Jain monasticism

{{NPOV|date=April 2024}} {{Short description|Order of monks and nuns in the Jain community}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}} {{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}} [[File:Acharya KundaKunda.jpg|thumb|Kundakunda, one of the most revered Digambara monks]] [[File:Devardhigani Kshamashraman.jpg|thumb|An idol of Devardhi Ksamashramana, one of the most revered Śvetāmbara acharyas, at Vallabhi Tirth.]] {{Jainism}}

'''Jain monasticism''' refers to the order of monks and nuns in the Jain community and can be divided into two major denominations: the ''Digambara'' and the ''Śvētāmbara''. The monastic practices of the two major sects vary greatly, but the major principles of both are identical. Five ''mahāvratas'' (Great Vows), from Mahavira's teachings, are followed by all Jain ascetics of both the sects. Historians believe that a united Jain ''sangha'' (community) existed before 367 BCE, about 160 years after the ''moksha'' (liberation) of Mahavira. The community then gradually divided into the major denominations. However, no evidence indicate when the schism between the Digambaras and the Śvetāmbaras happened.

==Terminology== [[File:Jain Carving Girnar.png|thumb|A carving of Svetambara Jain monk, and inscription from 1188 CE at Girnar.]] ''Digambaras'' use the word ''{{IAST|muṇi}}'' for male monastics and ''aryika'' for female monastics. ''Svetambara monks'' are also called ''nirgrantha'' (without bonds).{{sfn|B.K. Jain|2013|p=62}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=223}} ''Śvētāmbaras'' also use the word ''{{IAST|muṇi}}'' for male monastics but use the term ''sadhvis'' for female monastics.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=152}}

== History == Mahavira had 11 chief disciples, Indrabhuti Gautama being the most senior.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=38}} Each chief disciple was made responsible for 250 to 500 monks.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=38}} The Jain sangha (community) was led and administered by an organised system consisting of ''acharyas'' (leaders), ''upadhyayas'' (teachers), ''sthaviras'' (motivators of self-discipline), ''pravartakas'' (preachers) and ''ganis'' (leader of smaller groups of monks).{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=39}} Other titles included ''panyasa'' (canonical text experts), ''mahattara'' (female leader) and ''pravartini'' (female preacher).{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=39}}

The leadership of Jain order passed from Mahavira to Indrabhuti, who was succeeded by Sudharma (607–506 BCE).{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=39}}{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=41}} After 12 years, it was further passed on to Jambu (543–449 BCE), Prabhava (443–338 BCE) and Shayyambhava (377–315 BCE).{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=39}}{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=41}}

Historians believe that a united Jain community existed before 367 BCE, about 160 years after the ''moksha'' (liberation) of Mahavira. The community then gradually divided into two denominations: the ''Digambara'' and the ''Śvētāmbara''.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=45}} The ''Kalpa Sūtra'' describes Mahavira's asceticism in detail; from it and from the Ācārāṅga Sūtra, most of the Śvetāmbara ascetic practices (including the restraints and regulations) are derived:<ref name=":0">{{cite book | last =Jacobi | first =Hermann | author-link =Hermann Jacobi | editor =F. Max Müller | editor-link =Max Müller | title =The Kalpa Sūtra | publisher =The Clarendon Press | year =1884 | location =Oxford | language =en | url =http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe22/sbe2200.htm | series =Sacred Books of the East vol.22, Part 1 | isbn =0-7007-1538-X | access-date =2 July 2023 | archive-date =29 September 2007 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070929151006/http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe22/sbe2200.htm | url-status =live }} ''Note: ISBN refers to the UK:Routledge (2001) reprint. URL is the scan version of the original 1884 reprint''</ref>

{{Quote|The Venerable Ascetic Mahavira for a year and a month wore clothes; after that time he walked about naked, and accepted the alms in the hollow of his hand. For more than twelve years the Venerable Ascetic Mahavira neglected his body and abandoned the care of it; he with equanimity bore, underwent, and suffered all pleasant or unpleasant occurrences arising from divine powers, men, or animals.|''Kalpa Sūtra'' 117}}

{{Quote|Henceforth the Venerable Ascetic Mahavira was houseless, circumspect in his walking, circumspect in his speaking, circumspect in his begging, circumspect in his accepting (anything), in the carrying of his outfit and drinking vessel; circumspect in evacuating excrement, urine, saliva, mucus, and uncleanliness of the body; circumspect in his thoughts, circumspect in his words, circumspect in his acts; guarding his thoughts, guarding his words, guarding his acts, guarding his senses, guarding his chastity; without wrath, without pride, without deceit, without greed; calm, tranquil, composed, liberated, free from temptations, without egoism, without property; he had cut off all earthly ties, and was not stained by any worldliness: as water does not adhere to a copper vessel, or collyrium to mother of pearl (so sins found no place in him); his course was unobstructed like that of Life; like the firmament he wanted no support; like the wind he knew no obstacles; his heart was pure like the water (of rivers or tanks) in autumn; nothing could soil him like the leaf of a lotus; his senses were well protected like those of a tortoise; he was single and alone like the horn of a rhinoceros; he was free like a bird; he was always waking like the fabulous bird Bharundal, valorous like an elephant, strong like a bull, difficult to attack like a lion, steady and firm like Mount Mandara, deep like the ocean, mild like the moon, refulgent like the sun, pure like excellent gold'; like the earth he patiently bore everything; like a well-kindled fire he shone in his splendour.|''Kalpa Sūtra'' 118}}

[[File:Ārya Sthūlabhadra idol at Khaḍākhoṭadī no Pāḍo Jaina Temple at Patan, Gujarat (India).jpg|thumb|14th century Ārya Sthūlabhadra idol at the Khaḍākhoṭadī no Pāḍo Jaina Temple at Patan]]

== Initiation == [[File:Jain Narrative Relief Panel, mid 2nd century BCE.-1st century CE (18.4 x 61.6 cm) Brooklyn Museum 87.188.5.jpg|thumb|upright=2|A 1st- to 2nd–century CE water tank relief panel showing two ''ardhaphalaka'' Jain monks carrying ''colapatta'' cloth on their left hand found in the ruins of Mathura (Brooklyn Museum 87.188.5).{{sfn|Quintanilla|2007|pp=174–176}} This cloth carrying tradition to cover genitalia by ancient Jain monks in principle resembles the beliefs of the Śvetāmbara{{sfn|Jaini|Goldman|2018|pp=42–45}}]] A ''Śvētāmbara'' initiation involves a procession in which the initiate symbolically disposes of his material wealth and makes donations. This is followed by another ritual in which the initiate receives a small broom made of wool called "Rajoharan" from their mentor as a symbol of welcome into the monastic order.<ref name="jainworld1"/> The initiate then puts on monastic clothing and plucks out hair by hand. Further rituals formally initiate them into the monastic order. The ''Śvētāmbara Terapanth'' and Sthanakwasi sects request written permission from a person's parents before initiating them into the ascetic order.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=155}}

==Rules of conduct== thumb|alt=Three women in white saris, meditating cross-legged on a floor|Jain nuns meditating The earliest known texts often ask for ascetics to be in complete solitude, identifying the isolation of soul and non-soul. However, soon after Mahavira's nirvana ascetics organized themselves into groups.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=152}} A few examples of ascetics living in complete solitude are found in both ''Digambara'' and Śvetāmbara sects.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=153}} Jain ascetics are detached from social and worldly activities; all activities are aimed at self-purification for self-realization as well as to spread the word of Jainism. They follow established guidelines for daily worship and austerity.<ref name="jainworld1">{{citation |url=http://www.jainworld.com/societies/jain_monks_nuns.asp |title=Welcome to Jainworld - Jain Monks nuns, Sadhu, Shraman, Muni, Sadhvi, Shramani, Aryï¿½, Pranatipï¿½taviraman Mahavrat, Mrishavadaviraman Mahï¿½vrat, Adattadï¿½naviraman Mahavrat , Maithunaviraman Mahavrat, Parigrahaviraman Mahavrat |work=Jainworld.com |access-date=2 July 2023 |archive-date=4 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604190814/http://www.jainworld.com/societies/jain_monks_nuns.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2020}}

The monk's daily routine is broadly structured by three ideological formulae: the five great vows (''mahavrata''), the eight matrices of doctrine (''pravacana-matrka''), and the six obligatory actions (''avasyaka''). The first two are restrictions, and the third is positively framed in what the monk is encouraged to do daily.{{sfn|Cort|2001|p=101}} Ascetics do not have a home or possessions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=152}} They choose austerity, avoid services such as telephones and electricity.<ref>{{citation |last=Singhvi |first=Sushila |title=Jainism at a glance |url=http://www.jainstudy.org/jsc1.99-JainismAtAGlance.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227175627/http://www.jainstudy.org/jsc1.99-JainismAtAGlance.htm |archive-date=27 February 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2020}} Monks engage in activities such as meditation, seeking knowledge and acquiring self-discipline.{{sfn|Singh|Mishra|2007|p=29}} Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ''ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata''.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=285}} ''Digambara'' monks eat only once a day and do not use utensils.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=285}}

The ''Yati'' of the ''Śvētāmbara'' sect and the ''Bhattaraka'' of the Digambara Terapanth do not wander; they usually live in temples and perform daily rituals.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=152}} The monks rise before dawn, most around 5:00 a.m. but some as early as 2:00 a.m.

Five ''mahāvratas'' (Great Vows), from Mahavira's teachings, are followed by all Jain ascetics. Although Jain householders are also required to observe them, ascetics are bound more strictly.<ref name=pshah>Pravin Shah, [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/5greatvows.htm Five Great Vows (Maha-vratas) of Jainism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231033127/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/5greatvows.htm |date=31 December 2014 }} Jainism Literature Center, Harvard University Archives (2009)</ref>

=={{anchor|Monastic ranks}}Ranks== Monks and nuns from the ''Digambara'' traditions are assigned to ranks:<ref>{{cite book|last=Valley|first=Anne|title=Guardians of the Transcedent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community|year=2002|publisher=University of Toronto Press}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" !Rank !Monk !Nun

|- |1 |Acharya |Ganini Aryika Pramukha |- |2 |Elachary |Ganini Aryika |- |3 |Upadhyay |Aryika |- |4 |Muni |Mataji |- |5 |Kshullak |Kshullika |- |6 |Brahmachari |Brahmacharini |- |7 |''Śrāvaka'' |''Śrāvika'' |}

In the ''Digambara'' tradition, an ascetic rises from ''kshullak'' (one who uses two pieces of cloth) through ''Ailak'' (uses one piece of cloth) to ''muni'' (or ''sadhu''). Over time a number of designations were mentioned in shastras, such as ''gani'', ''pannyas'' and ''pravartak''. The Śvētāmbara Terapanth sect has a new rank of junior monks, ''samana''.{{sfn|Singh|Mishra|2007|p=119}}

Monks of the Śvetāmbara Murtipujaka sect rise from ''muni'' to ''upaadhyaay,'' and later to ''acharya'' based on their knowledge of the scriptures and seniority''.'' This is in accordance with the Namokar Mantra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Publishing |first=Bloomsbury |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pk7eEAAAQBAJ&dq=jain+upadhyay+acharya&pg=PA454 |title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations [2 volumes] |date=2011-09-13 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-59884-206-7 |language=en}}</ref>

==Attire and possessions== [[File:Pichi kamandal shastra.jpeg|thumb|alt=Two whisks, two kettles with spouts and two open books|The three instruments of ''ahimsa'': ''pichi'', ''kamandalu'' and shastras]] Digambara monks wear no clothing.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=210}} Digambara nuns (or Aryikas) wear plain, seamless white saris.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=45}} All Digambara monks and nuns traditionally carry only three things: a ''mor-pichhi'' (peacock-feather whisk), a kamandalu (water pot) and shastras (scriptures).{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=316}}

''Śvētāmbara'' monastics wear white, seamless clothing. They also carry scriptures with them. Additionally, they have a ''rajoharan (woollen broom), dandasan (long stick),'' and ''alms bowl'' to beg for food''.''{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=45}}

==Chaturmas== {{Main|Chaturmas}} ''Chaturmas'' is the four-month monsoon period during which ascetics stay in one place to reduce the risk of accidentally killing insects and other small forms of life which thrive during the rains. This period is suitable for ''sravakas'' to renew their faith by listening to teachings of the ''dharma'', meditation and ''vratas'' (acts of self-control).<ref>{{citation |last=Mehta |first=Makrand |title=Indian merchants and entrepreneurs in historical perspective: with special reference to shroffs of Gujarat, 17th to 19th centuries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9lz3gNDMbWEC |year=1991 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=81-7188-017-7 |page=98 |language=en}}</ref>

During ''Chaturmas'', a few ''sadhus'' of each group give a daily ''pravacana'' or ''vyakhyana'' (sermon) attended mostly by shravakas and shravikas (lay followers of Jainism). During their eight months of travel, the ''sadhus'' give sermons whenever requested (most often when they arrive in a new village or town during traveling).{{sfn|Cort|2001|p=104}}

The festival of Paryushana, celebrated by Śvetāmbaras falls during the ''Chaturmaas''. The Śvetāmbara Murtipujak monks read and recite the holy text Kalpa Sūtra during Paryushana. The Kalpa Sūtra also prescribes the conduct monks must follow during the ''Chaturmaas.''<ref name=":0" />

== Digambara monks == {{Main|Digambara monk}}

''Digambara'' monks follow 28 ''vratas'' (vows): five ''mahāvratas'' (Great Vows); five ''samitis'' (regulations); the five-fold control of the senses (''pañcendriya nirodha''); six ''Şadāvaśyakas'' (essential duties), and seven ''niyamas'' (restrictions).{{sfn|Jain|2013|p=196-197}}

{|class="wikitable" |- ! Category ! Vow ! Meaning |- style="background:#fff;" |rowspan="5"|''Mahavratas''<br /> (Great Vows){{sfn|Jain|2011|p=93–100}}{{sfn|Jain|1926|p=26}} |1. ''Ahimsa'' |To injure no living being by action or thought |- style="background:#fff;" |2. Truth | To speak only the truth and good words |- style="background:#fff;" |3. ''Asteya'' | To take nothing unless it is given |- style="background:#fff;" |4. ''Brahmacharya'' |Celibacy in action, word and thought |- style="background:#fff;" |5. ''Aparigraha'' |Renunciation of worldly things |- style="background:#7CFC00;" |rowspan="5"|''Samiti''<br /> (regulation of activities){{sfn|Jain|2012|p=144-145}}{{sfn|Jain|1926|p=32-38}} |6. ''Irya'' |To walk carefully, after viewing the land four cubits (2 yards) ahead |- style="background:#7CFC00;" |7. ''Bhasha'' | Not to criticise anyone or speak evil words |- style="background:#7CFC00;" |8. ''Eshna'' |To accept food from a ''sravaka'' (householder) if it is free of 46 faults |- style="background:#7CFC00;" |9. ''Adan-nishep'' |Carefulness in handling whatever the ascetic possesses |- style="background:#7CFC00;" |10. ''Pratishṭapan'' |To dispose of body waste at a place free of living beings |- style="background:#ffe;" |rowspan="1"|''Panchindrinirodh'' |11–15. Control of the senses |Shedding attachment and aversion to objects based ''sparśana'' (touch), ''rasana'' (taste), ''ghrāṇa'' (smell), ''cakśu'' (sight), and ''śrotra'' (hearing){{sfn|Jain|2013|p=196}} |- style="background:#ff0;" |rowspan="6"|Essential duties{{sfn|Jain|2012|p=143}}{{sfn|Jain|2013|p=190-191}} |16. ''Sāmāyika'' |Meditate for equanimity towards every living being |- style="background:#ff0;" |17. ''Stuti'' |Worship of the ''tirthankaras'' |- style="background:#ff0;" |18. ''Vandan'' |To pay obeisances to ''siddha''s, ''arihantas'' and ''acharyas'' |- style="background:#ff0;" |19. ''Pratikramana'' | Repentance, to drive oneself away from past ''karma'' (good or evil) |- style="background:#ff0;" |20. ''Pratikhayan'' |Renunciation |- style="background:#ff0;" |21. ''Kayotsarga'' |Giving up attachment to the body, meditating on the soul |- style="background:#ffe;" |rowspan="7"|''Niyama''<br /> (rules){{sfn|Jain|1926|p=46-47}} |22. ''Adantdhavan'' |Not to use tooth powder to clean teeth |- style="background:#ffe;" |23. ''Bhushayan'' |Sleep on hard ground |- style="background:#ffe;" |24. ''Asnāna'' |Not to take bath.{{sfn|Jain|2013|p=196}} |- style="background:#ffe;" |25. ''Stithi-bhojan'' |Eat standing up |- style="background:#ffe;" |26. ''Ekabhukti'' |To take food once in a day{{sfn|Jain|2013|p=197}} |- style="background:#ffe;" |27. ''Keśa-lonch'' |To pluck hair on the head and face by hand{{sfn|Jain|2013|p=196}} |- style="background:#ffe;" |28. Nudity |To renounce clothing{{sfn|Jain|2013|p=196}} |- style="background:#ffe;" |}

==References== ===Citations=== {{Reflist|30em}}

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==External links== {{Commonscat}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20081003222812/http://sadhu.jinvani.com/index.php?s_id_list=1&sadhu_id=0&page=0&mod=sadhu_list List of All Digamber Jain Monks] With detailed description *[https://www.sergebouvet.com/jaindharma Photo documentary of the Jain monks]

Category:Jain monasticism Category:Asceticism Monasticism Category:Titles and occupations in Hinduism