{{Short description|Ottoman governor}} {{redirect|Djezzar|the commune in Algeria|Djezzar, Algeria}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar<br/>أحمد باشا الجزّار<br/>جزّار أحمد پاشا | image = Jezzar Pasha, cropped.jpg | image_size = 220 | caption = Portrait of Jazzar Pasha, 1775 | office1 = [[Wali]] of [[Sidon Eyalet|Sidon]] | monarch1 = [[Abdul Hamid I]] <br /> [[Selim III]] | term_start1 = May 1777 | term_end1 = April 1804 | predecessor1 = [[Daher al-Umar]] | successor1 = [[Sulayman Pasha al-Adil]] | office2 = [[List of rulers of Damascus#Ottoman walis|Wali]] of [[Damascus Eyalet|Damascus]] | monarch2 = Abdul Hamid I | term_start2 = March 1785 | term_end2 = 1786 | predecessor2 = Husayn Pasha Battal | successor2 = | monarch3 = Selim III | term_start3 = October 1790 | term_end3 = 1795 | predecessor3 = [[Ibrahim Deli Pasha]] | successor3 = [[Abdullah Pasha al-Azm]] | monarch4 = Selim III | term_start4 = 1798 | term_end4 = 1799 | predecessor4 = Abdullah Pasha al-Azm | successor4 = Abdullah Pasha al-Azm | monarch5 = Selim III | term_start5 = 1803 | term_end5 = April 1804 | predecessor5 = Abdullah Pasha al-Azm | successor5 = [[Ibrahim Pasha Qataraghasi]] | country = [[Ottoman Empire]] | parents = | spouse = | children = | relations = | birth_date = c. 1720s{{dash}}1730s | birth_place = [[Fatnica]], [[Bosnia Eyalet]], [[Ottoman Empire]] | death_date = 7 May 1804 | death_place = [[Acre, Palestine|Acre]], [[Sidon Eyalet]], Ottoman Empire | resting_place = Acre | native_name = | module = {{Infobox military person | embed = yes | branch = [[Military of the Ottoman Empire]] | battles = {{ubl|[[French invasion of Egypt and Syria]]|{{*}}[[Siege of Acre (1799)|Siege of Acre]]}} }} }} '''Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar''' ({{langx|ar|أحمد باشا الجزّار}}, c. 1720–30s{{dash}}7 May 1804) was the [[Acre, Palestine|Acre]]-based [[Bosniaks|Bosniak]] [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] governor of [[Sidon Eyalet]] from 1776 until his death in 1804 and the simultaneous governor of [[Damascus Eyalet]] in 1785–1786, 1790–1795, 1798–1799, and 1803–1804. Having left his native [[Bosnia Eyalet|Bosnia]] as a youth, he began a military career in [[Egypt Eyalet|Egypt]] in the service of [[mamluk]] officials, eventually becoming a chief enforcer for [[Ali Bey al-Kabir]], Egypt's practical ruler. Al-Jazzar fell out with Ali Bey in 1768 after refusing to take part in the assassination of another of his former masters. He ultimately fled to [[Ottoman Syria|Syria]], where he was tasked by the Ottomans with defending [[Beirut]] from a joint assault by the [[Russian Navy]] and [[Daher al-Umar]], the Acre-based ruler of northern [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. He eventually surrendered and entered Daher's service before defecting from him.
After the Ottomans defeated and killed Daher, they appointed al-Jazzar as their garrison commander in Acre. He pacified the [[Galilee]] and [[Mount Lebanon]], which had been dominated by [[al-Zayadina|Daher's kinsmen]] and the [[Druze]] forces of [[Yusuf Shihab]], respectively. In 1776 or 1777, he was appointed governor of Sidon, but relocated the provincial capital to Acre, which he strongly fortified. In the following years, he defeated his erstwhile [[Shia Muslim]] ally, [[Nasif al-Nassar]], consolidating his control over [[Jabal Amil]] (modern southern Lebanon). In 1785, al-Jazzar was appointed to his first of four terms as governor of Damascus, each time gaining more influence in the province's affairs in opposition to his rivals from the [[al-Azm family|Azm family]]. In 1799, with the help of the British navy, al-Jazzar [[Siege of Acre (1799)|defended Acre]] from [[Napoleon]], forcing the latter to withdraw from Palestine in disarray. His successful defense of Acre earned him prestige in the empire and made him well known in Europe.
Al-Jazzar died in office in 1804. He was ultimately succeeded in Acre by his mamluk [[Sulayman Pasha al-Adil]]; until his suppression of a mamluk revolt in 1789, al-Jazzar had appointed mamluks to senior posts in his military and administration. Al-Jazzar attempted to develop the areas under his control by improving road security and maintaining order. However, his domestic military expeditions and stringently enforced and exploitative taxation policies precipitated high emigration, although the cities of Acre and Beirut prospered. The former became a powerful regional center rivaling Damascus and until today contains many architectural works commissioned by al-Jazzar, such as its walls, the [[el-Jazzar Mosque]] and the [[Khan al-Umdan]] [[caravanserai]].
==Early life and career==
===Origins=== Al-Jazzar (possibly born 'Ahmed Pervan') was a [[Bosniaks|Bosniak]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holt |first=Peter Malcolm |title=Egypt and the Fertile Crescent, 1516-1922 |publisher=Longmans, Green and Co. |year=1966 |at=129 |language=English}}</ref>{{efn|Al-Jazzar's ethnic identity was well known among the servants and contemporaries of his time. [[Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti]] after his passing notes that Al-Jazzar "came from the land of Bosniaks"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gahlan |first=Tarek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GeUDgAAQBAJ&q=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%A7+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1+%D9%88%D8%A3%D8%B5%D9%84%D9%87+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%82&pg=PA1694 |title=Ajayb Al Athar fey Al Tarajem wa Al Akhbar (Part 3 Ch.8) |date=2017-02-10 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-1-365-74873-8 |language=ar}}</ref> and that he was originally from Bosnia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jabartī |first=ʻAbd al-Raḥmān |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n-QMAQAAMAAJ&q=Bosnia |title=Al-Jabartī's History of Egypt |date=2009 |publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers |isbn=978-1-55876-446-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jabartī |first1=ʻAbd al-Raḥmān |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbxyAAAAMAAJ&q=Bosnia |title=A Guide to ʻAbd Al-Raḥmān Al-Jabartī's History of Egypt: ʻAjāʾib Al-Āthār Fī ʾl-Tarājim Waʾl-Akhbār |last2=Philipp |first2=Thomas |date=1994 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |isbn=978-3-515-05756-1 |language=en}}</ref> Edward Daniel Clarke, in his ''Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa'' mentions "His real name was Achmed, he was a native of Bosnia, and speaks the Sclavonian language better than any other"<ref>Edward Daniel Clarke ''Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa'' p.[https://books.google.com/books?id=YxAuAAAAYAAJ&q=Bosnia 201]</ref> Western sources also mention his ethnic identity, thus, the British naval colonel Squire, in his conversations with Jazzar Pasha records the following:<ref>''Exctract from Colonel Squire's MS. Journal; giving an account of Caiffa, Acre, etc. and of his interviews with Djezzar Pasha''u: E.D. Clarke, ''Travels in Various Counties of Europe, Asia and Africa'', appendix 1, p. 252.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Clarke |first=Edward Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dEINAAAAYAAJ&q=Bosniac |title=Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa |date=1815 |publisher=J. Gillet |language=en}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=The vizier (said he) has rich dresses and precious ornaments in abundance; but he carries all his wealth on his person. I am a Bosniac, a rough, unpolished soldier, not accustomed to courts and politeness, but bred in camps and in the field|source=Extract from Colonel Squire's MS. Journal; giving an account of Caiffa, Acre, etc. and of his interviews with Djezzar Pashau: E.D. Clarke, Travels in Various Counties of Europe, Asia and Africa. Page 252.}}French writer [[Édouard Lockroy|Edouard Lockroy]] mentions his geographical and ethnic origin many times. Often stating that he was a Bosniak, from Bosnia.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_AYcAAAAMAAJ&q=Ahmed+le+boucher:+la+Syrie+et+l%27Egypte+au+XVIIIe+si%C3%A8cle Ahmed Le Boucher. La Syrie Et l'Égypte Au Xviiie Siècle]
"En 1730, dans un village de Bosnie vivait un jeune chretien" (In 1730, in a Bosnian village there lived a young Christian) page 1.
"Comme tous lex orientaux, ce Bosniaque" (Like all orientals, this Bosniak) page 1. "Ahmed, le Bosniaque." (Ahmed, the Bosniak) page 13.</ref>}}<ref name=":0">Zečević, Alen (4 March 2023). [https://balkans.aljazeera.net/teme/2023/3/4/dzezaar-ahmed-pasa-hercegovac-pred-kojim-je-uzmakao-napoleon Ahmed-Paša Džezar, Hercegovac pred kojim je uzmakao Napoleon]
</ref><ref>[https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/cezzar-ahmed-pasa Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam (TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi)]
"Bosnalı olup çeşitli kaynaklarda 1720, 1722 veya 1735’te doğduğu ileri sürülmektedir"
Free translation:"He is Bosnian and various sources claim that he was born in 1720, 1722 or 1735."
</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cezzâr (paşa) |first=Ahmed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVhyAAAAMAAJ&q=Ahmed |title=Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century: The Nizâmnâme-i Misir of Cezzâr Ahmed Pasha |date=1962 |publisher=Center for Middle Eastern Studies of Harvard University |isbn=978-0-674-64575-2 |language=en}}</ref> He was born to a poor family in the [[Sanjak of Herzegovina]]. Native writers from Bosnia and Herzegovina hold that he was born in [[Fatnica]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ahmed-paša Džezzar |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/clanak/ahmed-pasa-dzezzar |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=www.enciklopedija.hr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brozović |first=Dalibor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQITAQAAMAAJ&q=ahmed-pa%C5%A1a+d%C5%BEezar |title=Hrvatska enciklopedija |date=1999 |publisher=Leksikografski zavod "Miroslav Krleža" |isbn=978-953-6036-31-8 |language=hr}}</ref> to the [[Bosniaks|Bosniak]] Pervan family, and thus claim that Ahmed Pervan was his birth name.<ref name=":1">Bašagić, Safvet Beg (1931).[https://hemu.lzmk.hr/Natuknica.aspx?ID=13419 DŽAZAR Ahmed-Paša]</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>Hivzija Hasandedić p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ0MAAAAIAAJ 176]
"Misli se da iz Fatnice, iz porodice Pervana, potječe Ahmed-Paša Džezar"
Translation: "It is believed, that from Fatnica, belonging to the Pervan family, originates Ahmed Pasha Jazzar,
</ref><ref>Dr Teofil Koetstchet, "Džezar Ahmed-paša", Nada, Sarajevo, 1901. 6-13. Gajret, Sarajevo, 1930, p. 508</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramić |first=Jusuf |title=Bošnjaci u Egiptu - u vremenu Tursko Osmanske uprave (Bosniaks in Egypt - at the time of Turkish Ottoman rule) |publisher=El-Kalem |year=2012 |location=Sarajevo |pages=43–45 |language=BS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kukavica |first=Edin |title=Znameniti I Zaboravljeni Bošnjaci u Osmanskom Sultanatu |year=1995 |pages=56 |language=BS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bašeskija |first=Mula Mustafa |title=Ljetopis 1746-1804 |year=1804 |pages=247 |quote=Džezar Ahmed - paša je rodom iz Fatnice u Hercegovini .}}</ref> Kosta Hörmann, founder and first editor of the Gazette of the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in his study of folk tales of the Bosniaks of Herzegovina, noted that the "old folk" of [[Stolac]] claimed that Ahmed was a Pervan from [[Fatnica]]. Hörmann noted that Ahmed likely never disclosed information about his family himself <ref>Kosta Hörmann, (Wissenschaftliche mittheilungen aus Bosnien und Hercegovina'')''
''Ahmed Pascha Gjezar war aus der Hercegovina, wollte jedoch nicht angehen von welcher Familie er abstammte. Alte Leute behaupter, er wäre ein Abkömmling des Stammes Pervan aus Fatnica bei Bilek gewesen.''
Page 307.
Year 1891.</ref> One source lists the year of his birth as 1720,<ref>Israeli & Benabou 2013, p. 527</ref> but Philipp believes it is more likely that he was born in the 1730s.<ref>Phillipp 2013, p. 48</ref>
At the age of 20,<ref name="Philipp119"/> or in his late adolescent years, around 1755, he moved to [[Constantinople]].<ref>Philipp 2013, p. 50</ref> In al-Jazzar's biography by Volney in ''Voyage'', al-Jazzar fled Bosnia at the age of 16 because he raped his sister-in-law, while in Olivier's account, al-Jazzar fled at age 17 after stabbing a woman who did not accede to his desires.<ref>Philipp 2013, p. 52.</ref> According to Olivier, he then began work as a sailor and drifted throughout [[Anatolia]] before selling himself to a Turkish slave trader. Al-Jazzar subsequently converted to [[Islam]] in Egypt.<ref>Philipp 2013, p. 53.</ref>
===Service with the Mamluks of Egypt===
In 1756, al-Jazzar departed Constantinople for Egypt with [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha]] as a barber in his entourage.<ref name="Philipp50">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA50 50].</ref> Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha had been appointed ''[[beylerbey]]'' (governor) of [[Egypt Eyalet]] and al-Jazzar became a member of his household, serving Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha in the citadel.<ref name="Philipp50"/> In 1758, possibly as a result of a dispute with another of Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha's men or upon his own intuition, he accompanied Salih Bey al-Qasimi, a Mamluk and the ''[[amir al-hajj]]'' (commander of the [[Hajj]] caravan) to [[Mecca]].<ref name="Philipp50"/> There, the two men developed a close friendship,<ref name="Philipp119">Philipp 1998, p. 119.</ref> and al-Jazzar subsequently entered into Salih Bey's service.<ref name="Philipp50"/> After returning to Cairo, al-Jazzar, entered the service of the Mamluk Abdullah Bey, who was a retainer of another Mamluk, [[Ali Bey al-Kabir]],<ref name="Philipp119"/> the ''shaykh al-balad'', a powerful post in Egypt with unclear duties,<ref>Wilkins 2010, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Pn-9Eqvs4ZwC&pg=PA47 47].</ref> between 1760 and 1766.
During his time in Abdullah Bey's service, al-Jazzar learned how to speak [[Arabic]], learned the skills and knowledge of the Mamluks and adopted their dress. When Abdullah Bey was later killed in an attack by [[Bedouin]] tribesmen, al-Jazzar decided to avenge his death. He proceeded to set a trap for the Bedouin and ambushed them,<ref name="Philipp119"/><ref name="Philipp50"/> killing around 70 tribesmen. Thereafter, he became known as "al-Jazzar", which means "the Butcher" in Arabic.<ref name="Philipp119"/> While later European writers believed al-Jazzar gained his name because of his cruel nature, the name was given to him as a sign of respect.<ref name="Philipp50"/> The term "al-Jazzar" as an epithet was typically reserved for those who slaughtered Bedouin raiders.<ref name="Philipp50"/>
[[File:Ali Bey al-kabir.jpg|thumb|upright|Al-Jazzar was a chief assassin and protégé of the Mamluk strongman of Egypt, [[Ali Bey al-Kabir]] (''pictured'')]]
Al-Jazzar arrived in Egypt as a freeman and was not a ''[[mamluk]]'' (manumitted slave soldier) in the traditional sense.<ref>Philipp, pp. 50–51.</ref> However, the respect and admiration he gained from the Mamluks of Egypt for his loyalty to his Mamluk master and the revenge he took on the Bedouin for his death earned him a welcome into the Mamluk ranks.<ref name="Philipp119"/> Among those impressed with the loyalty and courage of al-Jazzar was Ali Bey al-Kabir, who adopted al-Jazzar as his protégé.<ref name="Philipp50"/> Ali Bey appointed al-Jazzar ''[[sanjak-bey]]'' (district governor) of Cairo,<ref name="Philipp119"/> and he became known as "Ahmad Bey al-Jazzar".<ref name="Philipp50"/> Al-Jazzar was tasked with enforcing law and order in the province, but was also assigned to discreetly eliminate Ali Bey's enemies.<ref name="Philipp119"/> He shared this task with [[Abu al-Dhahab]] at times.<ref name="Philipp119"/><ref name="Philipp50"/>
In September 1768, Ali Bey instructed al-Jazzar and Abu al-Dahab to assassinate Salih Bey because Ali Bey perceived him as a threat to his power. Al-Jazzar was wary of killing his old friend and master, and proceeded to warn Salih Bey of Ali Bey's plot. Salih Bey did not believe that Ali Bey, a close friend and ally, would have him killed and dismissed al-Jazzar's warning, going so far as to approach Ali Bey himself and report the matter. Ali Bey denied the plot and informed Salih Bey that he was only testing the loyalty of al-Jazzar. Salih Bey was indeed ambushed and killed by Ali Bey's men. Al-Jazzar was present among the hitmen, but did not participate in the actual assassination. Abu al-Dahab, who was also present, reported al-Jazzar's lack of enthusiasm in the operation to Ali Bey.<ref name="Philipp50"/>
Fearing for his life in light of his betrayal of Ali Bey, al-Jazzar fled Cairo dressed as a [[Maghreb]]i. Before leaving his home, he instructed his family to tell anyone who inquired about him that he was ill and could not see visitors. Ali Bey's men sought to arrest al-Jazzar and learned of his escape to the port of [[Alexandria]] and pursued him. However, al-Jazzar managed to board a ship heading to Constantinople hours before the arrival of Ali Bey's men to the port.<ref name="Philipp51">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA51 51].</ref>
===Early career in Syria=== Information about al-Jazzar between 1768 and 1770 is unclear;<ref name="Philipp51"/> according to historian Thomas Philipp, he "may have drifted through Anatolia to [[Aleppo]]".<ref name="Philipp51"/> According to the chronicler al-Jabarti, al-Jazzar returned to Egypt and allied himself with a Bedouin tribe to confront Ali Bey, but fled the province for a second time. However, by 1770 it was clear that al-Jazzar was in [[Deir al-Qamar]], a [[Druze]] village in Mount Lebanon. He was impoverished there to the point that he was forced to sell his clothes in order buy food. He was then taken into the care of [[Yusuf Shihab]], the [[Mount Lebanon Emirate|emir of Mount Lebanon]] and leader of the region's Druze clans, who took an interest in al-Jazzar. For an undefined period of time, al-Jazzar remained in Mount Lebanon before searching for employment in the coastal cities. He did not have success finding work and left for [[Damascus]], where he was also unable to gain employment.<ref name="Philipp51"/> For a third time, al-Jazzar traveled to Egypt, this time to retrieve money and other valuables from his home in Azbakiya. To avoid detection by the authorities, he dressed as an [[Armenians|Armenian]]. His trip to Egypt was short and he subsequently returned to [[Ottoman Syria|Syria]].<ref name="Philipp51"/>
In 1772, the Ottoman commander-in-chief of the Syrian provinces, [[Uthman Pasha al-Wakil]], and Emir Yusuf besieged [[Sidon]] to oust the forces of Sheikh [[Daher al-Umar]], the [[Arab]] strongman of northern [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Nasif al-Nassar]], a powerful [[Shia Muslim]] sheikh in [[Jabal Amil]]. Daher consequently requested the [[Russian occupations of Beirut|Russian fleet bombard Beirut]], which was under Emir Yusuf's control, to distract the Ottoman forces. The siege was lifted in June prior to the Russians' arrival in Beirut.<ref>Joudah 1987, p. 97.</ref> On 18 June, the Russians began to bombard Beirut, but Emir Yusuf paid them to end their assault on 28 June. Fearing that Daher would occupy Beirut, Emir Yusuf requested al-Wakil bolster Beirut's defenses. In response, al-Wakil dispatched al-Jazzar with a force of Maghrebi soldiers and appointed him ''muhafiz'' (garrison commander) of Beirut.<ref name="Joudah98">Joudah 1987, p. 98.</ref> Al-Jazzar upgraded Beirut's fortifications.<ref name="Philipp51"/> According to Philipp, "Beirut became the first stepping stone of Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar's career in Syria".<ref name="Philipp51"/>
Meanwhile, in a sign that enmity for al-Jazzar by the Mamluks of Egypt was still strong,<ref name="Philipp51"/> Abu al-Dhahab offered 200,000 [[Spanish real]]s to Emir Yusuf to kill al-Jazzar in 1772. Emir Yusuf refused the offer.<ref name="Harris122">Harris 2012, p. 122.</ref> However, instead of defending Emir Yusuf's authority, al-Jazzar used Beirut as his own power base, justifying his presence as being in defense of the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Philipp51"/> Emir Yusuf demanded al-Jazzar withdraw from Beirut, but the latter refused, prompting Emir Yusuf to appeal to al-Wakil. The latter did not accept Emir Yusuf's request for assistance. Al-Wakil viewed al-Jazzar as a reliable representative whose control of Beirut would prevent another important Syrian port city from falling to Daher and provide a launch point for an offensive against Daher.<ref name="Joudah106">Joudah 1987, p. 106.</ref>
Emir Yusuf rallied his Druze forces to dislodge al-Jazzar, but the latter was able, through bribes, to manipulate the deeply factional Druze clans against each other and stave off Emir Yusuf's attempts.<ref>Philipp, pp. 62–63.</ref> Emir Yusuf then sought to form an alliance with Daher to oust al-Jazzar,<ref name="Joudah106"/> gaining Emir Yusuf the enmity of al-Wakil.<ref name="Harris122"/> A punitive expedition sent by al-Wakil targeting Emir Yusuf in September 1773 was repelled by Daher.<ref name="Joudah106"/> Daher's success prompted Emir Yusuf to seek the assistance of the Russian fleet by appealing to Daher, the Russians' ally, to intercede with the Russians on Emir Yusuf's behalf.<ref name="Joudah106"/> The Russians agreed to the request and began bombarding Beirut on 2 August.<ref name="Joudah107">Joudah 1987, p. 107.</ref> Al-Jazzar initially refused to surrender despite the heavy naval bombardment. However, after the Russians managed to land artillery pieces near Beirut and cut the city off by land, al-Jazzar decided to surrender to Daher,<ref name="Joudah107"/> four months after the siege.<ref name="Philipp51"/><ref name="Harris122"/> Fearing that Emir Yusuf would kill him in custody, al-Jazzar only agreed to surrender if placed in Daher's custody because the latter promised to protect him and his Maghrebi garrison.<ref name="Joudah107"/>
Escorted by an envoy of Daher,<ref name="Joudah107"/> al-Jazzar subsequently headed for Daher's headquarters in Acre.<ref name="Philipp63">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA63 63].</ref> Al-Jazzar entered into Daher's service, and the latter dispatched al-Jazzar and his men to help collect the ''miri'' (taxes designated for the annual Hajj caravan) from the area between [[Jaffa]] and [[Jerusalem]].<ref name="Joudah107"/> Al-Jazzar decided to defect from Daher's service by requesting employment by Ibrahim Pasha, the ''sanjak-bey'' of Jerusalem, but the latter refused al-Jazzar entry into the city due to suspicions that his request was a ploy by Daher to enter the city without resistance and conquer it.<ref name="Joudah107"/> With the ''miri'' money that he stole,<ref name="Harris122"/> al-Jazzar departed for Damascus, where he was welcomed by al-Wakil.<ref name="Joudah107"/> Al-Jazzar then left for Constantinople.<ref>Joudah 1987, p. 108.</ref> There, he used his charisma to gain the favor of sultans [[Mustafa III]] (r. 1757–1774) and [[Abdul Hamid I]] (r. 1774–1789).<ref name="Harris122"/> He was subsequently appointed ''sanjak-bey'' of [[Afyonkarahisar|Afyon Sanjak]] in western Anatolia.<ref name="Harris122"/>
==Ruler of Acre==
===Consolidation of power in Galilee=== [[File:Aerial view of Acre 1.jpg|thumb|right|Skyline of Acre, where al-Jazzar established his headquarters]]
In August 1775, the Ottomans, having secured a truce with the Russians, redoubled their efforts to end Daher's autonomous rule. Daher was defeated and killed on 22 August.<ref name="Joudah116">Joudah 1987, p. 116.</ref> Later, in September,<ref name="Philipp70">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA70 70].</ref> Sultan Abdul Hamid I appointed al-Jazzar ''muhafiz'' of Acre,<ref name="Joudah116"/> and prior to his departure to Constantinople, [[Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha|Hasan Kapudan Pasha]], the Ottoman admiral who led the campaign against Daher, handed control of Acre over to al-Jazzar.<ref name="Joudah116"/> Al-Jazzar, using his influence in Constantinople,<ref name="Philipp70"/> managed to secure promotion as the administrator of [[Sidon Eyalet]] with the rank of ''[[vizier|vezir]]'' (minister),<ref name="Joudah116"/> but not ''[[wali]]'' (governor),<ref name="Philipp70"/> in March 1776.<ref name="Joudah116"/> He was also officially ranked as a [[pasha]] of three horsetails, the highest pasha rank, in the spring of 1776.<ref name="Philipp70"/>
While the administrative capital of Sidon Eyalet was nominally Sidon,<ref name="Philipp70"/> al-Jazzar made Acre his seat of power.<ref name="Joudah116"/> Part of the reason that al-Jazzar chose Acre as his headquarters was that the city's citadel provided him a more strategic advantage over Sidon in the event of a potential dismissal by the Ottoman authorities from his post; the central Ottoman authorities replaced provincial governors relatively quickly, either out of fear that a prolonged reign would lead to a governor's rebellion or in pursuit of bribes that aspiring governors often paid to gain appointment.<ref name="Mishaqah19">Mishaqah, ed. Thackston, 1988, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ISHHYMNmp0gC&pg=PA19 19].</ref> According to historian William Harris, "al-Jazzar aimed to make himself indispensable, while respecting Ottoman sovereignty."<ref name="Harris122"/> Al-Jazzar's move to Acre was meant to secure his rule and he proceeded to strengthen the city's fortifications and stock up on arms, artillery and ammunition.<ref name="Mishaqah19"/>
Initially, al-Jazzar's power was effectively limited to Acre because Daher's [[Al-Zayadina|Zaydani kinsmen]] still controlled their fortress villages in the [[Galilee]] and challenged the new order.<ref name="Joudah117">Joudah 1987, p. 117.</ref> Indeed, al-Jazzar's official justification for relocating the province's headquarters to Acre was to eliminate the remnants of Daher's realm still active in the city's hinterland.<ref name="Mishaqah19"/> The most significant Zaydani opponent resisting al-Jazzar was Daher's son [[Ali al-Daher|Ali]], who was based in [[Deir Hanna]].<ref name="Joudah117"/> Meanwhile, Nasif al-Nassar submitted to al-Jazzar's authority.<ref name="Joudah117"/> The Shia Muslim clans sought to make amends with the Ottoman authorities following their alliance with Daher and the principal Shia Muslim notable of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] hosted al-Jazzar during his visit to the city in the spring of 1776.<ref name="Winter140">Winter 2010, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KGeuAeFFJCEC&pg=PA140 140].</ref> Meanwhile, Hasan Kapudan returned to Acre in the summer of 1776,<ref name="Joudah117"/> and he and al-Jazzar, whose forces were bolstered by Nasif's Shia horsemen,<ref name="Winter140"/> besieged Deir Hanna, which capitulated in June.<ref name="Joudah117"/> With the defeat of Daher's sons, al-Jazzar consolidated his control over Acre and the [[Safad]] area.<ref name="Mishaqah19"/>
===Domination of Mount Lebanon=== Al-Jazzar actively sought to dominate Mount Lebanon, which was controlled by the Druze clans.<ref name="Philipp63"/> He seized Beirut from Emir Yusuf despite Emir Yusuf's authority over the city being confirmed by Hasan Kapudan.<ref name="Philipp63"/> Moreover, al-Jazzar also demanded that Emir Yusuf pay the annual tax to Sidon, despite Emir Yusuf having already paid this tax via Hasan Kapudan.<ref name="Philipp63"/> In August 1776, the forces of al-Jazzar and Emir Yusuf entered into armed confrontation.<ref name="Philipp63"/> In the autumn of that year, al-Jazzar and Nasif, through mediation by the Shia sheikh of Tyre, Sheikh Qublan, finalized a tax payment arrangement. Thereafter, Nasif backed al-Jazzar in his conflict with the Druze clans, namely the [[Jumblatt]]s, but also the various Shihab emirs, whose divisions al-Jazzar exploited in order to consolidate his authority in the mountainous hinterland of Sidon Eyalet.<ref name="Winter140"/> Al-Jazzar also utilized Nasif's cavalry to combat rebellious groups of Bedouins and [[Turkmens]] in the province.<ref name="Winter140"/>
Al-Jazzar continued to lobby for appointment as ''wali'' of Sidon Eyalet and was approaching open rebellion against the Ottomans in protest at not receiving the post. However, in May 1777, al-Jazzar was officially appointed ''wali''.<ref name="Philipp70"/> That year, al-Jazzar requested assistance against Emir Yusuf from [[Muhammad Pasha al-Azm]], the ''wali'' of Damascus, and his son Yusuf Pasha al-Azm, the ''wali'' of [[Tripoli Eyalet|Tripoli]].<ref name="Philipp63"/> Both refused, citing Emir Yusuf's loyalty and regular payment of taxes. They also feared al-Jazzar's growing power more than Emir Yusuf.<ref name="Philipp63"/> Al-Jazzar dispatched the commander of his Maghrebi troops in Sidon, Mustafa ibn Qara Mulla, to collect payments from the Druze clans and kill Emir Yusuf. In his first foray into Mount Lebanon, the Druze forced him to retreat to Sidon. Mustafa was also unsuccessful in his second offensive, this time through the [[Beqaa Valley]]. In the latter offensive, the harvest of the valley was confiscated and the two sides entered into indecisive clashes.<ref name="Philipp63"/>
However, conflict emerged between the Druze of Mount Lebanon, with the Jumblatt and Abu Nakad clans moving to depose Emir Yusuf and replace him with his brothers Sayyid-Ahmad and Afandi.<ref name="Philipp63"/> The latter two offered al-Jazzar 50,000 [[qirsh]] in September 1778 for the [[tax farm]]s of Mount Lebanon. Al-Jazzar accepted the offer.<ref name="Philipp64">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA64 64].</ref> To support Sayyid-Ahmad and Afandi's appointment, al-Jazzar departed for Beirut with his troops and from there he besieged Emir Yusuf at [[Jubail]].<ref name="Philipp64"/> Emir Yusuf was backed by his other brother, Emir Muhammad, and Yusuf Pasha of Tripoli.<ref name="Philipp64"/>
Emir Yusuf was able to withstand the siege, which entered into a stalemate, but ultimately agreed to pay al-Jazzar 100,000 qirsh to restore him as emir of Mount Lebanon.<ref name="Philipp64"/> Thereafter, al-Jazzar commissioned Nasif to launch an assault against Sayyid-Ahmad and Afandi to restore Mount Lebanon to Emir Yusuf.<ref name="Winter141">Winter 2010, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KGeuAeFFJCEC&pg=PA141 141].</ref> During the months after Emir Yusuf was restored, he proceeded to eliminate many of his relatives, who were potential rivals to the emirate, and felt secure enough to withhold tax payments to al-Jazzar. As a consequence, al-Jazzar launched a punitive expedition against the Druze, which succeeded in deposing Emir Yusuf, albeit temporarily.<ref name="Philipp65">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA65 65].</ref> In 1780, Nasif backed al-Jazzar in a military confrontation with al-Jazzar's principal regional enemy at the time, Muhammad Pasha of Damascus.<ref name="Winter140"/> In May 1781, Nasif confronted Muhammad Pasha's forces in a second engagement on al-Jazzar's behalf.<ref name="Winter141"/>
===Destruction of Shia autonomy=== [[File:Chateau de Beaufort.jpg|thumb|right|Remains of the Beaufort Castle that al-Jazzar had destroyed along with other fortress strongholds of the Shia Muslim clans in Jabal Amil]]
Al-Jazzar's relations with Nasif soured by September 1781,<ref name="Winter141"/> when, according to the local Shia chronicler Ali al-Subayti, the Shia sheikh of [[Hunin]] requested al-Jazzar's intervention against Nasif.<ref name="Winter142">Winter 2010, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KGeuAeFFJCEC&pg=PA142 142].</ref> Al-Jazzar dispatched one of his senior ''mamluk'' commanders, Salim Pasha al-Kabir, with 3,000 troops against Nasif and his Ali al-Saghir al-Wa'il clan.<ref name="Philipp65"/> On 23–24 September,<ref name="Winter141"/><ref name="Philipp65"/> al-Jazzar's forces routed Nasif's forces, killing Nasif and 470 of his cavalrymen in a three-hour-long battle at [[Yaroun]]. Most of the leading Shia sheikhs of Jabal Amil were killed during a subsequent series of assaults against Shia-held fortress towns, the last being the [[Beaufort Castle, Lebanon|Beaufort Castle]] (Shaqif Arnun), where the Shia clans made a last stand.<ref name="Winter141"/> Beaufort's inhabitants were not harmed following their surrender, and al-Jazzar coordinated their flight to the Beqaa Valley.<ref name="Winter142"/> This came to mark the virtual end of Shia autonomy in Jabal Amel.<ref name="Winter141"/>
The remainder of the leading Shia sheikhs took refuge with the [[Harfush clan]] in the Beqaa Valley.<ref name="Winter141"/> According to the French consul of Sidon and local Shia chronicler Haydar Rida al-Rukayni, following the defeat of the Shia sheikhs, Druze forces took the sheikhs' women and others as captives to al-Jazzar himself in Sidon, while Isma'il Shihab of [[Hasbaya]] proceeded to extort the survivors in return for protection.<ref name="Winter142"/> Massive amounts of valuables were seized from the Shia and their fortresses were largely demolished.<ref name="Winter141"/><ref name="Philipp65"/> In mid-October, Nasif's son 'Aqid launched a last-ditch effort against al-Jazzar's forces in the Beqaa Valley, but he ultimately fled during the battle.<ref name="Winter141"/> With this, Jabal Amil was conquered and the port city of Tyre became a permanent part of al-Jazzar's realm.<ref name="Philipp65"/> The [[Sublime Porte]] (Ottoman imperial government) commended al-Jazzar's victory in a letter filled with rhapsodic praise and a promise to him of the empire's unyielding support to "clean the land of the filth of their existence", in reference to the Shia clans.<ref name="Winter141"/>
===First term as Wali of Damascus=== Al-Jazzar had long sought the governorship of Damascus to be added to his realm. Al-Jazzar's moves to gain the governorship in the wake of Muhammad Pasha al-Azm's death in 1783 were initially unsuccessful. The Sublime Porte was reticent to give al-Jazzar the added power of the governorship of Damascus, and instead the appointment went to a man who died 29 days into office and who was then replaced by [[Darwish Pasha al-Kurji]]. The latter was replaced after a year by Muhammad Pasha Battal. Both Darwish and Battal were deemed incompetent and the Sublime Porte ultimately appointed al-Jazzar to the governorship in March 1785, after the latter expended a large bribe to imperial officials in Constantinople.<ref name="Philipp71">Philipp, p. 71.</ref> Al-Jazzar also managed to have one of his senior ''mamluks'' and treasurer, Salim Pasha al-Kabir, appointed ''wali'' of Sidon in his place, and another of his senior ''mamluks'', [[Sulayman Pasha al-Adil|Sulayman Pasha]], appointed ''wali'' of Tripoli.<ref name="Philipp71"/> Al-Jazzar departed for [[Damascus]] in mid-April with a ceremonial procession demonstrating his military might.<ref name="Philipp71"/> This was the first and last time that al-Jazzar headquartered himself anywhere outside of Acre since becoming ''wali'' of Sidon in 1777.<ref name="Philipp71"/>
Sometime in 1785, the Sublime Porte sought al-Jazzar's advice regarding how to address the increasing autonomy of Egypt's Mamluk rulers, namely [[Murad Bey]].<ref name="Finkel410"/> Al-Jazzar wrote that the Ottomans should launch an expedition against the Mamluks with 12,000 soldiers, reassert centralized rule there, appoint a governor with previous political experience in Egypt, and to regularly "present gifts to the soldiers ... in order to attract their support".<ref name="Finkel410"/> The Ottomans launched an expedition led by Hasan Kapudan in 1786, but they were ordered to withdraw after the war with Russia resumed and the Mamluks were restored to power in Egypt.<ref name="Finkel410"/>
With an army of some 5,000 soldiers, al-Jazzar made the ''dawrah'' (collection tour of the ''miri'' tax) in Palestine, which was largely part of Damascus Eyalet, in June and July 1785.<ref name="Philipp71"/> The ''dawrah'', which the inhabitants considered particularly brutal that year, coincided with spreading plague and famine in Palestine, and under these collective circumstances, many of Palestine's inhabitants left their villages.<ref name="Philipp71"/> During the ''dawrah'', al-Jazzar combated and defeated the local forces of [[Nablus]], and asserted his authority in [[Hebron]] and Jerusalem, installing one of his ''mamluks'', Qasim Bey, as the ''mutasallim'' (enforcer/tax collector) of the latter, replacing a local from the Nimr clan.<ref name="Philipp71"/> The violence used by al-Jazzar during the ''dawrah'' was meant to stamp his authority in Palestine.<ref name="Philipp71"/> The ''wali'' of Damascus was traditionally the ''amir al-hajj'' of the Syrian pilgrimage caravan, and after collecting the ''miri'', al-Jazzar departed Damascus for Mecca in command of the Hajj caravan in October.<ref name="Philipp71"/>
Al-Jazzar returned from the Hajj around January 1786. By mid-July, al-Jazzar was effectively the most powerful figure in Ottoman Syria, with the Damascus, Sidon and Tripoli [[eyalet]]s under his direct rule or that of his lieutenants. Al-Jazzar attempted to establish a monopoly on the [[grain trade]] in [[Hauran]] by having grain shipped solely through Acre, bypassing Damascus and thus provoking the ire of that city's grain merchants. The Sublime Porte dismissed him later that year for unclear reasons. Al-Jazzar did not challenge the dismissal and returned to Acre to resume his duty as ''wali'' of Sidon.<ref name="Philipp71"/>
===Mamluk rebellion=== On 4 May 1789, al-Jazzar dispatched two of his senior ''mamluk'' commanders and their troops to collect taxes from Emir Yusuf, which the latter had been reticent to pay. For this purpose, Salim Pasha al-Saghir was sent with 2,000 cavalry to Hasbaya, while [[Sulayman Pasha al-Adil|Sulayman Pasha]] was sent with 800 infantry to the coast. According to French consul Jean-Pierre Renaudot, the relatively large size of mobilized troops sent for a relatively routine procedure such as collecting taxes was actually an attempt by al-Jazzar to avoid contributing his forces to the Ottoman war effort with Russia by demonstrating how his forces were still needed to combat the Druze of Mount Lebanon.<ref name="Philipp143">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA143 143].</ref> On 8 May, al-Jazzar became aware of sexual relations between a number of his ''mamluks'' and women from his [[harem]].<ref name="Philipp143"/> He consequently cut off the arms of the ''mamluks'' who were headquartered in Acre's [[seraglio]] (where the harem was located) and had a number of women drowned at sea.<ref name="Philipp144">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA144 144].</ref> On 9 May, al-Jazzar proceeded to purge his ''mamluks'', arresting many, a number of whom were then executed, with the assistance of 30 Bosnian soldiers.<ref name="Philipp144"/> The ''mamluks'' of Acre subsequently revolted and barricaded themselves in the treasury, which was located in Acre's Big Tower.<ref name="Philipp144"/> Angered by the execution of his favored [[valet]], the treasurer, a brother of Salim Pasha, then broke the incarcerated ''mamluks'' out of prison and linked up with the ''mamluk'' rebels at the Big Tower. The ''mamluks'' aimed the artillery pieces of the Big Tower at the seraglio and threatened to destroy it.<ref name="Philipp144"/>
A stalemate ensued giving the [[mufti]] of Acre an opportunity to mediate between al-Jazzar and the ''mamluks''.<ref name="Philipp144"/> With the threat to his capital, al-Jazzar was compelled to agree to the safe departure of the 70–80 ''mamluk'' rebels from the city with their weapons and horses.<ref name="Philipp144"/> The ''mamluks'' who remained in Acre, namely the pre-adolescents, were then either killed by al-Jazzar or exiled to Egypt.<ref name="Philipp144"/> Meanwhile, the ''mamluks'' who were able to depart the city, led by the treasurer, moved north to the Lebanon and met with Sulayman Pasha and Salim Pasha.<ref name="Philipp144"/> A reconciliation attempt between the ''mamluks'' and al-Jazzar failed and the ''mamluks'', under the command of Sulayman and Salim, decided to topple al-Jazzar.<ref name="Philipp144"/> They reached a truce with Emir Yusuf and secured the support of the Maghrebi unit commander in Beirut, al-Jaburi, who turned down al-Jazzar's orders to kill Salim.<ref name="Philipp144"/> The ''mamluks'' used Sidon as their base of operations. However, the revolt met a challenge when the ''mamluks'' attempted to enter Tyre, but were refused by that city's commander.<ref name="Philipp144"/> The ''mamluks'' proceeded to assault the town and plundered it after the ''mamluk'' commanders were unable to control them.<ref name="Philipp144"/> News of the events in Tyre persuaded many in Acre who were wary of al-Jazzar's rule to prefer al-Jazzar instead of Salim.<ref name="Philipp144"/>
After the sack of Tyre, the ''mamluks'' launched their offensive against Acre, where al-Jazzar was increasingly isolated from his troops. His remaining military forces in the city consisted of around 200 Albanian troops commanded by Juwaq Uthman.<ref name="Philipp144"/> On 3 June, the rebels, numbering some 1,200 soldiers, including Kurdish cavalry from [[Hama]] commanded by Mulla Isma'il, reached the plain of Acre, but had no apparent plan on how to capture the city.<ref name="Philipp145">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA145 145].</ref> In a last-ditch attempt to bolster Acre's defenses, al-Jazzar gathered and armed all of the city's government laborers and masons.<ref name="Philipp145"/> The ''[[qadi]]'' of Acre, Shaykh Muhammad, advised al-Jazzar to mount a nighttime raid against the rebel's camp in the plain.<ref name="Philipp145"/> Al-Jazzar heeded Shaykh Muhammad's advice, but also prepared a ship in Acre's harbor to escape in case of a rebel victory.<ref name="Philipp145"/> At nightfall, Acre's defenders launched a [[sortie]] against the rebel camp, while the city's artillery bombarded the rebels.<ref name="Philipp145"/> The assault took the rebels by surprise.<ref name="Philipp145"/> Mulla Isma'il immediately withdrew during the assault, while the ''mamluks'' were defeated and fled during the five-hour battle.<ref name="Philipp145"/> Sulayman and Salim escaped to Mount Lebanon, before heading to Damascus to renew their efforts to topple al-Jazzar.<ref name="Philipp145"/>
The rebellion and its suppression effectively marked the end of the ''mamluk'' household al-Jazzar had raised,<ref name="Philipp329">Philipp, p. 329.</ref> and the end of the ''mamluks'' as a military institution during al-Jazzar's rule.<ref name="Philipp145"/> According to Philipp, the ''mamluk'' rebellion was al-Jazzar's "gravest military and political crisis", with the only exception perhaps being Napoleon's siege of Acre in 1799, although the rebellion "was in many ways more serious since it arose from an internal source."<ref name="Philipp144"/> The revolt was perceived by al-Jazzar, himself a virtual product of the ''mamluk'' system, as a betrayal of his most senior lieutenants,<ref name="Philipp329"/> whose careers and wealth he created through his patronage.<ref name="Philipp145"/> The rebellion thus had traumatic effects on al-Jazzar's personality, which according to Philipp, transformed al-Jazzar's "latent fears, suspicions and distrust ... into a sense of paranoia".<ref name="Philipp329"/> In the rebellion's aftermath, al-Jazzar launched a massive purge in his realm, executing and exiling people of all societal ranks.<ref name="Philipp329"/> The 19th-century chronicler Haydar Ahmad Shihab noted that as a result of the rebellion, al-Jazzar "became like an untamed animal ... he imagined that the whole world was against him."<ref name="Philipp329"/>
===Second term as Wali of Damascus=== In line with a pattern by the Sublime Porte to appoint al-Jazzar to Damascus in times of crisis, al-Jazzar was reappointed Wali of Damascus in October 1790,<ref name="Philipp71"/> succeeding [[Ibrahim Deli Pasha]].<ref name="Douwes92">Douwes 2000, p. 92.</ref> This came following a revolt by imperial [[Janissaries]] from the [[Citadel of Damascus]] led by Ahmad Agha al-Za'faranji and ''[[agha (Ottoman Empire)|aghawat]]'' (local commanders) from the southern quarter of [[al-Midan]] against Ibrahim Deli, which the latter was able to suppress.<ref>Douwes 2000, pp. 89–90.</ref> However, unlike his first term, al-Jazzar chose to remain in Acre and appointed one of his close advisers,<ref name="Philipp72">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA72 72].</ref> Muhammad Agha, as ''mutasallim'' or ''qaimaqam'' (deputy governor)<ref name="Douwes93">Douwes 2000, p. 93.</ref> of Damascus to administer the internal affairs of the province on his behalf.<ref name="Philipp72"/> Through Muhammad Agha, al-Jazzar reestablished his monopoly on the grain trade of Damascus and Hauran, re-routing its export through Acre.<ref name="Philipp72"/> Al-Jazzar still commanded the hajj caravan however, and officially remained the Wali of Sidon as well.<ref name="Philipp71"/> This was in contrast to his first term as Wali of Damascus, where al-Jazzar officially relinquished Sidon Eyalet to his subordinate and subsequently struggled to persuade the Sublime Porte to restore him to the governorship of Sidon after being dismissed as Wali of Damascus in 1786.<ref name="Philipp71"/>
Al-Jazzar's enmity with the [[Azm family]], his chief rivals for power in Damascus, at times manifested into an alliance with the ''aghawat'' of al-Midan, who traditionally controlled the grain trade, against the ''aghawat'' of the northern city quarters who were traditionally allied with the Azms.<ref name="Philipp72"/><ref name="Douwes91">Douwes 2000, p. 91.</ref> The ''aghawat'' of al-Midan had likely joined the calls to dismiss al-Jazzar in 1786 due to the immediate financial harm they experienced with the establishment of the grain monopoly.<ref name="Philipp72"/><ref name="Douwes91"/> However, during al-Jazzar's second term, a commercial interest of sorts was established between them, al-Jazzar and Jewish merchants from Acre and Damascus.<ref name="Philipp72"/> They often served as al-Jazzar's ''mutasallims'' in various districts of Damascus Eyalet.<ref name="Douwes91"/> The feud between al-Jazzar and the Azms intensified when Muhammad Agha had Ali Bey al-Azm, a son of Muhammad Pasha, killed by poison,<ref>Douwes 2000, p. 96.</ref> on orders from al-Jazzar, and confiscated his properties.<ref name="Philipp72"/>
Al-Jazzar appointed al-Za'faranji as ''mutasallim'' of [[Hama]], a stronghold of the Azms,<ref name="Douwes93"/> which had supported Ibrahim Deli against him in 1788.<ref name="Douwes92"/> However, prior to his departure to command the hajj caravan in 1791, al-Jazzar had Muhammad Agha execute al-Za'faranji, likely out of fear that the latter, who was a popular commander and from the northern quarters, would conspire against al-Jazzar while he was away on the hajj.<ref name="Philipp73">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA73 73].</ref> Dozens or hundreds of Damascenes, including numerous city notables, Muslim scholars and ''aghawat'' were executed during al-Jazzar's second term.<ref name="Philipp73"/> These executions were overseen by Muhammad Agha,<ref name="Philipp72"/> who was known to be "unusually oppressive", according to Philipp,<ref name="Philipp72"/> and "extremely unpopular", according to historian Dick Douwes.<ref>Douwes 2000, pp. 93–94.</ref> Among the Muslim scholars who died in custody were three [[Hanafi]] muftis,<ref name="Douwes92"/> who were targeted by al-Jazzar because of their association with the Azm family and their political clout in the city as the most senior indigenous religious officials; the most senior religious official was the ''qadi'' who was appointed by the Sublime Porte.<ref name="Douwes92"/>
In 1794, al-Jazzar dismissed Muhammad Agha and replaced him with the trustee of the Sinaniyya Mosque of al-Midan, Ahmad Agha. The latter chose to target Jewish financial interests in Damascus in defiance of al-Jazzar, while he was leading the hajj caravan that year.<ref name="Philipp73"/> Upon al-Jazzar's return, Ahmad Agha fled the city.<ref name="Philipp73"/> Throughout his second term as Wali of Damascus, al-Jazzar continuously fought against the [[Jarrar family|Jarrar]] and Nimr clans of [[Jabal Nablus]], part of Damascus Eyalet, to assert his control over the virtually autonomous [[Nablus Sanjak]]. He established an alliance with the [[Tuqan family]], appointing Musa Bey Tuqan as ''mutasallim'' of [[Nablus]] in 1794, a move which the Jarrars challenged. Al-Jazzar besieged them at their hilltop fortress at [[Sanur, Jenin|Sanur]], but ended the siege in failure and with heavy casualties.<ref name="Philipp76"/> Al-Jazzar was dismissed from the governorship of Damascus in 1795, marking his second term as his longest tenure as Wali of Damascus.
===Defense of Acre and aftermath=== [[File:Thomas Sutherland - Defence of the breach at St Jean dAcre May 8th 1799 1815.jpg|thumb|right|Artistic representation of the [[siege of Acre (1799)|siege of Acre]]]]
In 1798 General Bonaparte conquered Egypt as part of his [[French Campaign in Egypt and Syria|campaign]] against the Ottomans. The French invasion caused popular riots in Damascus, prompting the Ottomans to replace Abdullah Pasha as Wali of Damascus with Ibrahim Pasha al-Halabi,<ref name="Douwes95">Douwes 2000, p. 95.</ref> who became the target of an uprising.<ref name="Philipp77">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA77 77]</ref> Al-Jazzar was ultimately appointed to a post akin to caretaker governor of Damascus and his troops subsequently restored order in the city.<ref name="Douwes95"/> Upon al-Jazzar's visit to Damascus, he had numerous ''aghawat'' beheaded with their heads on display at the gate of the citadel.<ref name="Douwes95"/>
Meanwhile, in February 1799, Bonaparte entered Palestine, first occupying Gaza and then moving north along the coastal plain,<ref name="Filiu29">Filiu, 2014, p. 29.</ref> where eventually laid [[Siege of Jaffa|siege to Jaffa]]. Jaffa was defended by al-Jazzar's troops,<ref name="Philipp20">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA20 20].</ref> but they surrendered during the siege in return for French promises that they would not be killed.<ref name="McGregor44">McGregor, 2006, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WrbCziCWJPEC&pg=PA44 44].</ref> However, in custody al-Jazzar's troops were not given food or shelter, and after several days French forces marched them, 3,000<ref name="McGregor44"/> or 4,000 in all,<ref name="Philipp57">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA57 57].</ref> to the sand dunes of Jaffa's shore and executed them by bayonet over the course of several days.<ref name="McGregor44"/> Simultaneous with the execution of al-Jazzar's troops, a plague afflicted Bonaparte's troops, resulting in numerous deaths.<ref name="McGregor44"/>
Bonaparte's army then captured Haifa and used it as a staging ground for their [[Siege of Acre (1799)|siege of Acre]].<ref>Yazbak, 1998, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DPseCvbPsKsC&pg=PA17 17].</ref> Al-Jazzar commanded his troops in Acre and personally scaled the town's walls and engaged in direct fighting with French soldiers.<ref name="Philipp58"/> Prior to Bonaparte's arrival at Acre, al-Jazzar's forces had been bolstered by an advance brigade of 700 troops dispatched by the Sublime Porte.<ref name="Aksan230">Aksan, 2014 p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=UaesAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 230].</ref> With access to the sea largely unfettered, he was able to secure supplies and reinforcements.<ref name="McGregor44"/> Among the key reinforcements were some 800 British marines,<ref name="McGregor44"/> who were led by [[Sidney Smith (Royal Navy officer)|Sidney Smith]].<ref name="Aksan230"/> The [[British Navy]],<ref name="Masters132">Masters, p. 132.</ref> specifically two men-of-war ships,<ref name="Finkel411">Finkel, 2007, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=hslOx5bvOzkC&pg=PA411 411].</ref> also came to al-Jazzar's aid and bombarded Bonaparte's trenches through the course of the siege,<ref name="Aksan230"/> resulting in heavy French casualties prior to the arrival of artillery batteries that the French used to shell Acre's fortress.<ref name="McGregor44"/> After 62 days, Bonaparte withdrew his army with heavy loss of life on 20 May.<ref name="Masters132"/>
The Ottomans had been shocked by Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt,<ref name="Finkel410">Finkel, 2007, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=hslOx5bvOzkC&pg=PA410 410].</ref> and were "spared further military embarrassment" by al-Jazzar's successful defense of Acre, according to historian Bruce Masters.<ref name="Masters132"/> His Muslim and Christian contemporaries both regarded his victory over the French Army as his greatest achievement.<ref name="Philipp48">Philipp 2013, p. 48.</ref> Al-Jazzar's victory significantly boosted his prestige.<ref name="Kramer61">Krämer, 2011, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tWrW_CKODdQC&pg=PA61 61].</ref> Mass celebrations in Damascus and Aleppo followed his victory,<ref name="Masters132"/> and al-Jazzar became "the defender of the faith" in Muslim public opinion, while being credited by European observers as among the few to have defeated Bonaparte.<ref name="Philipp49">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA49 49].</ref>
Following Napoleon's withdrawal, al-Jazzar requested from the Sublime Porte to be appointed commander-in-chief of Egypt and lead the Ottoman reconquest of the province.<ref name="Aksan231">Aksan, 2014, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=UaesAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA231 231].</ref> Sultan [[Selim III]]'s military advisers considered al-Jazzar's request, but ultimately decided that appointing al-Jazzar to Egypt would only empower him further and make him difficult to remove from the province.<ref name="Aksan231"/> Instead, the Ottomans assembled an army under [[Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire|Grand Vizier]], [[Kör Yusuf Ziyaüddin Pasha|Kör Yusuf Ziya Pasha]], to restore Ottoman control in Egypt.<ref name="Aksan231"/> Yusuf Pasha restored Abdullah Pasha al-Azm to the governorship of Damascus in mid-1799, ending al-Jazzar's third and shortest (seven months) tenure in Damascus.<ref name="Douwes95"/>
===Final years=== The Ottomans and the British defeated the French in Egypt in 1801, and during Yusuf Pasha's return to Istanbul through Palestine, Yusuf Pasha appointed his protégé and [[Hebron]]-area native [[Muhammad Abu Maraq]] to control Jaffa as the governor of the sanjaks of Gaza and Jerusalem. Giving Abu Maraq control of southern Palestine was intended to limit al-Jazzar's influence in that region.<ref name="Philipp75">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA75 75]</ref> In defiance of the Sublime Porte, al-Jazzar sought to oust Abu Maraq and immediately besieged Jaffa, which al-Jazzar considered to be of immense strategic importance to his rule in Acre despite the city being in the jurisdiction of the Damascus Eyalet.<ref name="Philipp76">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA76 76].</ref> Consequently, the Ottomans issued a ''[[firman]]'' condemning al-Jazzar as a rebel.<ref name="Philipp77"/> Al-Jazzar dismissed the ''firman'' and continued his siege of Jaffa until Abu Maraq surrendered and fled the city in early 1803.<ref name="Philipp77"/> Al-Jazzar subsequently mustered large funds and directed his lobby of influence in Constantinople and managed to have imperial support for his rule restored.<ref name="Philipp77"/>
When [[Mecca]] was occupied by [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] tribesmen in 1803 and humiliated the Hajj pilgrims under Abdullah Pasha's protection, the Ottomans dismissed Abdullah and reappointed al-Jazzar Wali of Damascus in late 1803.<ref name="Douwes95"/> Abdullah Pasha did not accept his dismissal and mobilized troops from Hama to occupy Damascus, but his troops refused to fight because they were not paid their regular wage and because they did not want to challenge the Ottoman government.<ref>Douwes 2000, pp. 95–96.</ref> Al-Jazzar assigned Shaykh Taha al-Kurdi and his Kurdish units to oversee Damascus on his behalf.<ref name="Philipp74">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA74 74].</ref> Al-Jazzar also launched another siege against the Jarrar sheikhs of Sanur, but was again unable to oust them.<ref name="Philipp76"/>
===Death and succession=== Al-Jazzar was afflicted with a [[tertian fever]] in August 1803 and the illness he suffered kept him inactive.<ref name="Buckingham126">Buckingham, p. 126.</ref> Al-Jazzar had Sulayman Pasha command the Hajj caravan of 1803–04 as ''amir al-hajj'' in his place.<ref name="Philipp78">Philipp 2013, p. 78.</ref> Al-Jazzar died on 7 May 1804.<ref name="Buckingham126"/> In 1816, [[James Silk Buckingham]] described al-Jazzar as the following: <blockquote>He was a man famous for his personal strength, his ferocious courage, his cruelty, and his insatiable avarice, as well as for the great power which the active exertion of all these qualities together procured for him.<ref name="Buckingham126"/></blockquote>
The Ottomans attempted to stop a potential power struggle from occurring in Acre when it became apparent that al-Jazzar was seriously ill, and in April 1804, they secretly appointed the Wali of Aleppo, [[Ibrahim Pasha Qataraghasi]], as the ''wali'' of both the Sidon and Damascus ''eyalets'', officially replacing al-Jazzar.<ref name="Philipp78"/> After al-Jazzar's death, however, one of his imprisoned officers, Isma'il Pasha, was released by friendly soldiers.<ref name="Philipp78"/> Isma'il assumed power in Acre in defiance of the Sublime Porte, which condemned him as a rebel in June.<ref name="Philipp78"/> The Ottomans dispatched Qataraghasi to defeat Isma'il and assert his governorship of the Sidon and Damascus ''eyalets''.<ref name="Philipp78"/> Qataraghasi was backed by Sulayman Pasha on his way back from the Hajj, and the two men besieged Isma'il in Acre.<ref name="Philipp78"/> Qataraghasi had to withdraw from the siege to begin the ''miri'' collection tour and prepare for the scheduled departure of the Hajj caravan in January 1805.<ref name="Philipp78"/> This left Sulayman in command of the siege, during which Sulayman was appointed Wali of Sidon, which further motivated him to defeat Isma'il.<ref name="Philipp78"/> The latter launched a sortie from Acre against Sulayman's troops near [[Shefa-'Amr]] and in the ensuing battle, Sulayman was victorious.<ref name="Philipp78"/>
==Politics==
===Administration=== [[File:Jezzar Pacha condemning a criminal, sketch by Francis B. Spilsbury. Edward Orme (1803).jpg|right|thumb|Al-Jazzar condemning a criminal in [[Acre, Palestine|Acre]], at his court in 1800]]
Al-Jazzar used his experiences and knowledge from his career with the Mamluks of Egypt to set up the mamluk system of military rule in Acre.<ref name="Philipp319">Philipp 2004, p. 319.</ref> Prior to the dissolution of his mamluk household in 1789, mamluks served as al-Jazzar's personal bodyguards and political advisers, as well as his subordinate administrators in the other cities and areas of his realm.<ref name="Philipp319"/> The inner circle of his mamluk household was made up of Salim Pasha al-Kabir, Salim Pasha al-Saghir, Sulayman Pasha and Ali Agha Khazindar.<ref name="Philipp319"/> They were either purchased or given to him during his time in Egypt, but it is not clear if they left Egypt with him in 1768 or if they moved to Acre after al-Jazzar was given the governorship of Sidon.<ref name="Philipp320">Philipp 2004, p. 320.</ref> Al-Jazzar had an emotional attachment to his mamluks and when his first mamluk, Salim Pasha al-Kabir, died in 1786 from the [[plague (disease)|plague]], al-Jazzar "cried like a child", according to the French consul in Acre.<ref name="Philipp320"/> Despite the profound sense of betrayal he felt at the rebellion of his senior mamluks, when Sulayman Pasha returned to Acre in 1802, al-Jazzar "received him like a lost son", according to Philipp.<ref name="Philipp320"/>
Towards the end of the 18th century, al-Jazzar employed [[Haim Farhi]], a Damascene [[Jew]] from a banking family, to serve as his treasury manager and administrative adviser.<ref name="Maoz">{{cite book|last1=Ma'oz|first1=Moshe|title=Studies on Palestine During the Ottoman Period|date=1975|publisher=Magnes Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoJtAAAAMAAJ|page=144|isbn=978-965-223-589-3 }}</ref> At one point, al-Jazzar dismissed and arrested Farhi and had his eye gouged, and his ears and nose cut.<ref name="Maoz"/> Farhi was restored to his position and his role in Acre became increasingly influential under al-Jazzar's successors, Sulayman Pasha and Abdullah Pasha.<ref name="Maoz"/>
After establishing himself in Acre, al-Jazzar assigned a small of group of Kurds commanded by a certain Shaykh Taha, who was considered by the Muslims of al-Jazzar's realm to be a [[Yazidi]] and a devil worshiper, to administer internal security.<ref name="Philipp322">Philipp 2004, p. 322.</ref> In effect, they became responsible for running prisons and carrying out the torture and execution of individuals.<ref name="Philipp322"/>
===Military=== Al-Jazzar's military forces were largely organized along ethnic lines, which helped guarantee loyalty and cooperation within each ethnic unit.<ref name="Philipp141">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA141 141].</ref> The unit commanders were also typically from the same ethnic origin as the rest of the unit and were better placed to ensure a level of intra-unit discipline.<ref name="Philipp141"/> The units consisted of Maghrebi infantry, [[Arnaut]] (Albanian) and [[Bushnak]] (Bosnian) cavalrymen from the [[Balkans]] who al-Jazzar purchased, and Kurdish Dalat cavalry units.<ref name="Philipp141"/> The Maghrebi and Dalat units were mercenaries hired by al-Jazzar. The former previously formed a major part of Daher's army, while the latter were originally part of the Ottoman imperial army but became private militias in the service of various Ottoman Syrian governors throughout the 18th century.<ref name="Philipp141"/>
Al-Jazzar also purchased individual mamluks,<ref name="Philipp141"/> the majority of whom were of [[Georgians|Georgian]] origin.<ref name="Philipp319"/> The mamluks served as his most senior commanders in the field, but following the destruction of the mamluks during their 1789 rebellion, al-Jazzar increasingly relied on the commanders of the Dalat cavalry and other military entrepreneurs for hire from disbanded Ottoman imperial army units.<ref name="Philipp329"/> An irregular force of Bedouin tribesmen or local levies known as "Hawwara" were employed by al-Jazzar at certain times as well,<ref name="Philipp141"/> and their units became more frequently commissioned following the mamluks' demise.<ref name="Philipp329"/> Although paying these various military units was a massive expense, al-Jazzar paid his troops well, at least during the early part of his rule as ''wali'', in an effort to guarantee their loyalty and gratitude to him.<ref name="Philipp141"/>
Al-Jazzar typically remained in Acre and dispatched his commanders and their units on campaigns.<ref name="Philipp141"/> However, according to Philipp, "the truly great feats of the army occurred when al-Jazzar personally led his troops".<ref name="Philipp143"/> Arab chroniclers from the 18th century often suggested that al-Jazzar raised new troops during each military campaign that he launched, although Philipp believes this to be unlikely, "but partially true, especially considering the high casualties of his troops in many lost battles".<ref name="Philipp141"/> The number of soldiers in his permanent army versus those that were demobilized following a campaign is not clear, but a general consistent estimate from the chroniclers of the period suggests the total number of his permanent troops was between 7,000 and 8,000, while about 1,000 to 2,000 were typically dispatched at a time for most expeditions.<ref name="Philipp141"/> However, these numbers by Arab chroniclers and French consuls were often based on guesses.<ref name="Philipp322"/> At the approximate peak of his power in April 1785, a description by Renaudot of al-Jazzar's military procession from Acre to Damascus indicates the strength of his forces. The procession was described as consisting of 750 Maghrebi infantrymen, 200 Maghrebi cavalry, 540 Arnaut cavalry, and 300 Dalat cavalry, as well as 400 camels, 200 mules, some pulling artillery pieces, and several artillerymen. Each unit had a band and played its own music.<ref name="Philipp322"/>
Al-Jazzar maintained a small naval force. In 1779, it consisted of two [[galiot]]s and two [[xebec|zebecs]]. The vessels did not possess basic technical equipment and so al-Jazzar had such equipment, including compasses, stolen off French vessels. They were largely commissioned to thwart raids against the Syrian coast by [[History of Malta under the Order of Saint John|Maltese]] buccaneers.<ref name="Philipp143"/> By 1789, his naval squadron consisted of three galiots, one zebec and two [[Dalmatia]]n boats that were based in Acre, but at times were briefly anchored at Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, Tripoli or [[Latakia]].<ref>Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA272 272].</ref> Al-Jazzar also owned three trading ships that routinely traveled between Acre and [[Damietta]], a port city in Egypt.<ref name="Philipp143"/>
===Domestic policies=== Al-Jazzar understood well that in order to maintain his political and military dominance in Syria, his rule needed a solid economic foundation.<ref name="Kramer62">Krämer, 2011, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tWrW_CKODdQC&pg=PA62 62].</ref> Al-Jazzar acquired his income from a variety of means, namely taxes, commerce, tolls and extortion.<ref name="Kramer62"/> As such, he continued and strengthened the lucrative monopolies on cotton and grain that were established by Daher.<ref name="Kramer62"/> In the 1780s, he expelled French cotton traders from Acre and Jaffa.<ref name="Kramer62"/> Improvements in agricultural development and increased trade from Palestine bolstered the economic prosperity of certain enclaves of territory in his domain,<ref name="Kramer62"/> particularly the coastal cities of Acre, Sidon and Beirut.<ref>Finkel, 2007, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=hslOx5bvOzkC&pg=PA409 409].</ref> He successfully suppressed marauding Bedouin tribes and thus increased security and maintained order in his territories.<ref name="Kramer62"/> Although he attempted to attract immigrants, including Christians and Jews, to settle in his domains, al-Jazzar's institution and strict enforcement of a stringent and high taxation policy heavily burdened the population to the point that many emigrated from the areas he ruled to neighboring regions.<ref name="Kramer62"/>
In a description of al-Jazzar's rule in Acre, Renaudot wrote that al-Jazzar was "violent, carried away by his temperament; though he is not inaccessible ... He is sometimes just, great, and generous, at other times furious and bloody."<ref name="Philipp58">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA58 58].</ref> Commenting on his method of rule, al-Jazzar wrote <blockquote>"In order to govern the people of this land, one cannot be too severe. But if I strike with one hand, I recompense with the other. This is how I maintained for thirty years, in spite of everybody, complete possession of all [the land] between the [[Orontes River|Orontes]] and the estuary of the [[Jordan River|Jordan]]".<ref name="Philipp57"/></blockquote>
Al-Jazzar maintained a significant level of popularity and familiarity with the inhabitants of Acre, and would often invite the town's poorer residents to hear their complaints and console them.<ref name="Philipp59">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA59 59].</ref> According to Olivier, al-Jazzar would have "constantly enormous pots of rice in his palace for the destitute and the old" and had "money distributed to them every week with the greatest regularity".<ref name="Philipp59"/> Al-Jazzar is reputed to have walked around with a mobile gallows in case anyone displeased him.<ref name="autogeneratedil">[http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1095 Acre – Past and Future] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020203047/http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1095 |date=2007-10-20 }}</ref> French Orientalist [[Pierre Amédée Jaubert]] visited Acre in 1802 and wrote that al-Jazzar maintained a well-guarded prison whose doors he kept open so that residents could view the incarcerated prior to their torture or execution.<ref>Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA55 55].</ref>
According to the contemporary chronicler [[Mikha'il Mishaqah]], "even in the worst of his infamy, he maintained equal treatment of his subjects of different religions, for he would imprison Muslim ulema, Christian priests, Jewish rabbis and Druze elders alike."<ref>Mishaqah, ed. Thackston, 1988, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ISHHYMNmp0gC&pg=PA26 26].</ref> However, unlike during Daher's reign when Muslims and Christians lived harmoniously, al-Jazzar did not attempt to put a stop to incidents of harassment against Christians in Nazareth by Muslim peasants who entered the town during [[Friday prayer]]s.<ref>Emmett, p. 23.</ref> Following the French occupation and withdrawal from Palestine in 1799, local Muslim anger was directed at local Christians, with the Catholics of [[Ramla]] in particular being killed, plundered and forced to flee.<ref name="Haas301">Haas 1934, p. 301.</ref> Al-Jazzar did not make an effort to end these attacks and instead took advantage of popular anger to order attacks against the Christians of Nazareth and Jerusalem.<ref name="Haas301"/> These directives were aborted by al-Jazzar following a warning by British admiral [[Sidney Smith (Royal Navy officer)|Sidney Smith]].<ref name="Haas301"/>
In the early years of his rule, al-Jazzar maintained an amiable relationship with the Jews of Galilee. As part of rehabilitation of [[Safad]], which had been destroyed by the [[Near East earthquakes of 1759]], he called on Jews to help settle the city, offering rate reductions in taxes and customs duties. However, following the 1799 siege of Acre by Napoleon, relations between al-Jazzar and the Jewish community became marked by extortion on al-Jazzar's part to make up for financial losses incurred during the war.<ref>Barnay 1992, pp. 18–19.</ref>
==Sources== [[Constantin François de Chassebœuf, comte de Volney|Volney]] was al-Jazzar's first European biographer and visited al-Jazzar's capital of Acre in 1783.{{sfn|Philipp|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA52 52]}} According to historian Thomas Philipp, Volney "decided to use Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar as the archetype of the despotic tyrant. Since then, no literary vilification of al-Jazzar could be bad enough. Increasingly he was depicted as a murderous, paranoid, treacherous, and cruel despot."{{sfn|Philipp|1998|pp=118–119}} Among the European contemporary sources who wrote about al-Jazzar after Volney were [[François Baron de Tott|Baron de Tott]] who visited Acre in 1784, the French vice consul in Acre Jean-Pierre Renaudot, the French traveler Olivier who met al-Jazzar in 1802, and A.J. Dénain.{{sfn|Philipp|2013|p=52}} European contemporaries of al-Jazzar often considered him the symbol of despotism and monstrosity, but also acknowledged the complexities and paradoxes of his personality. According to Philipp, it was only the descriptions of al-Jazzar by later authors, namely [[Mikhail Mishaqah]] and [[Édouard Lockroy]], that were "reduced entirely to the monstrous and sensational".{{sfn|Philipp|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA60]}}
<blockquote>"They say al-Jazzar is cruel and barbaric; he is only just." — Jazzar Pasha, in response to European perceptions of him.{{sfn|Philipp|2013|p=56}}</blockquote>
Philipp asserts that "al-Jazzar must have been a highly unpleasant ruler and probably did suffer towards the end of his life from paranoia, but there were also different sides to his personality".{{sfn|Philipp|1998|p=119}} Accordingly, Philipp indicates that al-Jazzar's biography by Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, an 18th-century contemporary Arabic chronicler, "provides ... a much more sober account of al-Jazzar's life", which is largely corroborated by another Arabic contemporary source, Ahmad Haydar al-Shihab.{{sfn|Philipp|1998|p=119}} Both al-Jabarti, who was based in [[Cairo]], and al-Shihab, who was based in [[Mount Lebanon]], had considerable access to information about al-Jazzar and though their accounts are similar, they did not correspond with each other or share sources.{{sfn|Philipp|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA49 49]}} The early 19th-century English writer [[Edward Daniel Clarke|E. D. Clarke]] commented that European stories of al-Jazzar "are easily propagated, and as readily believed and it is probable that many of them are without foundation."{{sfn|Philipp|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA56 56]}} Nonetheless, Philipp states "the testimony is too general and too consistent to dismiss all accusations against him [al-Jazzar]".{{sfn|Philipp|2013|p=56}}
==Personal life and characteristics== In his sixties, al-Jazzar was described as having a white beard and being agile and of muscular build.<ref name="Philipp59"/> His native tongue was [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], but he spoke [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] and [[Arabic]] with a distinctively [[Egyptian Arabic|Egyptian accent]].<ref name="Philipp60">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA60 60].</ref> Although he had previously been a frequent drinker, he quit consuming alcohol following his participation in the Hajj of 1791.<ref name="Philipp59"/> Towards the end of his life, he maintained a seemingly austere lifestyle and refrained from extravagant spending, with the exception of his bribery of imperial officials and his building works in Acre.<ref name="Philipp59"/> He would typically either don a standard Arab dress or a coarse cloth and turban.<ref name="Philipp59"/> He would often meet guests sitting beneath a date palm or on a cushion-less board.<ref name="Philipp59"/> He was an avid gardener and later took up paper artwork as a hobby with which he entertained his guests and his harem.<ref name="Philipp58"/>
Philipp asserts that "there can be no doubt that there was a streak of cruelty and perhaps of sadism" and an "uncontrollable temper" in al-Jazzar, but that "cruelty was only one of his character traits."<ref name="Philipp57"/> In addition to his brutality, his French contemporaries wrote that al-Jazzar was intelligent, talented, cunning, generous and boastful of these attributes and of his courage and physical stamina.<ref name="Philipp58"/> He also possessed considerable engineering ability, although it is not known how he gained that knowledge.<ref name="Philipp58"/>
==Legacy== Al-Jazzar created a level of domestic security and economic prosperity in the land he ruled for nearly 30 years, mostly with the support of the Sublime Porte and occasionally in defiance.<ref name="Philipp48"/> However, the socio-economic development and dynamism that occurred during his rule was reversed in later decades.<ref name="Kramer62"/> Unlike his predecessor Daher, al-Jazzar was a foreign ruler and a representative of the Ottoman state.<ref name="Kramer62"/> Nonetheless, he pursued his own ambitions of autonomous rule from Acre, which was continued by his successors Sulayman Pasha and [[Abdullah Pasha ibn Ali|Abdullah Pasha]] (a son of one of al-Jazzar's senior ''mamluks'').<ref name="Kramer62"/>
Although there are numerous biographical works and poems about al-Jazzar by his contemporaries and in the immediate decades after his death, little has been written about him in the modern era.<ref name="Philipp49"/> In [[Palestinian nationalism|Palestinian historiography]] the native-born Daher has been embraced, al-Jazzar, with his negative reputation, has been ignored. Neither has al-Jazzar been adopted by [[Bosnian nationalism|Bosnian nationalists]], likely due to his distance from Bosnian history; whereas the Israeli establishment (Acre's current sovereign) idolize his Jewish advisor [[Haim Farhi]] in monuments and books on the period. According to Philipp, the issue of al-Jazzar's integration into national historiography is part of a broader issue of the historiographic integration of the Ottoman-era Mamluks, especially the Mamluk rulers of Egypt, who in the modern era were deemed as elite foreigners that dominated the local population and only in recent years have been discussed in detail by local historians.<ref name="Philipp49"/>
===Building works===
====El-Jazzar Mosque==== [[File:מסגד אל-ג'זר בעכו.JPG|thumb|right|[[El-Jazzar Mosque]], built by al-Jazzar in 1778]]
When al-Jazzar established himself in Acre in 1775, the city contained four mosques, three of which were built during Daher's reign and one prior.<ref name="Philipp25">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA25 25].</ref> Three years later, al-Jazzar had a fifth mosque built,<ref name="Philipp25"/> known then as the "White Mosque" or the "Friday Mosque",<ref name="Sharon49">Sharon, p. 49.</ref> but known today as the [[el-Jazzar Mosque]]. According to Philipp, it was the "largest and most beautiful" of Acre's mosques.<ref name="Philipp25"/> Although al-Jazzar had no architectural background, he was the architect of the mosque and supervised the entire complex's construction.<ref name="Sharon47">Sharon, p. 47.</ref>
The mosque was modeled on the mosques of Constantinople and was built across from the seraglio, which served as both al-Jazzar's administrative headquarters and residence.<ref name="Sharon47"/> The mosque complex contained the mosque itself, which is a square building topped by a dome,<ref name="Sharon47"/> a [[portico]] at the entrance of the mosque, which consisted of five domes and arches supported by free-standing marble [[column]]s,<ref name="Sharon49"/> a large courtyard with a [[sundial]], and vaulted chambers on the courtyard's eastern, western and northern sides, which are separated from the courtyard by an [[arcade (architecture)|arcade]] of arches and columns consisting of white marble and granite.<ref name="Sharon47"/> The various vaulted chambers housed the central [[Sharia|Islamic court]] of Acre, an [[madrasa|Islamic theological academy]], a library and lodging for pilgrims and the academy's pupils.<ref name="Sharon47"/> The building material used for the complex came from ancient ruins in Acre, [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] and [[Château Pèlerin|Atlit]].<ref name="Sharon50">Sharon, p. 50.</ref>
====Fortifications==== [[File:עכו החפיר.JPG|thumb|right|The former [[moat]] of Acre and fortifications built by al-Jazzar]]
Following Napoleon's failed siege, al-Jazzar repaired the relatively thin and vertical wall around Acre, built by Daher, and added a new, extensive wall around it.<ref name="Philipp27"/> Al-Jazzar's fortifications included a significantly larger wall than Daher's wall and one which was sloped and thus better placed to defend against the newer artillery of Jazzar's era. The fortifications also included a [[moat]] system and towers.<ref name="Philipp27"/>
In the seraglio, al-Jazzar built the ''diwankhanah'' (guest wing), a spacious area which consisted of three palaces.<ref name="Sharon60">Sharon, p. 60.</ref> The largest palace was where al-Jazzar spent most of his time in the day and occasional evenings. It also had a hidden door to the harem, the second major component of the seraglio which was separated from the ''diwankhanah'' by a high wall.<ref name="Sharon60"/> Only al-Jazzar had the keys to the door of the harem and kept them on his person at all times.<ref name="Sharon60"/>
In his older years, al-Jazzar became increasingly reclusive and paranoid. He reportedly retired every evening behind three massive, barred doors that he locked himself. To ensure absolute seclusion, food was delivered to his inner quarters via a turning cylinder or "dumbwaiter" system, meaning no one actually saw who received the dishes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar: Britain's colourful ally against Napoleon |date=6 June 2021 |url=https://robinsaikia.wordpress.com/2021/06/06/ahmad-pasha-al-jazzar-britains-colourful-ally-against-napoleon/ |access-date=May 11, 2026}}</ref>
====Commercial buildings==== [[File:Akko-13-The Khan al-Umdan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Khan al-Umdan]], 2008]]
Al-Jazzar attached significant importance to Acre's growing commercial economy and had the large [[Khan al-Umdan]] [[caravanserai]] built in 1784 and enlarged the Khan al-Shawarda, which was built by Daher in the 1760s.<ref name="Philipp26">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA26 26].</ref> Al-Jazzar also commissioned the construction of the Suq al-Jazzar [[bazaar]] and a number of relatively minor commercial structures as well.<ref name="Philipp26"/> To supply the city with fresh water, al-Jazzar launched major efforts to build an [[aqueduct (water supply)|aqueduct]] that transported water from [[al-Kabri]] into Acre.<ref name="Philipp27"/> French forces destroyed the aqueduct during their siege, but it was rebuilt by Sulayman Pasha.<ref name="Philipp27"/>
In 1781,<ref name="DavisNorman">{{cite web|last1=Davis|first1=Caitlin M.|last2=Norman|first2=Ashley|title=Presenting the Hammam al-Pasha: Conserving Heritage by Creating an Attraction|url=http://www.iaa-conservation.org.il/images/files/pdf_docs/davis.norman_hammam2011.pdf|publisher=Israel Antiquities Authority|pages=11–13}}</ref> al-Jazzar had a large ''[[Turkish bath|hamaam]]'' (public bathhouse) built in Acre.<ref name="Philipp27">Philipp 2013, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&pg=PA27 27].</ref> The bathhouse is known as "Hammam al-Pasha" and it is among the largest and ornate Ottoman-era bathhouses in Israel. Hammam al-Basha was dedicated as a ''[[waqf]]'' (endowment) to the el-Jazzar Mosque and is built of granite, marble, porphyry and painted tiles. The ''hammam'' closed in the wake of the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], became a museum run by the Municipality of Acre in 1954 and closed again in the 1990s.<ref name="DavisNorman"/>
==References== {{Reflist|30em}}
==Notes== {{notelist}}
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With Numerous Anecdotes, Facts, & Observations, on the Manners & Customs of the Turks & Tartars|publisher=G.G.J. & J. Robinson|edition=2}} * {{cite book|last=Volney|first=Constantin-François|author-link=Constantin-François Chassebœuf | title=Travels Through Syria and Egypt, in the Years 1783, 1784, and 1785: containing the Present Natural and Political State of Those Countries, Their Productions, Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce : with Observations on the Manners, Customs, and Government of the Turks and Arabs : Illustrated |volume=2| url=https://archive.org/details/travelsthroughs00volngoog|year=1788|publisher=Printed for G.G.J. and J . Robinson ...}} * {{cite book|last1=Wilkins|first1=David L.|title=Forging Urban Solidarities: Ottoman Aleppo 1640–1700|date=2010|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-16907-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pn-9Eqvs4ZwC&q=shaykh+al-balad+office&pg=PA47}} * {{cite book|last=Winter|first=Stefan|title=The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KGeuAeFFJCEC&q=editions:jLFlDGGDXJgC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-1-139-48681-1}} * {{cite book|last=Yazbak|first=Mahmoud|author-link=Mahmoud Yazbak|title=Haifa in the Late Ottoman Period, A Muslim Town in Transition, 1864–1914|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DPseCvbPsKsC|publisher=Brill Academic Pub|year=1998|isbn=978-90-04-11051-9}} {{refend}}
{{s-start}} {{succession box | before = [[Daher al-Umar]] | title =[[Wali]] of [[Sidon Eyalet|Sidon]] | years = 1775–1804 | after = [[Sulayman Pasha al-Adil|Sulayman Pasha]]}} {{succession box | before =[[Abdullah Pasha al-Azm]] | title =Wali of [[Damascus Eyalet|Damascus]] | years = 1803–1804 | after = [[Ibrahim Pasha Qataraghasi]]}} {{succession box | before =[[Abdullah Pasha al-Azm]] | title =Wali of Damascus | years = 1798–1799 | after = [[Abdullah Pasha al-Azm]]}} {{succession box | before =[[Ibrahim Pasha al-Halabi]] | title =Wali of Damascus | years = 1790–1795 | after = [[Abdullah Pasha al-Azm]]}} {{succession box | before =[[Darwish Pasha al-Kurji]] | title =Wali of Damascus | years = 1784–1786 | after = [[Husayn Pasha Battal]]}} {{s-end}} {{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pasha, Jazzar}} [[Category:18th-century people from the Ottoman Empire]] [[Category:19th-century people from the Ottoman Empire]] [[Category:Bosnian Muslims from the Ottoman Empire|D]] [[Category:Political people from the Ottoman Empire]] [[Category:1804 deaths]]
[[Category:Bosniak people in the Ottoman Empire]] [[Category:Ottoman governors of Damascus]] [[Category:Year of birth unknown]] [[Category:Ottoman governors of Sidon]] [[Category:18th-century births]] [[Category:Ottoman military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars]] [[Category:Ottoman rulers of Galilee]] [[Category:Ottoman Bosnian nobility|D]]