s and preserved by the Steven Spielberg Jewish Film Archive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Koolik |first=Marilyn |last2=קוליק |first2=מרים |date=1990 |title=ארכיון הסרטים היהודיים באוניברסיטה העברית / the Steven Spielberg Jewish Film Archive: Israel's Historical Film Collection |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23381822 |journal=Jewish Studies / מדעי היהדות |issue=30 |pages=25–29 |issn=0792-5964}}</ref> Izza Génini's 1994 film ''Return to Oulad Moumen'' depicts a family reunion in a small town south of Marrakesh.<ref>{{Cite news |title=TELEVISION DOCUMENTAIRE Retrouver Oulad-Moumen Canal +, 12 h 35 |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1994/08/21/television-documentaire-retrouver-oulad-moumen-canal-12-h-35_3541462_1819218.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250126220523/https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1994/08/21/television-documentaire-retrouver-oulad-moumen-canal-12-h-35_3541462_1819218.html |archive-date=2025-01-26 |access-date=2026-05-25 |work=Le Monde.fr |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=الأشرف |first=حسن |date=24 May 2016 |title=اليهود المغاربة في السينما والأدب |trans-title=Moroccan Jews in Cinema and Literature |url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8 |work=The New Arab}}</ref> Kathy Wazana's 2013 film ''They Were Promised the Sea'' investigates the exodus of Jewish Moroccans.<ref>{{Citation |last=Abdulhaq |first=Najat |title=Dissenting Narratives – The Figure of the ‘Arab Jew’ in Contemporary Arabic Literature and Film |date=2020-10-12 |work=Disseminating Jewish Literatures |pages=53–68 |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110619003-008 |access-date=2026-05-25 |publisher=De Gruyter}}</ref> Younes Laghrari's 2013 film ''Moroccan Jews: Destinies Undone'' also explores the different reasons Moroccan Jews left in the 1960s.<ref>El Guabli, Brahim. "Breaking Ranks with National Unanimity." ''Generations of Dissent: Intellectuals, Cultural Production, and the State in the Middle East and North Africa'' (2020): 159.</ref><ref name=":4" /> Kamal Hachkar's 2013 film ''Tinghir - Jerusalem: Echoes from the Mellah'' features interviews with people from Tinghir—Jews who left and migrated to Israel and Muslims who stayed—who recall "memories of good neighbourliness and coexistence" in the fifties and sixties before the Jewish exodus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zahhaf |first=Bouchra |last2=Moumni |first2=Omar |date=2024-07-03 |title=Moroccan Jews: nostalgia and echoes of national memory ‘Tinghir – Jerusalem: Les Echoes du Mellah’ as a case study |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13629387.2024.2308842 |journal=The Journal of North African Studies |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=679–703 |doi=10.1080/13629387.2024.2308842 |issn=1362-9387}}</ref><ref>Bahmad, Jamal. "Jerusalem Blues: On the Uses of Affect and Silence in Kamal Hachkar’s Tinghir-Jérusalem: Les échos du Mellah (2012)." ''Jewish-Muslim Interactions: Performing Cultures Between North Africa and France'' (2020).</ref>

=== Literature === {{Interlanguage link|Mohamed Azzedine Tazi|lt=Mohamed Azzedine Tazi's|ar|محمد عز الدين التازي}} novel ''Anā al-mansī'' (“''I am the forgotten''”) tells the story of Jewish characters in the Mellah of Fes, leading up to the 1967 Arab-Israeli War.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=أنا المنسي.. إبحار السرد العربي في تاريخ يهود المغرب |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/culture/2016/4/22/%d8%a3%d9%86%d8%a7-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%85%d9%86%d8%b3%d9%8a-%d8%a5%d8%a8%d8%ad%d8%a7%d8%b1-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b3%d8%b1%d8%af-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b9%d8%b1%d8%a8%d9%8a-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%ae |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=الجزيرة نت |language=ar}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Citation |title=2 Emplaced Memories of Jewish- Muslim Morocco |date=2023-12-31 |work=Moroccan Other-Archives |pages=63–88 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781531501471-006/html |access-date=2026-05-25 |publisher=Fordham University Press |doi=10.1515/9781531501471-006 |isbn=978-1-5315-0147-1}}</ref> Moroccan Jews are also depicted in the novels ''Le Captif de Mabrouka'' by El Hassane Aït Moh, ''Casanfa'' by Driss Miliani, and ''Cintra'' by Hassan Aourid.<ref name=":5" />

==Religious observance== {{Main|Minhag Morocco}}

Many Rabanim have passed through and sojourned in Morocco leaving behind great influence. In 2008, a project to preserve Moroccan Torah and the words of its Ḥakhamim was initiated. DarkeAbotenou.com<ref>{{Cite web |title=Darké Abotenou |url=https://www.darkeabotenou.com}}</ref> was created members of the Toronto Sephardic Community, devoting their time and effort to increase global awareness of the customs and laws that Jews of Morocco live. Daily French- and English-language emails are sent which contain the customs, laws, and traditional liturgy of Morocco. This daily publication is currently broadcast in both English and French.<ref>[http://www.darkeabotenou.com/blog/about/ Darké Abotenou » About]. Darkeabotenou.com (2008-11-21). Retrieved on 4 July 2011.</ref>

===Liturgy === The observer of a typical Moroccan Jewish prayer service will note the presence of Oriental motifs in the melodies. However, unlike the tunes of Eastern rites (Syrian, Iraqi, etc.), which were influenced by Middle Eastern sounds, Moroccan Jewish religious tunes have a uniquely Andalusian feel. Furthermore, just as Eastern liturgical melodies are organized into Maqams, Moroccan liturgy can be classified by Noubas. The Moroccan prayer rite itself is also unique among Sephardic customs. The Moroccan nusach has many unique components but has also incorporated numerous Ashkenazic customs due to the country's proximity and exposure to Europe. Some customs of the Moroccan nusach include: * Two blessing for Hallel: One blessing (ligmor et ha'Hallel) is said when the full Hallel is recited, while the other blessing (likro et ha'Hallel) is said when the abridged Hallel is recited. Other Sephardim omit the latter. * Yiru Enenu: The blessing commencing with the words ''Yiru Enenu'' (translation: Our eyes shall see) is recited after Hashkivenu in the Arvit service after the Sabbath. Many Ashkenazim say this passage on every weekday night after Hashkivenu. This custom is discussed in Tosafot of Tractate Berakhot 4a. * Le'David: Before the Arvit service after the Sabbath, three psalms are recited in a unique tune said to be the same tune that King David's soldiers recited them in. The psalms are Chapters 144, 67 and 44 (in that order). Some congregations begin this service with Chapter 16 in a tune that leads up to the other three psalms. * Pesukei Dezimra: The opening verse of Psalm 30 ("Mizmor Shir Ḥanukat Habayit LeDavid") is added to the remainder of the Psalm during Shaḥarit of Hanuka. Other Sepharadim begin with "Aromimkha" even on Ḥanuka. * Shir HaShirim: This is usually read between Mincha and Kabbalat Shabbat on the Sabbath eve. Other Sephardic groups tend to read it before Minḥa. Moroccan Jews chant Shir HaShirim with a unique cantillation. A common practice is for a different congregant to sing each chapter. * Before the repetition of the Amidah in Shaḥarit and Musaf of Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, the hymn "Hashem sham'ati shim'akha yareti" (Translation: Hashem, I have heard your speech and was awed) is sung. The origin of this verse is Habakkuk 3:2. * The Moroccan tune for Torah Reading is unique to the Moroccan tradition, unlike all other Sephardic Jews who merely utilize different variations of the Yerushalmi tune. * Certain Moroccan Piyutim/Jewish Prayer Melodies and Songs – which are said to come from the songs of the Leviim/Levites – were sung on the steps leading to Jerusalem's Beit HaMikdash/Holy Temple.

===Religious customs=== * Psalm 29 and Lekha Dodi are recited sitting down in the Kabbalat Shabbat service. * Packets of salt are distributed to congregants on the second night of Passover, marking the first counting of the 'Omer. The significance of salt includes the commemoration of the sacrifices in the Temple and other Kabbalistic reasons.<ref>[http://www.kehilacentre.com/uploads/store/salt_article.pdf "Salt of Omer" in the Kehila Centre Website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704131203/http://www.kehilacentre.com/uploads/store/salt_article.pdf |date=2008-07-04 }}. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-07-04.</ref> * Pirke Avot is read during the Musaf service of Shabbat between Passover and Shavuot. As well, the custom is for pre-Bar Miṣva boys to read each chapter, and this is usually performed with a special tune. * After reciting the hamotzie blessing over bread, there is a custom to dip the bread into salt while reciting "{{lang|he-Latn|Adonai melekh, Adonai malakh, Adonai yimlokh le'olam va'ed}}" (Translation: God reigns; God has reigned; God will reign for ever and ever). This "verse" is actually a compilation of three verses taken from Psalms and Exodus. The validity of this custom has been disputed among Moroccan Poskim since it may constitute an interruption of a blessing. * Before the Magid section of the Passover Seder, the Seder plate is raised and passed over the heads of those present while reciting "{{lang|he-Latn|Bibhilu yaṣanu mi–miṣrayim, halaḥma 'anya bené ḥorin}}" (Translation: In haste we went out of Egypt [with our] bread of affliction, [now we are] free people). It can be heard here.<ref>{{YouTube|DwjIcjE93ds|Pesah פסח – Bibhilou בבהילו – Jo 'Amar ג'ו עמר z"l}}. Retrieved on 4 July 2011.</ref>

== Politics ==

=== Relationship with the Makhzen === {{See also|Tujjar as-Sultan}} Moroccan Jews have held important positions in the Makhzen throughout their history. André Azoulay currently serves as an advisor to Muhammad VI of Morocco.

=== Communism === Throughout the 20th century, there were several prominent Jewish-Moroccan Communists (including Léon Sultan, Elie Azagury, Abraham Serfaty, and Sion Assidon).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fr.le360.ma/politique/lutte-contre-la-corruption-sion-assidon-refuse-la-main-tendue-du-pjd-183018|title=Lutte contre la corruption: Sion Assidon refuse la main tendue du PJD|website=fr.le360.ma|date=27 January 2019|language=fr|access-date=2020-02-02}}</ref> According to Emily Gottreich, "although the [<nowiki/>Moroccan Communist Party] welcomed everyone, it held special appeal for urban educated elite; almost all of Morocco's prominent Jewish intellectuals joined the party at one time or another."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gottreich|first=Emily|title=Jewish Morocco|date=2020|publisher=I.B. Tauris|doi=10.5040/9781838603601 |isbn=978-1-78076-849-6|s2cid=213996367 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=براص |first=محمد |date=2016 |title= |script-title=ar:الثابت والمتحول في علاقة الحزب الشيوعي باليهود المغاربة 1943–1948 |trans-title=The Communist Party and the Jews of Morocco: Constant and Variant between 1943 and 1948 |url=https://www.hesperis-tamuda.com/Downloads/2010-2019/2016/fascicule-3/2.pdf |journal=Hespéris-Tamuda |language=ar}}</ref>

=== Israeli politics === In 1959, Moroccan Jews started a riot in Wadi Salib, a neighborhood in Haifa that was populated primarily by immigrants from Morocco, against the conditions Mizrahi Jews faced in Israel.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Hazkani |first=Shay |date=2023 |title="Our Cruel Polish Brothers": Moroccan Jews between Casablanca and Wadi Salib, 1956–59 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/901512 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |language=en |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=41–74 |doi=10.2979/jewisocistud.28.2.02 |issn=1527-2028|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It led to the first of a series of violent demonstrations against the government, the Labor Party and the Histadrut around the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Segev |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Segev |date=9 July 2009 |title=The Makings of History So Much for the Melting Pot |url=https://www.haaretz.com/2009-07-09/ty-article/the-makings-of-history-so-much-for-the-melting-pot/0000017f-db6a-d856-a37f-ffeaf11b0000 |website=Haaretz}}</ref> Shay Hazkani sees the struggle of Moroccan Jews against Ashkenazi racism in Israel that led to the riots as an extension of their political radicalization in the anti-colonial struggle they had been engaged in against France in Morocco.<ref name=":2" />

All ten of the founding members of the Israeli Black Panthers (a group inspired by anti-Zionist Jewish university students) were the children of Jewish-Moroccan immigrants. The 1970-1971 protest movement worked in opposition of "ethnic discrimination and the 'socioeconomic gap.'"<ref name=":2222">{{Citation |last=Lubin |first=Alex |title=Geographies of Liberation |date=2014-02-01 |pages=111–141 |chapter=The Black Panthers and the PLO |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |doi=10.5149/northcarolina/9781469612881.003.0005 |isbn=978-1-4696-1288-1}}</ref><ref name=":02">Bernstein, Deborah (1984). ''Conflict and Protest in Israeli Society''. Haifa University. pp. 133–137.</ref><ref>ELIA-SHALEV, ASAF. ''Israel’s Black Panthers: The Radicals Who Punctured a Nation’s Founding Myth''. 1st ed. University of California Press, 2024. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.8784682</nowiki>.</ref>

Mordechai Vanunu, a Jewish-Moroccan Israeli whistleblower who revealed information on Israel's nuclear weapons program and was later abducted by Mossad in Rome and incarcerated in Israel, was born in Marrakesh.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-05-12 |title=La folle histoire du lanceur d'alerte d'origine marocaine harcelé par Israël |url=https://mobile.ledesk.ma/2016/05/12/la-folle-histoire-du-lanceur-dalerte-dorigine-marocaine-harcele-par-israel/ |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=Le Desk |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Myre |first=Greg |date=2004-04-21 |title=Israeli Who Revealed Nuclear Secrets Is Freed |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/21/international/middleeast/israeli-who-revealed-nuclear-secrets-is-freed.html |access-date=2023-03-26 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

In Israel, many Moroccan Jews have risen to prominence in politics, including Amir Peretz, Orly Levy, Arye Deri, Miri Regev, and Naama Lazimi.

==Genetics== {{Main|Genetic studies on Jews}}

Over the years, the Moroccan Jews' DNA was examined and studied by numerous studies, the general image of it showed that in terms of Y-DNA it was mainly from the same Levantine source as the vast majority of the world's Jewry, meaning that they too are descendants of the Ancient Israelites from the Biblical times. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular Moroccan Jews), who are apparently closely related, the minority non-Levantine component of their DNA is southern European.<ref name=zooss>{{cite journal|journal=Biol Direct |year=2010 |volume=5 |issue=57 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-5-57 |title=The Origin of Eastern European Jews Revealed by Autosomal, Sex Chromosomal and mtDNA Polymorphisms |first=Avshalom |last=Zoossmann-Diskin |pmc=2964539 |pmid=20925954 |page=57 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA of the Jewish populations of North Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, Libya) was the subject of a detailed study in 2008 by Doron Behar et al.<ref name="Behar2008b"/> 149 Moroccan Jews participated. According to Table S1, some of their reported mitochondrial DNA haplogroups include H4a1a, H6, HV1c, HV0, L1b1, and X2b1. The analysis in the section titled "Typically African mtDNA variants in non-Ashkenazi Jews" concluded that Jews from this region do not share the mitochondrial DNA haplogroups M1 and U6 that are typical of the North African Berber and North African Arab populations.<ref name="Behar2008b">{{Cite journal|last1=Behar|first1=Doran M.|last2=Metspalu|first2=Ene|last3=Kivisild|first3=Toomas|last4=Rosset|first4=Saharon|last5=Tzur|first5=Shay|last6=Hadid|first6=Yarin|last7=Yudkovsky|first7=Guennady|last8=Rosengarten|first8=Dror|last9=Pereira|first9=Luisa|year=2008|title=Counting the founders: the matrilineal genetic ancestry of the Jewish Diaspora|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=3|issue=4|article-number=e2062|bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2062B|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002062|issn=1932-6203|pmc=2323359|pmid=18446216|editor1-last=MacAulay|editor1-first=Vincent|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Contradicting Behar's 2008 study, later studies did find haplogroups M1 and U6 in some Moroccan Jews, including two samples collected by Luisa Pereira et al. for their 2010 paper<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pereira |first1=Luisa |last2=Silva |first2=Nuno M. |display-authors=1 |date=December 21, 2010 |title=Population expansion in the North African Late Pleistocene signalled by mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |publisher=BioMed Central |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=390 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-10-390 |pmc=3016289 |pmid=21176127 |ref={{harvid|Pereira et al.|2010}} |doi-access=free |bibcode=2010BMCEE..10..390P }}</ref> that are listed as being members of haplogroup U6a1 and each identified as a "person of Jewish ancestry" from Morocco.<ref>{{GenBank|HQ651705.1}}</ref><ref>{{GenBank|HQ651708.1}}</ref> These two samples specifically belong to the branch U6a1b3a whose terminal mutations are C11971T and C11039T.<ref>{{cite web |last=Logan |first=Ian |title=HAPLOGROUP U6a1b |url=http://www.ianlogan.co.uk/sequences_by_group/u6a1b_genbank_sequences.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=U6a1b3 MTree |url=https://www.yfull.com/mtree/U6a1b3/ |website=YFull}}</ref> One also finds haplogroups M1a1,<ref>{{cite book |last=Brook|first=Kevin Alan|page=79|date=2022|title=The Maternal Genetic Lineages of Ashkenazic Jews|publisher=Academic Studies Press|isbn=978-1-64469-984-3|doi=10.2307/j.ctv33mgbcn|s2cid=254519342}}</ref> U6a1a1, and U6a7a1 in Moroccan Jews. In fact, Behar's own samples DMB01943 and DMB01972 are Moroccan Jews listed in Table S1 of his study as being members of haplogroup U6a1.<ref name="Behar2008b" />

Behar et al. concluded that among Maghrebi Jews, many do not carry significant Arab or Berber genetic admixture, "consistent with social restrictions imposed by religious restrictions," or endogamy. This study also found genetic similarities between the Ashkenazi and Maghrebi Jews of European mitochondrial DNA pools, but differences between both of these of the diaspora and Jews from West Asia.<ref name="Behar2008b" />

In a 2012 study by Campbell et al., however, the Moroccan/Algerian, Djerban/Tunisian and Libyan subgroups of Maghreb Jewry were found to demonstrate varying levels of Middle Eastern (40-42%), European (37-39%) and North African ancestry (20-21%),<ref name=pmid22869716>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1204840109 |pmid=22869716 |pmc=3427049 |title=North African Jewish and non-Jewish populations form distinctive, orthogonal clusters |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=34 |pages=13865–70 |year=2012 |last1=Campbell |first1=Christopher L. |last2=Palamara |first2=Pier F. |last3=Dubrovsky |first3=Maya |last4=Botigue |first4=Laura R. |last5=Fellous |first5=Marc |last6=Atzmon |first6=Gil |last7=Oddoux |first7=Carole |last8=Pearlman |first8=Alexander |last9=Hao |first9=Li |last10=Henn |first10=Brenna M. |last11=Burns |first11=Edward |last12=Bustamante |first12=Carlos D. |last13=Comas |first13=David |last14=Friedman |first14=Eitan |last15=Pe'er |first15=Itsik |last16=Ostrer |first16=Harry |bibcode=2012PNAS..10913865C |url=https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/115310/4/north_african_jewish_Campbell.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref> with Moroccan and Algerian Jews tending to be genetically closer to each other than to Djerban Jews and Libyan Jews.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.jpost.com/Health-and-Science/Study-completes-genetic-map-of-N-African-Jews|title=Study completes genetic map of N. African Jews|work=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=2017-05-28 |issn=0792-822X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.albanytribune.com/11122013-new-genetic-map-jewish-diasporas-oped/|title=A New Genetic Map Of Jewish Diasporas - OpEd|date=December 12, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212215327/http://www.albanytribune.com/11122013-new-genetic-map-jewish-diasporas-oped/ |archive-date=2013-12-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/international-genetic-study-traces-jewish-roots-to-ancient-middle-east-1.456676|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230060218/http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/international-genetic-study-traces-jewish-roots-to-ancient-middle-east-1.456676|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 30, 2013|title=International genetic study traces Jewish roots to ancient Middle East|work=Haaretz|first=Dan|last=Even|date=8 August 2012|access-date=2 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-sci-african-jews-genes-20120807,0,4318520.story?track=rss |title=Genetics study of North African Jews tells migratory tale - Los Angeles Times |work=Los Angeles Times |date=2008-04-13 |access-date=2013-04-12|first= Eryn |last=Brown}}</ref> According to the study:<blockquote>"distinctive North African Jewish population clusters with proximity to other Jewish populations and variable degrees of Middle Eastern, European, and North African admixture. Two major subgroups were identified by principal component, neighbor joining tree, and identity-by-descent analysis—Moroccan/Algerian and Djerban/Libyan—that varied in their degree of European admixture. These populations showed a high degree of endogamy and were part of a larger Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jewish group. By principal component analysis, these North African groups were orthogonal to contemporary populations from North and South Morocco, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. Thus, this study is compatible with the history of North African Jews—founding during Classical Antiquity with proselytism of local populations, followed by genetic isolation with the rise of Christianity and then Islam, and admixture following the emigration of Sephardic Jews during the Inquisition."<ref name=pmid22869716/></blockquote>

== Miscellaneous == Jewish life in Morocco during the mid-20th century, including the emigration of one rural Jewish village, was depicted in Arnan Zafrir's documentary ''Edge of The West.''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zafrir |first=Arnan |date=1961 |title=The Spielberg Jewish Film Archive - Edge of The West |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZtBMKGxNlNg&ab_channel=HebrewUniversityofJerusalem |website=YouTube}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=الناسك |first=الحاج محمد |date=2014 |title=الدعاية الصهيونية في المغرب خلال الحماية وبُعيد الاستقلال السينما –أنموذجًا- |url=https://tabayyun.dohainstitute.org/ar/issue009/Pages/art05.aspx |journal=تبين |language=ar |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=85–98 |doi=10.31430/pljp6312 |issn=2305-2465|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==References== {{notelist}} {{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading == {{refbegin}} ;Histories * {{Cite book |last=Zafrani |first=Haïm |author-link=Haim Zafrani |title=Two thousand years of Jewish life in Morocco |date=2005 |publisher=Sephardic House |isbn=978-0-88125-748-9 |location=New York}} * {{Cite book |last=Gottreich |first=Emily |url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/monograph?docid=b-9781838603601 |title=Jewish Morocco: A History from Pre-Islamic to Postcolonial Times |date=2020 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-78076-849-6 |doi=10.5040/9781838603601}} ;Folktale collections and studies: * {{cite book |last=Larrea Palacín |first=Arcadio de |author-link=:ca:Arcadio de Larrea Palacín |title=Cuentos populares de los judíos del norte de Marruecos |location=Tetuán |publisher=Instituto General Franco de Estudios e Investigación Hispano-Árabe - Editora Marroquí |date=1952 |lang=ES}} * {{cite book |title=Diaspora en terre d'Islam: L'Esprit populaire dans les juiveries du Sud-Marocain |first=Pierre |last=Flamand |location=Casablanca |publisher=Editions presses des imprimeries réunies |date=1960 |lang=FR}} * {{cite book |title=Jewish Folktales from Morocco: Narrated and Collected in Israel |editor-first=Dov |editor-last=Noy |editor-link=Dov Noy |publisher=Jewish Agency for Israel |date=1965}} * {{cite book |title=Moroccan Jewish Folktales |first=Dov |last=Noy |publisher=Herzl Press |date=1966}} * {{Cite journal |last=Zafrani |first=Haïm |author-link=Haim Zafrani |title=Etudes et recherches sur la littérature écrite et orale des juifs du Maroc des quatre derniers siècles |journal=Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée |volume=18 |date=1974 |pages=159–167 |lang=FR |doi=10.3406/remmm.1974.1291 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/remmm_0035-1474_1974_num_18_1_1291}} * {{cite journal |last1=Klein-Zolty |first1=Muriel |last2=Raphaël |first2=Freddy |title=Contes et mémoire collective chez les Juifs maghrébins en Alsace |journal=Revue des sciences sociales de la France de l'Est |volume=10 |date=1981 |pages=65–83 |doi=10.3406/revss.1981.3293 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/revss_0336-1578_1981_num_10_1_3293 |lang=FR}} * {{cite book |title=The Language and Culture of the Jews of Sefrou, Morocco: An Ethnolinguistic Study |first=Norman A. |last=Stillman |publisher=University of Manchester |date=1988 |isbn=978-0-9507885-6-2}} * {{cite book |title=Jewish Moroccan Folk Narratives from Israel |series=Raphael Patai Series in Jewish Folklore and Anthropology Series |editor=Aliza Shenhar-Alroy |publisher=Wayne State University Press |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-8143-2443-1}} * {{cite book |title=Jewish Folktales from Morocco: Tales of Seha the Sage and Seha the Clown |first=Marc |last=Eliany |publisher=Lexington Books |date=2021 |isbn=978-1-7936-4465-7}} * {{cite book |title=Traditions et contes juifs du Maroc |first=Marc |last=Eliany |translator=Caroline Manceau |publisher=Editions L'Harmattan |date=2023 |isbn=978-2-14-032229-7 |lang=FR}} {{refend}}

Category:Moroccan Jews Category:Jews and Judaism in Morocco Category:Ethnic groups in Morocco Category:Jewish ethnic groups Category:Sephardi Jews topics